Fire Dynamics II

Lecture # 6
Smoke and Heat Venting
Jim Mehaffey

82.583

Carleton University, 82.583, Fire 1

Dynamics II, Winter 2003, Lecture #
6

Smoke and Heat Venting

Outline
• Introduction
• 3 strategies for smoke & heat venting
• General conservation laws: mass & energy
• 3 models for smoke & heat venting
– Coupling to law for conservation of momentum
• Standard practice

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 Introduction
• Venting = removal of hot gas from upper parts of an
enclosure involved in fire and introduction of
air into lower parts
• Venting may involve natural convection through
openings and/or mechanical extraction or supply
• Objectives of venting
– Restrict spread of smoke in escape routes
– Enable fire fighters to see seat of fire
– Reduce damage due to smoke and heat

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Introduction
• General philosophy
– Smoke must not drop below a specified elevation
– Undertake steady-state calculations
• Strategies for venting
– Provide ceiling vent or opening in the upper layer.
Vent by natural convection through openings. Area
of ceiling vent and area of “supply” vent are crucial.
– Mechanically vent smoke from upper layer. Fan
capacity and area of “supply” vent are crucial.
– Pressurize lower layer mechanically (fan). Fan
capacity and area of ceiling vent are crucial.
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 Schematic: Smoke & Heat Venting

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Conservation Laws: Mass & Energy

• Conservation of mass of upper layer
d
(ρ h Vh ) = m p − m e
• •
Eqn (6-1)
dt
• Assume interface is at height of interest: Vh is constant
• Assume temp of upper layer Th (thus ρh) is constant
• •

mp = me Eqn (6-2)

• Conservation of mass of lower layer

• •

md = mp Eqn (6-3)

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• Combining Eqns (6-2) and (6-3) yields
• • • •

md = mp = me ≡ m Eqn (6-4)

• Implicitly neglects mass loss from burning fuel

****************************************************************
• Assuming temp of upper layer Th is constant
• Conservation of energy for upper layer

Q CONV = m e c P (Th − To ) + q LOSS

• • •

Eqn (6-5)
•

q LOSS = rate of heat loss to enclosure boundaries (kW)

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Rate of Heat Loss to Boundaries

• Upper layer loses heat to boundaries by convection
and radiation.
• AB (m2) = area of direct contact between smoke layer
and enclosure boundaries. AB (m2) depends on
enclosure geometry & depth of smoke layer
• Rate of heat loss can be expressed in terms of heat
loss per unit area times AB (m2) as follows:
• •
q LOSS = A B q"LOSS Eqn (6-6)

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 Modelling Assumptions
• Assume surface temperature of boundaries is equal to
hot layer temperature TS = Th
• Neglect cooling of boundaries (heat does not flow
back from boundaries to upper layer)
• Assume boundaries are semi-infinite in thickness
• We solved this problem in Fire Dynamics I. See slides
5-32 and 5-33

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Transient Conduction

•
Semi-finite solid
q"LOSS x

• Assume solid is initially at To

•

• For t ≥ 0, heat flux q"LOSS (W m-2) absorbed at surface

• Solve Eqn (5-9) of Fire Dynamics I subject to initial
condition & two boundary conditions

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 •
q"LOSS = q
Transient Conduction with
• Solution for surface temperature is Ts
2 t
(T − TO ) = q
Eqn (6-7)
π kρc
S

• k ρ c = thermal inertia (J m-2 s1/2 K-1)

• Solving Eqn (6-7) for heat flux from upper layer to

boundaries yields
π kρc
(T h − T O )
•

q " LOSS = Eqn (6-8)

2 t
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Rate of Heat Loss to Boundaries

• Rewrite Eqn (6-8) in the form

q LOSS = h A B (Th − TO )
•
Eqn (6-9)

π kρc
h= Eqn (6-10)
2 t
• Substituting Eqn (6-9) into (6-5) & solving for Th yields
 Q 
•

Th = To +  • CONV  Eqn (6-11)

 c P m e + h A B 

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 Strategy 1: Vent by Natural Convection
Assumptions
• Smoke flows out ceiling vent by convection
• Air flows in lower vent by convection
• Mass flow of smoke out = mass flow of air in
• Pressure difference across ceiling vent is constant
• Pressure difference across lower vent is constant

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Pressure Profile in the Enclosure

