Introductions:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a device made of 3 layers of doped semiconductor

materials, in the form of an NPN transistor or a PNP transistor. It has 3 terminals, namely, the
emitter, collector and base. In a BJT, the holes and electrons both participate in the injection.
(Boylestad & Nashelsky, 1999).

The most often encountered transistor configuration is the common-emitter configuration

when compare to the common-collector configuration and common-base configuration. In
common-emitter configuration, the emitter is common or reference to the input and output, but
in common-collector configuration and common-base configuration, the collector and base are
common respectively. The common-emitter configuration is most commonly used because it
has high power voltage and current gain. Furthermore, the transistors are normally used in
conjunction with other circuit elements such as resistors and capacitors. However, in this case
the dc analysis requires the use of resistors only.

The voltage divider bias is used in design of bipolar transistor amplifier (BJT). The BJT
can be used as an amplifier in analogue circuits and as a switch in digital circuits. To design a
BJT, the transistor is biased by a method of the base bias is maintained at a constant stable
voltage level, thereby reducing the impact of changes Beta (β) in order to achieve optimum
stability, as a low frequency voltage amplifier.

In this experiment, the voltage divider bias circuit will be used to amplify through a
Multisim simulation. It is assumed that the error between the simulation result, the calculation
result, and the partial result will be have difference due to the assumptions in the calculation
process and the internal resistance of the components. Further, the second part of the
experiment is to remove the bypass capacitor, to observe the effect of the voltage gain of the
amplifier. It is predicted that the voltage gain will be decreased as RE had to be accounted
during AC analysis.
Aims:
To characterize the DC input and transfer characteristics of an NPN transistor.

Objectives:
1. To connect a transistor as a CE ac amplifier using voltage-divider biasing.
2. To measure the voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣, of a CE amplifier.
3. To observe the effect of an emitter bypass capacitor on amplifier gain.

Materials and Equipment:

1. Multisim software for simulation.

2. The equipment and components needed for circuit construction: -
 Equipment: Dual Channel Oscilloscope
Digital multimeter
Function generator
0-15V DC Power Supply
Breadboard and wires

Resistors: 150 Ω *1
2.7 𝑘Ω *1
3.9 𝑘Ω *2
4.7 𝑘Ω *1
10 𝑘Ω *1
 Capacitors: 2.2μF *2
100μF *1
 Semiconductors: 2N3904
 Procedures:

Figure 1 CE amplifier with bias stabilization Schematic

Bias Stabilization

1. The circuit shown in Figure 1 was constructed in Multisim and the current IC, IE, and IB in the
collect circuit was measured.
2. The emitter voltage VBE, emitter voltage VE, collector to emitter voltage VCE, collector voltage
VC and tabulated in Table 1.
3. A 5kHz signal was injected to the input terminal of the amplifier using a function generator
set to 200mVPP.
4. Channel 1 of the oscilloscope has connected to point I (𝑣𝑖𝑛) and Channel 2 has connected to
point O (𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡), and the 𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 of the common emitter configuration amplifier was
viewed. The image of the output was captured.
5. The gain and the VPP output were calculated.

Effect of Emitter Bypass Capacitor in Gain

1. The power was disconnected, the capacitor parallel to 𝑅𝐸2 was removed from the circuit. The
power was reconnected and the effect of the 10 𝜇𝐹 parallel capacitor was observed.
2. Steps 4 to 5 of bias stabilization was repeated.
3. The effect on the amplifier performance was determined by removing the parallel capacitor.
Data & Results:

VCC
15.0V
XSC1
XFG1
Ext Trig R1 Rc
+
_ COM 10kΩ 3.9kΩ
A B
_ _
+ + Cin Cout

2.2µF 2.2µF
Q1
2N3904 RL
3.9kΩ

R2
RE1
4.7kΩ
150Ω

Cout1

10µF
RE2
2.7kΩ

Figure 2 Bias stabilization of a common-emitter BJT configuration

Figure 3 Circuit construct during partial

VCC
15.0V

R1 Rc
10kΩ 3.9kΩ

Q1
2N3904

R2 RE1
4.7kΩ 150Ω

RE2
2.7kΩ

Figure 4 DC Equivalent circuit

 Ic

Figure 5 AC Equivalent circuit (With bypass Capacitor)

