CE 6705
Analysis & Design of Buildings Against
Hazards
Associate
ProfessorProfessor T. Balendra
T Balendra
Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
National University of Singapore
Chapter 3:
Analysis for Earthquake Resistant
Structures
ANALYSIS
Earthquake Loading Provisions – UBC 91
One level of earthquake loading is being used – essentially an ultimate
limit state for an earthquake of 475 years return period.
Reduced damage at lower level of ground motion being met by the
strength and stiffness provisions on ultimate limit state.
Note: In practice, since the as built strength exceeds design strength,
damage would not be expected under design motions.
Methods of analysis
Equivalent static analysis can be used for regular buildings with height
less than 75m.
Response spectrum analysis is required for irregular buildings and
buildings of height more than 75m.
Equivalent Static Method by Uniform Building Code
• Seismic Zone
• Site geology and soil characteristics
• Occupancy categories
• Configuration requirements
• Structural systems
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 1
Base Shear
V = ZIC W
RW
C = 1.25 S ≤ 2.75
T 2/3
T = Ct ( H )
3/ 4
; T: Period of building (UBC 94)
H = Height in m
Ct = 0.0853 for steel moment resisting frame
= 0.0731 for RC moment resisting frame
= 0.0488 for all other buildings
For concrete shear wall
0.0743 ( H )
3/ 4
T=
AC
AC = effective cross sectional area of shear wall
= Σ Ai[0.2 + (De/H)2], De/H ≤ 0.9
De = length of each shear wall in the direction of loading (m)
Ai = cross sectional area of individual shear walls in the direction of
loading (m2)
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 2
Table 3.1 Seismic zone factor Z
ZONE 1 2A 2B 3 4
Z 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40
The zone shall be determined from the seismic zone map in Fig. 3.1.
Table 3.2 Site coefficients
TYPE DESCRIPTION S FACTOR
A soil profile with either:
(a) A rock-like material characterized by a
shear-wave velocity greater than 2,500 feet
per second (762m/s) or by other suitable
S1 1.0
means of classification, or
(b) Medium-dense to dense or medium stiff to
stiff soil conditions, where soil depth is less
than 200 feet (60,960mm).
A soil profile with predominantly medium-
dense to dense or medium-stiff to stiff soil
S2 1.2
conditions, where the soil depth exceeds 200
feet (60,960mm).
A soil profile containing more than 20 feet
S3 (6,096mm) of soft to medium-stiff clay but not 1.5
more than 40 feet (12,192mm) of soft clay.
A soil profile containing more than 40 feet (12,
192mm) of soft clay characterized by a shear
S4 2.0
wave velocity less than 500 feet per second
(152.4m/s).
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 3
Fig. 3.1 Seismic zone map of the United States
Table 3.3 Occupancy category
SEISMIC
OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTIONS OF
IMPORTANCE
CATEGORY STRUCTURE
FACTOR, I
1. Essential • Occupancies having surgery and 1.25
facilities emergency treatment areas
• Fire and police stations
• Garages and shelters for emergency
vehicles and emergency aircraft
• Structures and shelters in emergency-
preparedness centers
• Aviation control towers
• Structures and equipment in
government
• Communication centers and other
facilities required for emergency
response
• Standby power-generating equipment
for Category I facilities
• Tanks or other structures containing
housing or supporting water or other
fire-suppression material or
equipment required for the protection
of Category I, II or III structures
2. Hazardous • Structures housing or supporting toxic 1.25
facilities or explosive chemicals or substances
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 5
3. Special • Occupancies with a capacity greater 1.00
occupancy than 300 students
structures • Buildings used for college or adult
education with a capacity greater than
500 students
• Structures and equipment in power-
generating stations: and other public
utility facilities not included in
Category I or Category II above, and
required for continued operation
4. Standard • All structures housing occupancies or 1.00
occupancy having functions not listed in category
structures I, II or III
5. Miscellan- 1.00
eous
structures
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 6
Table 3.4 Vertical structural irregularities
IRREGULARITY TYPE AND DEFINITION
1. Stiffness irregularity – soft story
A soft story is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70
percent of that in the story above or less than 80 percent of the
average stiffness of the three stories above.
2. Weight (mass) irregularity
Mass irregularity shall be considered to exist where the effective
mass of any story is more than 150 percent of the effective mass of
an adjacent story. A roof which is lighter than the floor below need
not be considered.
3. Vertical geometric irregularity
Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist where
the horizontal dimension of the lateral force-resisting system in any
story is more than 130 percent of that in an adjacent story. One-
story penthouses need not be considered.