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 Calculation Of Hydrostatic Pressures
• Outside: pz (out) = pn - ρo g z
• Inside: for z > - (HN - HD): pz (in) = pn - ρh g z
• Pressure difference: for z > - (HN - HD)
pz (in) - pz (out) = (ρo - ρh) g z
• Pressure difference at ceiling vent: z = H - HN
∆pC = p(in) - p(out) = (ρo - ρh) g (H - HN) Eqn (6-12)

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Calculation Of Hydrostatic Pressures

• Outside: pz (out) = pn - ρo g z
• Inside: for z < - (HN - HD):
pz (in) = pn - ρh g (HN - HD) - ρo g [z + (HN - HD)]
• Pressure difference: for z < - (HN - HD)
pz (out) - pz (in) = (ρo - ρh) g (HN - HD)
• Pressure difference at lower vent
∆pl = pz(out) - pz(in) = (ρo - ρh) g (HN - HD) Eqn (6-13)

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 Relationship between Pressure Differences
• From Eqn (6-12):
∆pC = (ρo - ρh) g (H - HN)
∴ ∆pC = (ρo - ρh) g [(H - HD) - (HN - HD)]
or ∆pC = (ρo - ρh) g (H - HD) - ∆pl Eqn (6-14)

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Pressure-driven Flow
• ∆p constant at both vents & flows are unidirectional
• From Eqn (4-9) centreline velocity is
2∆p
v= Eqn (6-15)
ρ

• Centreline velocity out ceiling vent

2(H − H N )( ρ O − ρ h )g
vC = Eqn (6-16)
ρh
• Centreline velocity in lower vent
2(H N − H D )( ρ O − ρ h )g
vl = Eqn (6-17)
ρo
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 Mass Flow Rates
• General expression with C = 0.6
•

m=CAvρ Eqn (6-18)

• Mass flow rate of smoke out ceiling vent

• 2(H − H N )( ρ O − ρ h )g
mC = C AC ρh Eqn (6-19)
ρh
• Mass flow rate of air in lower vent
• 2(H N − H D )( ρ O − ρ h )g
ml = C Al ρO Eqn (6-20)
ρo

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Mass Flow Rates

• Alternative to Eqn (6-20): Substitute Eqn (6-14) into
Eqn (6-15) and the result into Eqn (6-18)
•

m C = C A C 2 ρ h [− ∆p l + (H − H D )( ρ O − ρ h )g] Eqn (6-21)

• Pressure difference can be expressed in terms of

mass flow rate as
• 2
ml
∆p l = Eqn (6-22)
2 ρ O (CA l ) 2

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 Height of Neutral Plane
• Unknowns: HN; HD; ρh; AC and Al
• Assume HD is specified by design
• •

• Conservation of mass m c = m l
• Eqns (6-19) & (6-20) yield
AC ρh H − H N = A l ρo H N − H D

• Squaring and solving for HN yields

A l2 ρ O H D + A C2 ρ h H
HN = Eqn (6-23)
A l2 ρ O + A C2 ρ h

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Calculation of Required Area of Ceiling Vent

• Step 1: Assume HD is specified by design
• Step 2: Calculate mass flow rate in plume at height HD
• • 1/3

m p (H D ) = 0.071 Q CONV (H D − z O ) 5/3 Eqn (2-12)

• • •
recall mc = mp = ml Eqn (6-4)

• Step 3: Calculate temperature of smoke layer

 Q 
•

Th = To +  • CONV
 Eqn (6-11)
 c P m c + h A B 

cp ~ 1.1 kJ kg-1 K-1

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 Calculation of Required Area of Ceiling Vent
• Step 4: Calculate density of smoke layer
ρh = ρo To / Th
• Step 5: Calculate pressure difference at lower vent
assuming a value for Al
• 2
ml Eqn (6-22)
∆p l =
2 ρ O (CA l ) 2
• Step 6: Determine AC so that
•

m C = C A C 2 ρ h [− ∆p l + (H − H D )( ρ O − ρ h )g] Eqn (6-21)

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Note on Step 3: Calculation of Temperature

 Q 
•

• Eqn (6-11) ⇒ only h varies Th = To +  • CONV


 c P m c + h A B 

π kρc
• Eqn (6-10) ⇒ only t varies h=
2 t
• Calculate h, hence Th, at largest time of interest (say
10 min)
k
• Caveat: h ≥
δ

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 Example: Relationship between AC and Al

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Limitations
• We have assumed steady-state conditions. To handle
transient effects computer modelling is necessary
• Wind can alter pressure differences between inside &
outside a building
• Large area ceiling vent may cause bidirectional flow.
Counteract by splitting vent into several smaller ones
• Small lower vent may induce bidirectional flow or
oscillatory flow through ceiling vent

