CHAPTER I

DEFINITION OF DALITS – GANDHIJI’S VIEW

India was known as the country of the indigenous people,

country of Mahar, country of Parayars, country of Mala, country of

Madigas and the country of Pallas. Then came the Britishers, the Christian

missionaries and later Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. However, before

these arrivals came the Brahmins and all socially different, indigenous

people were made untouchables, they are called as Dalit.

The word “Dalit” is derived from the Hindi root “Dal” which

means “held under check”, “suppressed” or “crushed” or in a looser sense

“oppressed”. The usage of the term “Dalit” originated from the Arya

Samaj and their “Dalitoddhara” (improvement of the downtrodden)

programme.1

The word “Dalit comes from Sanskrit root “Dal” which

means broken, ground-down, downtrodden, oppressed,2 crushed and

1
Vidhya Devi, The Plight of Indian Dalits, New Delhi, 2009, p.19.
2
Dutta, K.B., Dynamics of Dalit, Old Issues and New Challenges, New Delhi,
2005, p.1.
 36

suppressed. Those previously known as untouchables, depressed classes

and Harijans are today increasingly adopting the term “Dalit” as a name

themselves. Dalit refers to one’s caste rather than class. It applies to

members of those menial castes which have born out of the stigma of

untouchability, because of the extreme impurity and pollution, connected

with their traditional occupations.3 Thus Dalit in Sanskrit means “trampled

upon” and refers to low caste (officially called Scheduled Castes) once

treated as untouchables.4

The word “Dalit” comes from the Marathi language which

means, ground, suppressed, crushed or broken to pieces.5 The term “Dalit”

thus describes a condition of being underprivileged and deprived of basic

rights and refers to people who are suppressed on the ground of their low

birth. The word “Dalit” is a descriptive word evocative of bondage and

agony, the anguish and frustrated aspiration of a vast victimized section of

the Indian population right down the ages.6

Untouchability is the indirect form of slavery.7

Untouchability is recognised by the Hindu society. There are various

3
Rajendra Singh Vasta, The Depressed Classes of India, New Delhi, 1937, p.4.
4
Brojendra Nath Banerjee, Struggle for Justice to Dalit Christians, Patiala, 1997,
p.1.
5
Pradhan, Atul Chandra, The Emergence of the Depressed Classes,
Bhubaneshwar, 1986, p.25.
6
Michael, S.M., Dalits in Modern India (Vision and Values), New Delhi, 1999,
p.81.
7
Ambedkar, B.R., Writings and Speeches, Vol.V, Education Department,
Government of Maharastra, Maharastra, 1979, p.111.
 37

theories about the identity of Dalits. The depressed classes’ origin was

shrouded in past mystery. According to a popular theory chiefly

propounded by western scholars, they were the descendants of the original

inhabitants of the northern and central regions who were attacked,

conquered and enslaved centuries ago by the Aryan invaders. According to

Indo-Aryan theory, the main proponents of which are William Jones 1790,

Friedrich Schlegal 1808 (who proposed the term Indo-Germanic) and

Friedrich Max Muller 1840. They argue that the Aryans, were out of fear

of revolt from the aboriginal Dravidian legitimized their superiority in the

form of the Hindu religion which regulated their status to the lowest rank

of the Hindu Society under the caste system who ultimately came to be

known as Harijans.8 The caste system is a Hindu hierarchial class,

structure with roots in India, dating back to thousands of years. In

descending order the caste system is comprised of Brahmins (priests)

Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (farmers), Sudras (labourers, artisans) and

the Dalits who are considered, so polluted they are beyond caste.9

In more ancient times, the terms “Mlechha”, Panchama (the

fifth class), Avarnas (that is outside the four Varnas), Nishada, Paulkasa,

Antyaja, Ati Sudra and Chandalas were the terms used by Manu. But in

South India, when the Brahminic religion spread there, all these aboriginal

8
Ambedkar, B.R., op.cit., 1946, p.250.
9
Swapna H. Samuel, Rights of Dalits (Serials), New Delhi, 2006, p.1.
 38

people or Anti-Dravidian agree to embrace it and were included as

Sudras.10

Sir Monier Williams in English Dictionary explained that

Dalit means Burst, Split, torn/asunder, blown halved etc.11

V.S. Apta explained in his dictionary that Dalit means

broken, torn, rent, burst, split, opened. It refers to those segments of Indian

Society which are marginalised by reasons of their ethnic group

affiliation.12

In 1911 census, for the first time, on the basis of social

stigma of untouchability and isolation in society these people were

categorised as “Depressed Classes” or “Untouchables”. They were

subsequently listed in a Scheduled and Scheduled was incorporated in

Government of India Act of 1935. There after they have been called

“Scheduled Castes”.13 Gandhiji called the Scheduled Caste as Harijans (ie)

“Children of Hari” or “Children of God”. Hari is another name of Lord

Vishnu. Harijan, a glorified term, coined by Narasimha Mehta and adopted

10
It is important to remember that the lowest or fourth category was never called
Sudra except by the Brahmins. The earliest reference in Tamil Literature of
“Sudra” is in the commentary to the periya puranam of Arumuka Navalar, he
speaks of the fourth class as “Sat Sudra”.
11
Anjayaneyalu – Eminent author and Columnist pointed out the following
reference to Dalit in Sanskrit – English Dictionary.
12
Statement given by Gangadhar Pantaware, A Professor of Marathi at Millinad
College.
13
Padmanabhan, A., Dalits at the Cross Roads, Their Struggle, Past and Present,
New Delhi, 1996, p.8.
 39

and popularized by Mahatma Gandhi, father of the nation, whose life

mission was to uplift these peoples named them “Harijans” in 1933 Hari –

God – Jan – People – Son – Sons of God. They were known as Depressed

classes. Harijan is the glorified term coined by Gandhiji in 1933, for

describing the total body of depressed classes.14

The term Harijan does not figure in any legal statue and

objection have been raised time and again, against the use of this word.

Gandhi edited and brought the first issue of the weekly Harijan on 11th

February 1930.15

The usage of the term “Harijan” is objected by Dalit activists.

In Tamil Nadu, the word Adi-Dravida is used, whereas in Karnataka, Adi

Karnataka and in Andhra Pradesh, it is Adi-Andhra. It means the

aboriginal inhabitant of the land. Adi-Dravida, Adi Karnataka and Adi

Andhra are the words used in the status of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and

Andhra Pradesh respectively, to identify people of former “untouchable”

caste in official documents. These words, particularly the prefix of “Adi”

denotes the aboriginal inhabitants of land.16

The term “Adi-Dravida” was not in common use before

1910. In 1918 Dravida Maha Sangam presented a memorial in which it

14
Saraswathi, S., Minorities in Madras State, Delhi, 1974, p.14.
15
Sharma, K.L., Castes and Class in India, Pune, 1994, p.356.
16
Nirula, Dalits Recasting Caste (A bruised Dignity), Vol.II, New Delhi, 2009,
p.9.
 40

requested the government that the ancient and proper name Dravidian

should be given and recognized by the government, instead of Paraiah. In

1921 census 15, 025 returned their caste names as Adi-Dravidas. In 1922,

the provincial Legislative Council passed a resolution recommending that

the name “Adi-Dravida” should replace panchama and paraiyan.17

Accordingly in 1922, government recognized the name “Adi-Dravida” by

an order issued in that year and directed that the term Adi-Dravida to be

used in Tamil Districts.18

The 1891 census on the other hand, adopted a standard

classification of castes according to the occupation assigned to each by

tradition. Dalit castes were thus included within such occupational

categories as field labourers, leather workers, scavengers, watchmen and

village menials.19

Japan’s Bushido code defined a hierarchy of warriors

(Samurai) commoners, merchants and ‘untouchables’, which resembled the

four fold varna schemes, but was not associated with a proliferation of

smaller jati-like birth groups.20

1931 census treated the “exterior castes” as Hindus, because

they worship the same deities and though decided to enter into temples

17
Vidhya Devi, op.cit., p.20.
18
Saraswathi, S., op.cit., p.14.
19
Michael, S.M., op.cit., p.77.
20
Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the 18th Century to the
Modern Age, (ed) D. Chandler and C. Goscha, Cambridge University, 2001,
p.25.
 41

