CSE565 Construction Technology Ir Dr Eddie Lam

Topic 3: Foundation

1.0 Types of foundation

Foundations commonly used in the building construction can be broadly classified

into shallow foundations (sometimes called “spread footings”) include pads (i.e.
isolated footings), strip footings and rafts, and deep foundations usually referring to as
piled foundations. Choice of using shallow or deep foundation will be determined by:

(a) Bearing capacity of soil

(b) Loading of the building
(c) Possible settlement
(d) Cost

2.0 Shallow foundation

Shallow foundations are those founded near

to the finished ground surface. In general,
the founding depth is less than the width of
the footing and less than 3m (i.e. shallow).

Shallows foundations are used when surface

soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to
support the loading. They are generally
unsuitable in weak or highly compressible
soils, such as fill, alluvial deposits, etc.

Shallow foundations can be divided into pad

footing (or the so-called spread footing), strip footing (combined footing) and rafts.

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Pad Footing: It is the most common and simplest type of foundation. It distributes
the load or weight over sufficient area on the foundation bed. It can be circular, square
or rectangular in shape.

Strip Footing: Strip footings are used to support a line of loads, either due to a
load-bearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where column positions are
so close that individual pad foundations would be inappropriate. Strip footings are
usually rectangular in shape.

Raft Foundations or Mats: Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a
structure over a large area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used
when column loads or other structural loads are close together and individual pad
foundations would interact. A raft foundation normally consists of a thick concrete
slab which extends over the entire loaded area. Raft foundations have the advantage
of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements
between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low
bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area. They are
recommended when safe bearing capacity of soil is poor and columns carry heavy
load. It is very useful for the strata, where there is a possibility of uneven settlement.

One common type of shallow foundation is the on-grade slab, e.g. footpath of a
covered walkway in HKHA housing estates.

Note that soil supporting the shallow foundation must be well compacted in order to
minimize the amount of settlement or the amount of differential settlement.
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A raft foundation should provide an absolute waterproof and damp-proof. This is

usually made possible by using water-proofing concrete and an effective
water-proofing system (incorporating for example, DPC).

D.P.C. is the damp-proof course (usually made of PVC sheets or bituminous felt or
plastic) to prevent ingress of water or water vapor into the interior of the building. We
need to keep the D.P.C. at a sensible and safe distance above ground level. If not, the
ground water in wet conditions could cause water seepage into and even flooding of
the under-floor voids.

Hardcore provides passage for water to flow through thus reducing the water pressure
so as to improve the watertight condition.

Binding is used to provide a sound surface for concreting the footing.

D.P.M. is the damp-proof membrane. It helps to keep the floor slab dry.

3.0 Deep foundations

Deep foundations are those founding deeply below the finished ground surface to
transfer the loading to a deeper, more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are
present near the surface. For instance, the founding level can be 60-80 meters below
ground.

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Deep basements are also deep foundations in which the relief of stress due to
excavation is approximately balanced by the applied stress due to the foundation. The
net stress applied is therefore very small. However, piled foundations are the most
common form of deep foundations.

3.1 Types of piles

Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads through soil
strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high bearing
capacity. They are used to transmit loads to strata beyond the practical reach of
shallow foundations. In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor
structures against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and
overturning forces.

Piles get support from both end bearing and skin friction. We usually classify the piles
into end bearing piles and friction piles (according to the supporting method). The
proportion of carrying capacity generated by either end bearing or skin friction
depends on the soil conditions.

End bearing piles

End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard, relatively impenetrable material
such as rock or very dense sand and
gravel. They derive most of their
carrying capacity from the
resistance of the stratum at the toe
of the pile. In Hong Kong, end
bearing piles usually sit on sound
rock.

Friction piles

Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or
adhesion. This tends to occur when piles do
not reach an impenetrable stratum but are
driven for some distance into a penetrable
soil. Their carrying capacity is derived partly
from end bearing and partly from skin
friction between the embedded surface of the

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soil and the surrounding soil.

Tension piles

Structures such as tall chimneys, transmission towers and jetties can be subject to
large overturning moments and so piles are often used to resist the resulting uplift
forces at the foundations. In such cases the resulting forces are transmitted to the soil
along the embedded length of the pile. The resisting force can be increased in the case
of bored piles by under-reaming.