4. In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral-force-resisting element
An in-plane offset of the lateral load-resisting elements greater than
the length of those elements.
5. Discontinuity in capacity – weak story
A weak story is one in which the story strength is less than 80
percent of that in the story above. The story strength is the total
strength of all seismic-resisting elements sharing the story shear for
the direction under consideration.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 7
Table 3.5 Plan structural irregularities
IRREGULARITY TYPE AND DEFINITION
1. Torsional irregularity – to be considered when diaphragms are
not flexible
Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the
maximum story drift, computed including accidental torsion, at one
end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the
average of the story drifts of the two ends of the structure.
2. Reentrant corners
Plan configurations of a structure and its lateral force-resisting
system contain reentrant corners, where both projections of the
structure beyond a reentrant corner are greater than 15 percent of
the plan dimension of the structure in the given direction.
3. Diaphragm discontinuity
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness,
including those having cutout or open areas greater than 50 percent
of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or changes in effective
diaphragm stiffness of more than 50 percent from one story to the
next.
4. Out-of-plane offsets
Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of plane offsets
of the vertical elements.
5. Nonparallel systems
The vertical lateral load-resisting elements are not parallel to or
symmetric about the major orthogonal axes of the lateral force-
resisting system.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 8
As a guide to limiting irregularity, observe:
dr d
≤ 1.3 r +1
hr hr +1
This need not apply to the top two storeys.
Fig. 3.2 Storey drift and vertical irregularity
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 9
As a guide to limiting irregularity on plan, observe
( d r )max
≤ 1.2
( d r )min + ( d r )max / 2
Fig. 3.3 Limiting irregularity in plan. (From UBC 91, Table 23N)
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 10
Table 3.6 Structural systems
BASIC
LATERAL - FORCE - RESISTING SYSTEM
STRUCTURAL
– DESCRIPTION
RW
SYSTEM
1. Bearing 1. Light-framed walls with shear panels
wall a. Wood structural panel walls for 8
system structures three stories or less
b. All other light-framed walls 6
2. Shear walls
a. Concrete 6
b. Masonry 6
3. Light steel-framed bearing walls with 4
tension-only bracing
4. Braced frames where bracing carries
gravity loads
a. Steel 6
b. Concrete 4
c. Heavy timber 4
2. Building 1. Steel eccentrically braced frame (EBF) 10
frame 2. Light-framed walls with shear panels
system a. Wood structural panel walls for 9
structures three stories or less
b. All other light-framed walls 7
3. Shear walls
a. Concrete 8
b. Masonry 8
4. Ordinary braced frames
a. Steel 8
b. Concrete 8
c. Heavy timber 8
5. Special concentrically braced frames
a. Steel 9
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 11
3. Moment- 1. Special moment-resisting frames (SMRF)
resisting a. Steel 12
frame b. Concrete 12
system 2. Masonry moment-resisting wall frame 9
3. Concrete intermediate moment-resisting 8
frames (IMRF)
4. Ordinary moment-resisting frames
(OMRF)
a. Steel 6
b. Concrete 5
4. Dual 1. Shear walls
systems a. Concrete with SMRF 12
b. Concrete with steel OMRF 6
c. Concrete with concrete IMRF 9
d. Masonry with SMRF 8
e. Masonry with steel OMRF 6
f. Masonry with concrete IMRF 7
2. Steel EBF
a. With steel SMRF 12
b. With steel OMRF 6
3. Ordinary braced frames
a. Steel with steel SMRF 10
b. Steel with steel OMRF 6
c. Concrete with concrete SMRF 9
d. Concrete with concrete IMRF 6
4. Special concentrically braced frames
a. Steel with steel SMRF 11
b. Steel with steel OMRF 6
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 12
Fig. 3.4 Types of steel framing systems
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 13
Fig. 3.5 Normalized response spectra shapes
Fig. 3.6 Comparison of hard soil and lake-bed motions, Mexico City,
1985.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 15
Fig. 3.7 Liquefaction-induced settlements in the Philippines, 1990.
(Photo: Ove Arup & Partners)
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 16
Design of R.C Moment Resisting Frames
Preliminary Sizing of Members
Columns
300mm or .4x perpendicular dimension whichever is greater.
Beams
Width of web ≤ Width of supporting member
+ 3 x (overall beam depth to either side)
4
Width of web ≥ .3x overall depth
Clear Span ≥ 4x effective depth
Beam to Column Width Ratio
In order to achieve the flow of moment between beam and column
without undue stress concentration, the beam width should not
substantially exceed the width of the column into which it frames.