were placed outside, at that stage to which they can approach, to receive

their offerings. High caste Hindus impose their co-religionists that define

the latter as “exterior castes” and then to naming the castes so defined. It is

significant that it was decided that Muslims and Christians should be

decided from the term “depressed classes”.21

Phule’s Definition

The word “Dalit” was first used by Jyothibai Phule22 in the

19th century in the context of the oppression faced by the erstwhile

“untouchable” caste of the twice-born Hindus. Dalits are a mixed group of

numerous caste groups found in different parts of Asia. They speak

different languages. In this century, they are in different names as

“panchamas” (fifth varna) and “Ash prush” (untouchable). Dalit people

were called by different names at different stages. The term Dalit is

exclusive of all the oppressed and exploited sections of the society.23

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Chathur Varna

system of social organisation had come to stay in India in general and

21
Asirvatham, E., The Depressed Classes and Christianity, Lucknow, 1935,
p.616.
22
Jyotiba Phule was one of the prominent reformers of the 19th century in India.
He led the movement against the prevailing caste-restrictions in India. He
revolted against the domination of the Brahmins and for the rights of peasants
and other low-caste fellows. After tracing the history of the Brahmin
domination in India, Jyotiba blamed the Brahmins for framing the weird and
inhuman laws. He concluded that the laws were made to suppress the Sudras.
23
Mohammad Shabbir, Ambedkar on Law, Constitution and Social Justice,
Jaipur and New Delhi, 2008, p.44.
 42

particular in Tamil Nadu. In this traditional Hindu social hierarchy the

Brahmins represented the highest and the “Sudra” the lowest. All of them

put together were known as Savarnas (within the Varna System).24

Dalits are described as Varna-Sankara, they are outside the

system, so inferior to other castes that they are deemed polluting and

therefore “untouchable”. Even as out castes, they themselves are divided

into further sub-castes. Although, “untouchability” was abolished, under

Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, the practice continues to determine

the socio-economic and religious standing of those at the bottom of the

caste hierarchy whereas the first four varnas are free to choose and change

their occupations, Dalits have generally been confined to the occupational

structures into which they are born.25

Dalit means the “oppressed ones” and the movement

embraces not only Scheduled Castes but also Adivasis (Tribal people) low

caste groups, Muslims, workers and women. Caste is not and never has

been a fixed fact of Indian life. Caste is known as Varna (the four fold

scheme of idealized moral arche types) and caste is also known as jati.26

Dalits are “out-castes” falling outside, the traditional four

fold caste system consisting of the hereditary Brahmin, Kshatriyas,

24
Mohan, P.E., Scheduled Caste, History of Elevation, Tamil Nadu (1900-1955),
Madras, 1935, Preface.
25
Prem Kumar Shinde, Dalits and Human Rights, in 3 (Volumes), New Delhi,
2005, p.80.
26
Susan Bayly, op.cit., p.25.
 43

Vaishyas and Sudra classes. They are considered impure and polluting and

are therefore physically and socially excluded and isolated from the rest of

the society.27

According to Victor Premsagar, the term “Dalit” expressed

their weakness, poverty and humiliation at the hands of the upper caste in

the Indian Society. All the Sudras are not Dalits as many of them refuse to

be at the bottom of the ladder. A few scheduled castes also consider

themselves as non-Sudras. The term “Dalit” does not find mention either

in Indian Constitution or in any other statue, hence it has no legal sanctity.