Ic

Figure 6 AC Equivalent circuit (Without bypass Capacitor)

Figure 7 Measurement circuit

 Parameters
VB (V) VE (V) VC (V) VCE (V) IB (μA) IC (mA) IE (mA)
Simulation 4.76 4.09 9.44 5.56 9.73 1.43 1.44
Practical 4.82 4.12 9.40 5.45 9.00 1.39 1.40
Calculation 4.80 4.10 9.72 5.28 14.4 1.43 1.44
( β=100)
Calculation 4.80 4.10 9.72 5.28 4.80 1.44 1.44
( β=300)
Table 1: Voltages and currents of the circuit obtained from simulation and calculation
Calculation Step
VB= R2÷(R1+R2) * VCC IE= VE ÷ RE
= 4.7k ÷ (10k+4.7k) * 15V = (4.1) ÷ (2.85k)
= 4.80V = 1.44mA

VE= VB - VBE VBE= 0.7(Silicon junction voltage)

= 4.80V – 0.7V
= 4.10V
β =100
IB= IC ÷ β IC= IE - IB
= (1.44m) ÷ 100 IC= 1.44m- 14.40µ
= 14.40µA IC= 1.43mA

VC= IC(RC+RE) VCE= VCC – Vc

= (1.43m)*(3.9k+2.85k) = 15V – 9.65V
= 9.65V = 5.35V
β =300
IB= IC ÷ β IC= IE - IB
= (1.44m) ÷ 300 IC= 1.44m- 4.80µ
= 4.80µA IC= 1.44mA

VC= IC(RC+RE) VCE= VCC – Vc

= (1.44m)*(3.9k+2.85k) = 15V – 9.65V
= 9.72V = 5.28V
 Figure 8 Simulation graph of Vin and Vout with CE

Figure 9 Simulation graph of Vin and Vout without CE

 Figure 10 Practical value Vin and Vout with CE

Figure 11 Practical value Vin and Vout without CE

 Parameters
𝑽
Vin (mVpp) Vout (Vpp) AV ( 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 )
𝒊𝒏

Simulation 200 2.25 -11.25

Practical 200 2.28 -11.40
With CE
Calculation β=100 200 2.79 -13.95
β=300 200 2.81 -14.05
Simulation 200 0.134 -0.067
Practical 200 0.120 -0.600
Without CE
Calculation β=100 200 0.134 -0.067
β=300 200 0.134 -0.067
Table 2: Voltage gain with and without CE

Gain & Vout simulation and calculation with CE:

Simulation & Practical → Av(Gain)= -(Vout ÷ Vin)
= -2.25V÷200mV
= -11.25
β =100 β=300
Calculation→ Vout = IC (RC//RL) Calculation→ Vout = IC(RC//RL)
= 1.43m * 1.95k = 1.44m * 1.95k
= 2.79 = 2.81
Av(Gain)= -(Vout ÷ Vin) Av(Gain)= -(Vout ÷ Vin)
= -2.79V÷200mV = -2.81V÷200mV
= -13.95 = -14.05
DC Load line
IC(sat)= VCC ÷ (RC+RE) VCC= VCE(off)
= 15V ÷ (3.9k+2.85k) VCE(off)= 15V
= 2.22mA

Q-Point
IE≈ ICQ VCEQ= VCC – ICQ(RC+RE)
IE= 1.44mA = 15V – [1.44mA*(3.9k+2.85k)]
ICQ= 1.44mA = 5.28V

AC Load line
ic(max)= ICQ + (VCEQ÷(RC//RL) Vce(max)= VCEQ + ICQ(RC//RL)
= 1.44m + (5.28V÷1.95k) =5.28V + [(1.44m)*(1.95k)]
= 4.15mA =8.09V