- design of flat slab system as ductile moment resisting frame is
effectively prohibited.
- US practice allows suitably detailed flat slab in Zone 2.
Beam and Column Depth-Width Ratios
To prevent buckling instability, depth to width ratios are restricted.
The formation of plastic hinge zones in a member greatly reduces its
resistance to flexural torsional buckling.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 17
Beam Span to Depth Ratios
Beams with span to depth ratio less than 4 are not permitted in
ductile frames, because their strength may be governed by shear and not
by flexure. Unless special provision of diagonal steel are made, the
ductility may be low.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 18
Appendix A Design of Ductile RC Frames Using UBC 91
Equivalent static method given in the codes of practice may be used for
the design. Such procedures are applicable to buildings without
significant irregularities or discontinuities and of height not exceeding
75m.
Strength Calculations
1. Estimate the total seismic weight ‘W’ of the building - permanent
gravity load including partitions. Live load is included only in storage
or warehouse buildings. A typical weight for a concrete building is
8 – 15 kN/m2.
2. Base shear
V=ZICW/R
Z: Zone factor, depends on the seismicity of the site. It ranges from .4
for highly seismic area in the USA to .075 for low seismicity areas
in USA (.4 for Zone 4, .3 for Zone 3, .2 for Zone 2A, .15 for Zone
2B and .075 for Zone 1).
Z is equal to the effective peak acceleration expressed as a ratio of
gravitational acceleration, with a 475 year return period.
I: Importance factor, depending on the function of building, it ranges
from 1.25 for essential facilities needed in a post-earthquake
emergency to 1.0 for normal buildings.
R: Structural factor, depends on the ductility of the structural system.
It ranges from 12 for frames with special ductile detailing, to 5 for
ordinary frames without such provisions.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 19
C: dynamic factor depends on the soil factor S for the site and the
fundamental period of the building T and is given by
2
C =1.25 S/ T 3 but 2.75 ≥ C ≥ .075R
S ranges from 1.0 for sites on rock or stiff soils to 2.0 for very soft
soil sites.
For concrete frame buildings, T (sec) can be obtained approximately
from
3
T = .073 ( H ) 4 ; H is the height in meters.
The value of T may be modified at a later stage, once the structural
properties and mass of the building have been finally established.
The load-factored seismic base shear (1.4 V/ W) for I = 1.0, Z = .4 &
R = 12 is shown in Fig. 3.8.
3. Distribute the shears between floor levels according to the formula
given in Fig. 3.9.
4. Distribute the storey shears between frames, taking the earthquake
forces as acting along each principal axis of the building in turn. Due
account should be taken of the accidental torsion. The storey shear
should be applied at a point displaced by 5 per cent of the building
dimension perpendicular to the direction of the loading form the
centre of mass at that level. The most unfavourable displacement
should be considered for each element.
5. The frame member forces can now be calculated by some appropriate
means. A hand analysis may be carried out assuming points of
contraflexure at the midpoints of beams and columns. This gives the
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 20
correct order of bending moments and shears for regular structures
except in the lower and upper storeys. At these levels the critical
bending moments tend to be underestimated. A computer analysis
avoids these uncertainties and also provides the deflections.
6. By combining member forces due to earthquake and gravity loads,
suitable member sizes can be established. The load combination is
U = 1.4 ( D + L + E )
U = .9 D + 1.4 E
where U is the ultimate design member force, D is the member force
due to the permanent gravity load, L is that due to the live (variable)
gravity load and E is that due to the earthquake load.
7. In order to ensure that flexural yielding occurs in beams before
columns, it is suggested that the columns are initially sized to resist
moments increased by 65 per cent above the calculated values.
Similarly, to prevent premature shear failure, beams and columns
should be sized for shear increased by 75 per cent.
8. The section sizes is usually not governed by the concrete stresses, but
by the requirement that the percentage of reinforcement do not exceed
the code limits. The overall sizes below should allow this to be
achieved with high-yield bars.
Beam ultimate design moment (kN m) < 100 fcu b d2
Beam and column ultimate design shear (kN) < 400 f cu b d
where fcu is the concrete cube strength (MPa) = approximately 1.25
times of cylinder strength.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 21
b: width of section (m)
d: effective depth of section (m)
The axial and flexural strength of the columns can be checked from
standard charts, making due allowance for the interaction between
axial and bending strength.
Stiffness Calculations
Having sized the frames, the adequacy of their stiffness must be checked.