Socially it is used for “downtrodden” or “depressed classes”. The term is

used constitutionally and legally as scheduled castes. As objection may be

taken for the use of the term “Dalit”, it is suggested that those dealing with

law may not use this term.28

Dalit (oppressed or broken) is not a new word. The term

Dalit was used in 1903s in “Hindu” and Marathi translation of Depressed

classes, a term, the British used for what are now called the Scheduled

Castes. In 1930, a newspaper published for the Depressed classes called

“Dalit Pandu” means friend of Dalit.29

Ambedkar very often in his speeches used the term Dalit. In

his “The Untouchables” published in 1948, Ambedkar chose the term

27
Rajendra Singh Vasta, op.cit., p.5.
28
Nirula, op.cit., p.1.
29
Pradhan, Arul Chandra, op.cit., p.125.
 44

“broken men” an English translation of Dalit to refer to the original

ancestors of the untouchables for reasons, which must have been self-

evident because he did not explain them. The Dalit panther’s association

revived the term in their 1973 manifesto and expounded its reference to

include the Scheduled Tribes, Neo-Buddhists, working people, landless

and poor peasant, women and all those being exploited politically,

economically and in the name of religion.30

The word “Dalit” as such was first used as far back as 1931

in journalistic writings in Maharashtra.31 In the early 1970s, two

Maharashtrian movements achieved enough prominence to be noticed by

the English language press – the Dalit panthers and Dalit literature. By

substituting the word “Black” for Dalit, the reader can immediately

understand that a phenomenon comparable to the American Black panthers

and Black literatures has surfaced among the lower castes in social and

literary affairs in western India. The Marathi word Dalit like the word

black was chosen by the group itself.32

During the first half of the 20th century, the British Indian

Government began to take interest in the condition of “untouchable

30
Omvedt, Gail, Dalit Visions, The Anti-Caste Movement and the Construction of
an Indian Identity, Hyderabad, 1995, p.72.
31
Nirula, op.cit., p.108.
32
Zelliot, Eleanor, From Untouchables to Dalit: Essays on Ambedkar Movement,
New Delhi, 1992, p.10.
 45

groups” and “depressed classes” and their special position was recognized

under the term “Scheduled Caste”.33

Dalits are none but the Scheduled Caste people. The term

“Dalit” is exclusive of all the oppressed and exploited sections of society.

Both Gandhiji and Ambedkar addressed themselves in the problem of the

removal of untouchability and to uplift the untouchables.34

Ambedkar described the “Untouchables” as broken people.

The Dalits are socially weak, economically needy and politically

powerless, despite the protective constitution.35 The Scheduled Caste is the

legal and constitutional name collectively given to the groups which have

traditionally occupied the lowest status in Indian Society and the Hindu

religion which provides the religious and ideological basis for an

“untouchable” group which was outside the caste system and inferior to all

other castes.36 The Scheduled Castes are not an homogeneous group and

are divided into many castes and sub-castes, as well as by language and

geography. Collectively they are best known outside India as

“Untouchables” but this term is not used in official Indian terminology

33
Niranjan Das, Dr. Ambedkar and Untouchability, New Delhi, 2010, p.254.
34
Mohammad Shabbir, op.cit., p.44.
35
Michael, S.M., op.cit., p.16.
36
Singh, K.S., The Scheduled Castes People of India, National Series, Vol.II,
New Delhi, 1993, p.2.
 46

where the word “Harijan” is more likely to be favoured. Politically the

members of the Scheduled Castes are likely to use the term “Dalit”.37

In 1932, the Nomenclature “Scheduled Caste” was proposed

before the Indian Franchise Committee by the provincial Government of

Bengal.38 Further in 1920s, there was no clear definition to classify as who

was Scheduled Caste and so several lower castes were considered as the

untouchables. The term “Scheduled Caste” is the expression standardized

in the Constitution of “Republic of India” though this name was first

coined by the Simon Commission.39 The term Scheduled Caste, which is

even now in vogue was introduced in the Act of 1935.40 Various

presidential orders from 1950 to 1978, notified, modified and amended

statutory list of the SCs in various parts of the country.41

Scheduled Caste has been defined in Article 366, sub-article

24 which says “Scheduled Castes” means such castes, races or tribes or

parts of groups within such castes, races or tribes as are deemed under

Article 341 to be Scheduled Castes for the purpose of the Constitution.