Piles in fill

Piles that pass through layers of

moderately- to poorly-compacted fill
will be affected by negative skin friction,
which produces a downward drag along
the pile shaft and therefore an additional
load on the pile. This occurs as the fill
consolidates under its own weight.

3.2 Types of pile construction

Piles can be constructed by displacement or replacement methods. In Hong Kong,

steel H piles and bored piles are the most commonly used displacement piles and
replacement piles respectively.

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3.3 Displacement piles

Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as vertically as the
pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground. With replacement piles (or
non-displacement piles), soil is removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete or
a steel section is dropped into the hole and grouted in.

Driven and cast-in-place displacement piles

This type of pile can be of two forms. The first involves driving a temporary steel
tube with a closed end into the ground to form a void in the soil which is then filled
with concrete as the tube is withdrawn. The second type is the same except the steel
tube is left in place to form a permanent casing.

Helical (screw) cast-in-place displacement piles

This type of construction is performed using a special type of auger. The soil is
however compacted, not removed as the auger is screwed into the ground. The auger
is carried on a hollow stem which can be filled with concrete, so when the required
depth has been reached concrete can be pumped down the stem and the auger slowly
unscrewed leaving the pile cast in place.

Displacements piles are either driven or jacked into the ground. A number of
different methods can be used.

The dropping weight or drop hammer method was at one time (some 20-30 years
ago) a popular method to install displacement piles in Hong Kong. A weight
approximately half that of the pile is raised at a suitable distance in a guide and
released to strike the pile head.

Rapid controlled explosions can be produced by the diesel hammer. The explosions
raise a ram which is used to drive the pile into the ground. This type of hammer is
most suitable for driving piles through non-cohesive granular soils where the majority
of the resistance is from end bearing. The use of diesel hammer was once very
popular in Hong Kong in the construction of steel H piles. Since the 80-90s, it became
unattractive due to tighter environmental control in Hong Kong to prevent emission of
diesel particles to the surrounding.

Vibratory methods can prove to be very effective in driving piles through

non-cohesive granular soils. The vibration of the pile excites the soil grains adjacent

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to the pile making the soil almost free flowing thus significantly reducing friction
along the pile shaft. The vibration can be produced by electrically (or hydraulically)
powered contra-rotating eccentric masses attached to the pile head usually acting at a
frequency of about 20-40 Hz. If this frequency is increased to around 100 Hz it can
set up a longitudinal resonance in the pile and penetration rates can approach up to 20
m/min in moderately dense granular soils. However, large energy resulting from the
vibrations can damage equipment, noise and vibration propagation can also result in
the settlement of nearby buildings.

Jacking method of insertion or jacked piles are

commonly used in underpinning existing structures
(i.e. to repair or strengthen an existing foundation).
By excavating underneath a structure short lengths
of pile can be inserted and jacked into the ground
using the underside of the existing structure as a
reaction. Recently the jacking method is also used
to drive steel H piles into the soil.

3.4 Replacement piles

With replacement piles, soil is removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete or
sometimes a steel H pile is dropped into the hole and grouted in. When boring through
the soil, some form of steel casing or support such as bentonite slurry, may be
required.

Large diameter bored cast-in-place piles Large boreholes from 750mm up to 3m

diameter (with 7m under-reams) are possible
by using rotary drilling machinery. The
augering plant is usually crane or lorry
mounted. A spiral or bucket auger as shown
in this diagram is attached to a shaft known as
a Kelly bar (a square section telescopic
member driven by a horizontal spinner).
Depths of up to 70m are possible using this
technique. The use of bentonite slurry in
conjunction with bucket auger drilling can
eliminate some of the difficulties involved in
drilling in soft silts and clays, and loose granular soils, without continuous support by
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casing tubes. One advantage of this technique is the potential for under reaming. By
using an expanding drilling tool the diameter at the base of the pile can be enlarged,
significantly increasing the end bearing capacity of the pile. However, under-reaming
is a slow process requiring a stop in the augering for a change of tool and a slow
process in the actual under-reaming operation. In clay, it is often preferable to use a
deeper straight sided shaft.