DC and AC Load Lines

4.5
4.15
4

3.5

2.5
Ic (mA)

2.22
2

1.5 1.44mA
1

0.5
5.28V
0
0 8.09 15
VCE(V)

AC Load line DC Load line

Discussions:

When a function generator is injected, it means the input signal is in AC instead of DC. In AC
analysis, all VCC sources are shorted to ground. All the capacitors act as closed circuit and will
be shorted. Then, a simplified AC circuit is drawn as shown in Figure 5 & 6. The aim of an AC
signal amplifier circuit is to stabilize the DC biased input voltage to the amplifier and thus only
amplifies the required AC signal.

When measuring the current and voltage in the AC analysis will get the results with
smaller value because of the presence of the capacitors. Channel A is input while Channel B is
output. The output waveform has been amplified when passing through a Common-Emitter
Amplifier as shown in the figures above.

The value of voltage is very small when the function generator and oscilloscope are
connected to the circuit. The oscilloscope must also exist some problems causing the value is
very small. By using emitter resistors to achieve this stabilization, the emitter resistance can be
provided automatically offset required common emitter amplifier. Bypass capacitors are used
at the emitter so that the AC signal reaching the emitter does not alter the biasing required to
the point. The change in the amplified output signal waveform with respect to the input signal
is called distortion. The distortion in an amplifier is not allowed as distortion changes the actual
information.

When an emitter bypass capacitor added, the gain usually will be very high because the
DC is unaffected. This occurs because the signal CE and AC bypass capacitor through a resistor,
so that the apparent resistance is zero. Moreover, when the capacitor CE is being removed from
the circuit, the gain will be different. The amplifier will behave like a common emitter with an
emitter resistance. However, large frequency can make the capacitive resistance sufficiently
small. The emitter voltage is the smallest value among all when the capacitor CE is removed.
It is just the voltage value for the entire base, collector and emitter seems to be reduced. The
output waveform has been shown in Figure 9 & 11.

Besides that, gain can be calculated as there the current only flows through Re when
capacitor CE remove from the circuit, the AC amplifier gain is reduced. The emitter resistor
provides negative feedback and controls the gain. The emitter bypass capacitor is used to
increase the amplifier's AC gain by shunting the emitter resistor to AC. Without the bypass
capacitor, the AC gain will decrease.
Gain and Vout with CE and without CE

By calculation the percentage error, will be using the formula below.

calculation value − simulation value

% error = │ │ ∗ 100%
calculation value

By comparing the data about Gain & Vout with CE and without CE,

With Capacitor CE,

Vout(p-p) (Calculation) = 2.79V Av (Calculation) = 13.95
Vout(p-p) (Simulation) = 2.25V Av(Simulation) = 11.25
2.79−2.25 13.95−11.25
% error = │ │ ∗ 100% % error = │ │ ∗ 100%
2.79 13.95

= 19.35% = 19.35%

Without Capacitor CE,

Vout(p-p) (Calculation) = 0.134V Av (Calculation) = 0.067
Vout(p-p) (Simulation) = 0.134V Av(Simulation) = 0.067
0.134−0.134 0.067−0.067
% error = │ │ ∗ 100% % error = │ │ ∗ 100%
0.134 0.067

=0 % = 0%

As shown in the above calculations, there are slight mismatch between the simulation
value. The circuit which has capacitor CE and the mismatches is around 20% but in the circuit
which without capacitor CE the mismatches is 0%. The differences between simulation values
are mainly due to the reactance of the capacitor. Since, when calculating the value with theory,
the capacitor did have any reactance so that the calculation value always will be the highest.

To perform AC analysis, all DC sources must zero, and all capacitors replaced with
short circuits. The transistor is then replaced with a transistor equivalent circuit, called a pi-
model. At this point onwards, two circuits must be considered, one with the bypass capacitor,
CE, and one without, as shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively. The AC analysis also
provides the most crucial information of the circuit, which is its voltage gain. Thus, the
experiments shown that, a circuit without a bypass capacitor, the voltage gain of the circuit
drops drastically.
 Furthermore, the DC analysis is also important to know, all AC sources must be zeroed
(shorted to ground) and all capacitors must be replaced with open circuit. The DC equivalent
circuit is shown in Figure 4.