The term “Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes” (SC/ST) are the

official terms used in Indian Government documents to identify former

37
Niranjan Das, op.cit., p.254.
38
Sukhadeo Thorat, “Dalit in India”, Search for a Common Destiny, New Delhi,
2009, p.1.
39
Saraswati, S., op.cit., p.14.
40
Sharma, K.L., op.cit., p.356.
41
Sukhadeo Thorat, op.cit., p.2.
 47

“Untouchables” and “Tribes”. However, in 2008, the National

Commission for Scheduled Castes, noticing that “Dalit” was used

interchangeably with the official term “Scheduled Castes” called the term

“unconstitutional” and asked the State Government to end its use. After

the order, the Chattisgarh Government ended the official use of the word

Dalit.42

J.H. Hutton called Dalits as a “Exterior Castes”. British

officials called them as “Depressed Classes” or Outcastes. “Paraiahs”

commonly used was undoubtedly derived from the Tamil word “para” or

“parai”.43

Untouchables are persons of a discrete set of low castes,

excluded on account of their extreme collective impurity from particular

relations with higher beings (both human and divine).44 The most

abnominale feature of the Indian caste system is the position accorded to

the low caste. They have been described by various names such as

42
Ambedkar, B.R., The Untouchables, Who Were They and Why They Became
Untouchables, Education Department, Government of Maharastra, Bombay,
1948, p.80.
43
Hutton, J.H., in his “Caste in India” (II Ed.) 1951, has stated that by the middle
of this century, 5000 books have appeared on caste. These have been written
not only by ethnologists, statisticians, historians, but also by caste
organization.
44
Deva and Wayg, Dr. Ambedkar’s Conversion, Hyderabad, 1968, pp.4-5.
 48

untouchables, unapproachable, depressed classes, Adi Dravidars,

Panchamars, Scheduled Castes and so on.45

Mondel Sohn and Viziany opt for the use of the term

“untouchables” which according to them is sociological and

comprehensive in the western world, whereas the terms “Scheduled

Castes” and dalits are legal and political respectively.46

Zelliot has used the expression from “untouchable to Dalit”.

She writes “Dalit” implies those who have been broken down by those

above them in a deliberate and active way. There is in the word itself an

inherent denial of pollution.47

Prasad in his view explains that Dalit signifies a set of castes

against whom untouchability is practiced. Therefore the use of the word

“Dalit” is appropriate in comparison to untouchable. They were known as

Depressed classes.48

Mahatma Gandhi, the spiritual leader of India, who was

moved by the plight of the untouchable, did not blame Hinduism for the

appalling discrimination against millions of Indians by other Indians. He

said “caste has nothing to do with religion. It is a custom whose origin, the

45
Pillai, K.K., The Caste System in Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1979, p.111.
46
Paramjith S. Judge, Gurpreet Bal, Mapping Dalits (Contemporary Reality and
Future Prospects), Jaipur and New Delhi, 2000, p.1.
47
Zelliot, Eleamer, Gandhi and Ambedkar, A Study in Leadership, Pune, 1972,
p.20.
48
Paramjith S. Judge, Gurpreet Bal, op.cit., p.1.
 49

law of Varna teaches us that each one of us earns our bread by following

the ancestral calling.49

Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi (1869-1948)

Gandhi’s Autobiography which covers his life, when he was

fifty two, contains only a few references to untouchables or untouchability.

At the time of his assumption of leadership of the Indian National Congress

in 1920, Gandhi made what seemed to be his first strong public statements

on untouchability. As politician, Gandhi said “Swaraj is unattainable

without the removal of the sin of untouchability as it is without Hindu-

Muslim unity.50

Gandhi said “I do not want to be reborn, but if I have to be

reborn, I should be born as untouchable”.51

Thilak wrote “It is a sin against God to say that a person is

untouchable, who is not so to God Himself, Hinduism absorbed the Sudras.