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 Strategy 2: Mechanical Venting from Upper Layer
• Smoke ejected by ceiling mounted fan
• Air flows in lower vent
• Mass flow of smoke out = mass flow of air in

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Characterization of Mechanical Venting

•
• Fans are rated for volumetric exhaust rate V e (m3 s-1)
• Mass flow of smoke out is given as
• •
me = Ve ρh Eqn (6-34)

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 Calculation of Required Ventilation Rate
• Step 1: Assume z is specified by design
• Step 2: Calculate mass flow rate in plume at height HD
• • 1/3

m p (z) = 0.071 Q CONV (z − z O ) 5/3 Eqn (2-12)

• • •
recall me = mp = md Eqn (6-4)

• Step 3: Calculate temperature of smoke layer

 Q 
•

Th = To +  • CONV
 Eqn (6-11)
 c P m e + h A B 

cp ~ 1.1 kJ kg-1 K-1

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Calculation of Required Ventilation Rate

• Step 4: Calculate density of smoke layer
ρh = ρo To / Th
• Step 5: Calculate required capacity of fan
•
•
me
Ve = Eqn (6-35)
ρh

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 Strategy 3: Pressurization of Lower Layer
• Forced ventilation into lower layer pressurizes whole
compartment

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Strategy 3: Pressurization of Lower Layer

• Smoke flows out ceiling vent
• Air flows out lower vent
• Mass balance for lower layer
• • •

mo = mp + md Eqn (6-36)

• Mass balance for upper layer

• •

mp = me Eqn (6-37)

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• Mass flow rate out lower vent
•

md = C A D vd ρo Eqn (6-38)

• Centreline velocity
2 ∆p l
vd = Eqn (6-39)
ρo
• Substitute (6-36) & (6-39) into (6-38); solve for ∆pl
• •
[m O − m p ]2
∆p l = Eqn (6-40)
2 ρ O (CA D ) 2
• •
• For positive pressure in lower layer need m o > m p

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Flow through Ceiling Vent

• Pressure difference at ceiling vent:
∆pC = ∆pl + (ρo - ρh) g (He - z) Eqn (6-41)

• Mass flow through ceiling vent

•
m e = C A E 2 ρ h [∆p l + (H E − z )( ρ O − ρ h )g] Eqn (6-42)

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 Calculation of Required Ventilation Rate
• Step 1: Assume z is specified by design
• Step 2: Calculate mass flow rate in plume at height z
• • 1/3
m p (z) = 0.071 Q CONV (z − z O ) 5/3 Eqn (2-12)
• •
recall me = mp Eqn (6-4)

• Step 3: Calculate temperature of smoke layer

 Q 
•

Th = To +  • CONV
 Eqn (6-11)
 c P m e + h A B 

cp ~ 1.1 kJ kg-1 K-1

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Calculation of Required Ventilation Rate

• Step 4: Calculate density of smoke layer
ρh = ρo To / Th
• Step 5: Calculate ∆pl from
•
m e = C A E 2 ρ h [∆p l + (H E − z )( ρ O − ρ h )g] Eqn (6-42)
•
• Step 6: Determine m o from
• •
[m O − m p ]2
∆p l = Eqn (6-41)
2 ρ O (CA D ) 2

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 Caveat
• This lecture has presented the fundamental concepts
needed to understand smoke venting by natural
convection and by mechanical means

• This is a textbook presentation outlining general

principles

• Standards, based on this material, are available for

undertaking design

• Standards may make assumptions that differ from

those presented in this lecture

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NFPA 204 (2002 Edition)

Standard for Smoke and Heat Venting
• Document Scope: Design of facilities for emergency
venting of products of combustion from fire
• Prescriptive standard on how to implement Strategy 1:
Venting by natural convection
• Smoke flows out ceiling vent by convection
• Air flows in lower vent by convection
• Details on sizing of vents; effects of wind; need for
smoke curtains; interaction with sprinklers

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 NFPA 92B
Guide for Smoke Management Systems
in Malls, Atria, and Large Areas
• Guidance on design, installation, testing, operation,
and maintenance of mechanical ventilation systems
intended to exhaust smoke
• Strategy 2: Mechanical Venting from Upper Layer

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References
• B. Karlsson and J.G. Quintiere, Enclosure Fire Dynamics, CRC Press,
2000, Chap. 4

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