Difference between simulation and calculation

VB (Calculation) = 4.80V IE (Calculation) = 1.44mA

VB (Simulation) = 4.76V IE (Simulation) = 1.44mA
4.80−4.76 1.44−1.44
% error = │ │ ∗ 100% % error = │ │ ∗ 100%
4.80 1.44

= 0.08% = 0%

VE (Calculation) = 4.10V IB (Calculation) = 14.4µA

VE (Simulation) = 4.09V IB (Simulation) = 9.73µA
4.10−4.09 14.40−9.73
% error = │ │ ∗ 100% % error = │ │ ∗ 100%
4.10 14.40

= 0.24% = 32.43%

Vc (Calculation) = 9.65V IC (Calculation) = 1.43mA

Vc(Simulation) = 9.44V IC (Simulation) = 1.43mA
9.65−9.44 1.43−1.43
% error = │ │ ∗ 100% % error = │ │ ∗ 100%
9.65 1.43

= 2.18% = 0%

VCE (Calculation) = 5.35V

VCE (Simulation) = 5.56V
5.35−5.56
% error = │ │ ∗ 100%
5.35

= 3.93%
As shown in the above calculations, there are slight mismatch between all simulation
and calculation value. These mismatches are however very small and when calculated
differences, they are all below 4% except IB and are therefore considered negligible. IB has a
32.43% of difference because IB is in units of micro. Micro is in unit of 10−6, so that, can
conclude that IB also has a very small error. The differences between simulation and calculation
values are mainly due to the resistance of wire or the transistor. Besides that, the voltage drop
across the wires also contributes to the differences in simulation and calculation values.
 Parameters
VB (V) VE (V) VC (V) VCE (V) IB (μA) IC (mA) IE (mA)
4.80 4.10 9.65 5.35 14.40 1.43 1.44
ᵦ=100
4.80 4.10 9.72 5.28 4.80 1.44 1.44
ᵦ=300
Difference 0 0 0.07 0.07 9.60 0.01 0
Table 3 Voltages and currents obtained from calculation between β=100 and β=300

Parameters
Vin Vout 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 Difference
AV ( )
(mVpp) (Vpp) 𝑽𝒊𝒏

β=100 200 2.79 -13.95 0.01

Without CE
β=300 200 2.81 -14.05
β=100 200 0.0134 -0.067 0
Without CE
β=300 200 0.0134 -0.067
Table 4 Voltage gain with and without CE in β=100 and β=300

Based on the table above, the difference was calculated by using different Beta β and it
can be concluded that the difference is negligible. The beta value of the transistor use in the
practical part of the experiment falls between the value of 100 to 300 as all the practical
parameters are similar to the calculated parameters with negligible error. The gain will be
different 0.01 since the β is different.
 Conclusion:

To conclude, when a bypass capacitor is connected, it could cause a large drop in voltage gain
of a common-emitter BJT amplifier with a voltage divider biasing configuration. Some of the
formula were used to calculate the voltage gain of the common-emitter BJT amplifier with a
voltage divider biasing configuration.

Besides that, the voltage gain (Av) of an amplifier has been measured and the effect of
an emitter bypass capacitor on amplifier gain was observed. It is advisable to include the emitter
resistance in the circuit because it gives better DC stability. Maintaining the emitter resistance
reduces the amplifier's DC gain. Hence, to increase the gain of the amplifier a capacitor is
placed across the emitter resistance.

After this experiment carried out, some of the different can be seen in the simulated
results, the particle results and the calculation results. It can be cause by negligible reactance
of the capacitors in the circuit. Moreover, the capacitor will cause some voltage to drop across
them and decrease the output due to it.

References:

 Boylestad, R. & Nashelsky, L., 1999. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory. 7th ed. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.