Can it not also absorb the untouchables.52

Gandhi’s statement on the evil of untouchability were

unequivocal from the first and in 1920 he voiced moderate opposition to

social intercourse, between castes which some reformers advocated “Inter

49
Subhamani N. Basi, Mahatma Gandhi and Baba Saheb Ambedkar (Crusaders
against Caste and Untouchability), Andhra Pradesh, 1997, p.319.
50
Young India, December 29, 1920.
51
Young India, April 23, 1925.
52
Zelliot, Eleanor, op.cit., p.8.
 50

drinking, inter dinning, inter marrying are not essential for the promotion

of the spirit of democracy.53

Other early reformers including Vivekananda and Dayanand

Saraswati, espoused a similar conception of the ideal society as one

composed of equal, harmoniously integrated Varnas. The belief that

untouchability was a perversion of true Hinduism and a view of the

untouchable as one deserving of Sudra status was acceptable even to such

an orthodox Hindu leader as Bala Gangadar Thilak.54

Although Gandhi was not the first to cry out against

untouchability, he was the most prominent caste Hindu to proclaim that it

was harmful to Hinduism, to make its removal a personal responsibility of

the caste Hindu, to keep it before the public eye with passionate oratory

and vivid imagery and to found an organisation for service to untouchables.

In 1946, Gandhi said “I myself have become a Harijan by choice”.55

The Vaikam Satyagraha of 1924-1925 in Travancore State

offered Gandhi, his first opportunity to act publicly on behalf of

untouchables and produced Ambedkar’s first public comment on Gandhian

methods.56

53
Young India, December 8, 1920.
54
Zelliot Eleanor, op.cit., p.8.
55
Harijan, June 9, 1946.
56
Bondurant Joan, V., Conquest of Violence, The Gandhian Philosophy of
Conflict, Princeton, 1958, pp.46-52.
 51

Gandhi’s secretary, Mahadev Desai, recorded Gandhi’s

comments “The possible consequences of separate electorates for Harijans”

(this must be Desai’s editing the word Harijan was not yet used by Gandhi)

fill one with horror. Separate electorates for all other communities will

still leave room for me to deal with them, but I have no other means to deal

with “untouchables”.57

The untouchables simply detest the name Harijan, various

grounds of objections are urged against the name. The new name has

become completely identified with the subject matter of the old.

Everybody knows that Harijans are simply no other than the old.

Untouchables, the new name provides no escape to the

untouchables from the curse of untouchability. With the new name they

are damned as much as they were with the old. Secondly the untouchables

say that they prefer to be called untouchables.58

Gandhiji was very sympathetic to depressed classes and was

firmly determined to maintain Chaturvarna as the basis of Hindu religion.

Gandhi considered God as the originator of caste system,

therefore it must be maintained. Gandhi wanted to keep untouchables

57
Desai Mahadev, The Diary of Mahadev Desai, Ahamedabad, 1953, p.301.
58
“Uplifting the Depressed Classes”, November 28, 1935, Notes G, 1936, p.689.
 52

away from political platform by declaring himself as their saviour and

representative at the Round Table Conference.59

Regarding Gandhi’s attitude towards Dalits (untouchables),

D.R. Jatawa writes “Gandhi and other Congress stalwarts like Patel and

Rajendra Prasad wanted Ambedkar and the Depressed Classes to

surrender” to fight against British imperialism for India’s political freedom.

With respect to the removal of untouchability one of the

political programmes of the congress, Gandhi said “without the removal of

this curse, Swaraj is a meaningless term”.60

Gandhi introduced the removal of untouchability as one of

the main programmes of the Congress. Gandhi said “Hindus were not

showing signs of change of heart towards the problem of untouchables”.