3.5 Factors influencing choice of pile

Driven cast-in-place types are usually the cheapest for moderate loadings. However, it
is often necessary for piles to be installed without causing any significant ground
heave or vibrations because of their proximity to existing structures. In such cases, the
bored cast-in-place pile is the most suitable. For heavy structures exerting large
foundation loads, large-diameter bored piles are usually the most economical. Jacked
piles are suitable for underpinning existing structures.

Driven piles cannot be used economically in ground containing boulders, or in clays

when ground heave would be detrimental. Similarly, bored piles would not be suitable
in loose water-bearing sand, and under-reamed bases cannot be used in cohesionless
soils since they are susceptible to collapse before the concrete can be placed.

3.6 PDA

Pile Driving Analysis or Pile Dynamic Analysis (PDA) is a technique for dynamic
evaluation of shaft integrity. By measuring the strain and acceleration under the
impact of a pile driving hammer or a drop weight (typically 1 to 1.5% of maximum
ultimate load), PDA can estimate driving stresses and hammer energy during pile
installation. Often several piles can be tested in one day at a small fraction of the cost
of conventional static testing. PDA tests are commonly applied to test driven piles or
to check piles during driving or re-strike. The cost of dynamic pile testing is attractive
and much smaller than conventional static load testing.

3.7 Pile cap

Pile cap transmit load from structure to pile.

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3.8 Pre-drilling for piles founded on rock

Code of practice for Foundation 2004 at paragraph 7.4.2:

1. For piles founded on rock or rock socket, sufficient pre-drilling should be

carried out to identify the depth and quality of the founding rock. Such
pre-drilling should be sunk at least 5 m into the category of rock specified for
founding or forming of rock socket, or the designed rock socket length of the
pile, whichever is the deeper.
2. For large diameter bored piles, barrettes and the like, pre-drilling should be
carried out for each pile.
3. For mini-piles, socketed steel H-piles, steel H-piles driven to bedrock and
similar small diameter bored piles founding on rock or rock socket,
pre-drilling should be carried out such that the tip of every pile should be
within 5 m distance from a pre-drilling hole. The pre-drilling should be sunk at
least 5 m into the category of rock specified for founding or forming of rock
socket, or the designed rock socket length of the nearest pile, whichever is the
deeper

3.9 Piling Tests

Purposes of piling tests are (a) to determine settlement of pile; (b) to determine
ultimate bearing capacity of pile and (c) to check pile integrity. The tests include static
load tests; (b) dynamic load tests and (c) others (sonic test and coring test). Equipment
of static load tests may include hydraulic jack; kentledge or anchor piles. Movement
of pile is checked by using (a) surveyor’s level and staff; (b) reference beam and dial
gauge; (c) reference wire and scale or (d) electro-optic position sensing.

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4.0 Choice of foundations

In general, footings (shallow foundation) are more economical than piled foundations
(deep foundation). So, the choice of using footings or piled foundations will be
governed primarily by cost.

Types of foundation Low-rise buildings Mid- to high-rise buildings

Footing is in general not
Use footing if soil profile preferred - insufficient
Footings
is suitable strength and excessive
settlement
Preferred type especially
Piled foundation Too expensive to consider
under soft soil conditions

Pad footings are preferred if the loading is not excessive. Raft footings are used to
reduce differential settlement and/or due to insufficient bearing capacity of soil.

There are different types of piled foundations. The choice is still determined by cost.

1. If the founding level is very deep (say the rock face is over 60m below ground),
frictional piles are preferred.
2. If the soil is very weak (or soft) and settlement is a concern, end bearing piles are
preferred (even if the founding level is at great depth).
3. Displacement piles (driven cast-in-place piles) are not preferred to be used in a
congested site with adjacent buildings and/or tunnels (e.g. MTRC tunnels). Also,
see section 3.5 above.

Shallow Foundation Deep foundation

Condition
Pad footing Raft footing Steel H-piles Bored piles
2-story building Yes Yes
2-story building + soft soil Yes
High-rise building Yes Yes
High-rise + congested site Yes
High-rise + 80m rock face Yes
High-rise + 30m rock face Yes

It is common in the New Territories (e.g. Yuen Long) to have high-rise buildings
sitting on soil with founding level 80m below ground. When the area was first
developed, it was remote. At that time, displacement piles were preferred.

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5.0 Quiz on pad footing

Identify the features making it possible to use pad footing as shown in the following
drawings.

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