Gandhi thought that the attitude of Ambedkar would create division in

Hinduism.61

Disintegrated group of the Hindu Society is called

“Untouchables”. Origin of untouchables was due to their “low-economic

status”. In the traditional Hindu Society they (Untouchables) were

casteless. Gandhiji created Harijans as a separate caste. Gandhi also

wanted the untouchables to remain Hindus. T.K. Oommen says that “the

59
Subhamani N. Busi, op.cit., p.27.
60
Sitaramayya, Pattabhi, The History of the Indian National Congress, Vol.I,
Bombay, 1946, p.226.
61
Prasad, D.S., “Dalit Human Rights Monitor 2000-2003”, Report on Atrocities
on Dalits, Andhra Pradesh, 2004, p.190.
 53

Hindu theory pushed them (Dalit people) to the lowest position in

society”.62

The word “Untouchability” actually requires classification.

We have been accustomed to this word for the last 25 years. Still there is a

lot of confusion as to what it connotes. Sometimes it means merely taking

a glass of water and sometimes it has been used in the sense of admission

of “Harijans” into temple, sometimes it meant inter-caste dinner,

sometimes inter-caste marriage. Mahatma Gandhi, who was the main

exponent of untouchability has used it in various ways and on different

occasions with different meanings. Mr. Thakur has said “Untouchability is

merely a symptom, the root cause is caste distinction. Untouchability in

some form or other is bound to exist and when we are going to have an

independent India, we should expect every one to be enjoying equal social

conditions, it is incumbent on us that we should be very clear as to make it

explicit that in the future independent India, there should be no distinction

between men in the social field.63

Ambedkar chose the term “broken men” an English

translation of “Dalit” to refer to the original ancestors of the untouchables

62
Sharma, K.L., op.cit., p.356.
63
Sarajit Kumar Chatterjee, The Scheduled Castes in India, Vol.II, New Delhi,
1996, p.390.
 54

for reasons which must have been self-evident because he did not explain

them.64

The Dalit panthers revived the term and in their 1973

manifesto expanded its reference to include the Scheduled Tribes, Neo-

Buddhists, the working people, the landless, and the poor peasants, women

and all those who are being exploited politically and economically in the

name of religion.65

The word “Dalit” has gained wide circulation after the

upheaval of caste-based politics and political parties in India. It is a very

recent development, probably, it was used in 1930’s as a Hindi and Marathi

translation of “Depressed Classes”.

Since the early 1970s, the word has come into increasingly

wider usage in the press and in common parlance, where it is normally

used in the original and narrower, caste-based sense. Scholars have also

written about Dalits as peasants, agricultural labourers, factory workers,

students, and the like.66

Dalits are the people within Hindu society who belong to

those castes which Hindu religion considers to be polluting by virtue of

hereditary occupation. The 1891 census, on the other hand, adopted a

64
Ambedkar, B.R., The Untouchables”, op.cit., p.2.
65
Omvedt, Gail, Dalit and the Democratic Revolution, Dr. Ambedkar and the
Dalit Movement in Colonial India, New Delhi, 1994, p.72.
66
Michael, S.M., op.cit., p.77.
 55

standard classification of castes according to the occupation assigned to

each by tradition. Dalit castes were thus included within such occupational

categories as field labourers, leather workers, scavengers, watchmen and

village menials.67

Dalit indicates that the original definition of who is a Dalit is

empirically the soundest one for historian to work with. Caste alone has

determined who is a Dalit, not class or religion.68 Social stigma and a

variety of disabilities were based on caste. These were and to a significant

degree still are the defining characteristics of a Dalit, even if a class moves

up in a social class as changes in religion.69

Historians as well as social scientists have also based their

work on this set of assumptions by consciously or unconsciously applying

a religious criterion in addition to caste to determine whether or not a

person is a Dalit.70 Thus the various definitions indicate that dalits are a

separate community. As they were considered to be a separate group they

were not included in the list of high castes. Because of this they suffered

political, social and economic disabilities.

67
Michael, S.M., op.cit., p.77.
68
James Massey, Roots – A Concise History of the Dalits, Delhi, 1991, pp.7-10.
69
Prabhakar, M.E., Towards a Dalit Theology, Delhi, 1989, pp.1, 2.
70
Michael, S.M., op.cit., p.81.