In the absence of a computer programme, the following initial check on
the adequacy of storey drift can be conducted, based on the assumption
of points of contraflexure at the midpoints of beams and columns.
d = A()
kb + k c h V
c
h kb k c 500
Check that d / h < .04/R or .005 if less, for buildings with T < .7 sec
d / h < .03/R or .004 if less, for buildings with T > .7 sec
Vc = average shear per internal column (kN)
= total storey shear / (N – 1), where N is the number of columns.
d / h = storey drift
ℓ = beam span (mm)
Ib = effective beam inertia (mm4) – taken as 50 percent of gross moment
of inertia.
Ic = effective column inertia (mm4) – taken as 100 percent of gross
moment of inertia.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 22
kb = Ib / ℓ2 (mm2)
kc = Ic / h2 (mm2)
More precise estimates of drift and deflection can be obtained from
computer analysis (elastic analysis). As the actual deflection during a
strong earthquake would exceed the elastic value because of plastic
yielding, UBC 91 specifies an increase factor of 3R / 8. The maximum
drift is therefore about 1.5 per cent under 500- year event. Note:
(.04 / R) (3R / 8) = .015. The failure of ductile reinforced concrete
frames is commonly found to occur at drifts in excess of 2 per cent.
Deflections allowing for yielding also needs to be checked to ensure
adequate sizes of separation joints within a structure, or between
separate buildings.
Measures to Ensure Ductile Behaviour
1. The relative strength of beams and columns should be arranged so
that a beam sway and not a column sway mechanism is formed. (see
Fig. 3.10)
2. The shear strength of both beams and columns should be sufficient to
develop the strength associated with plastic hinging of the structure
(see Fig. 3.11). Due allowances must be made for the effect of strain
hardening on the plastic hinge strength and the actual yield strength
being greater than the design strength.
3. The regions of potential flexural plastic hinge zones should be
identified so that they can be detailed to sustain the required inelastic
deformations.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 23
Favourable Hierarchies of Strength
High levels of ductility in moment-resisting frames depend upon flexural
yielding in beams occurring not only before flexural hinge formation in
columns (other than at the base), but also before failure in shear of
beams and columns, or before failure of beam-column joint zones.
Arranging such a favourable hierarchy of strength ensures that
dependable post-elastic behaviour can occur: under extreme excitation,
plastic deformations would form at predetermined locations, which can
be reinforced accordingly and can relied upon to yield in a ductile
manner. In addition if the yielding regions are properly detailed,
stiffness degradation under repeated cyclic loading would be limited.
This is necessary to protect non-structural elements in severe
earthquakes and may help to prevent excessive p-delta effects.
The UBC 91 requires:
Σ Mc > 1.2 Σ Mb
where Σ Mc is the sum of the moments at the centre of the joint
corresponding to the design flexural strength of the columns framing
into that joint, and Σ Mb is the sum of moments corresponding to design
flexural strength of beams.
UBC 91 requires this calculation to be carried out in two orthogonal
directions for columns which support beams of frames at right angles to
each other. US practice is to consider each direction separately, so direct
allowance is not made for biaxial bending in such columns.
UBC 91 has an additional requirement that weak storeys in buildings
which have less than 65 per cent of the strength of the storey above are
prohibited unless a strength about 3.5 times greater than normal code
specified strength is provided in the weak storey.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 24
Determination of Element Strength
Having determined design forces due both to code-specified forces and
capacity design considerations, the designer must ensure that the
appropriate shear, bending and axial strength is achieved. This is carried
out in a similar way to non-seismic loads, such as wind or gravity.
However, there are exceptions when evaluating seismic strength as
follows:
1. The use of brittle members in ductile frames is prohibited; such as
columns without adequate confining steel or members stronger in
bending than shear.
2. The contribution of concrete to shear strength of beams or columns is
usually taken as zero.
Reinforcement Detailing
In structures designed for high levels of ductility, the plastic hinge
regions would be subjected to repeated, cyclic plastic strains during a
large earthquake. They must, therefore, be specially detailed to sustain
these strains without significant stiffness or strength degradation.
UBC 91 requires the special detailing at all potential hinge points in
beams and columns, as well as throughout the columns of weak storeys.
Transverse Steel
The transverse steel in potential plastic hinge region is required to
perform three vital functions, viz.
1. Confinement of concrete in compression
2. Restraint of compression bars against buckling
3. Contribution to shear strength
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 25
The provision of confinement steel (see Fig. 3.12) usually serves to
restrain the main bars and the confining and restraining forces developed
in the transverse steel also provides shear resistance. Therefore separate
checks for each function should be made, with the most onerous
requirement governing the design; the provision of each is not
cumulative.
Typically the maximum spacing of transverse steel allowed by codes in
regions away from potential hinge zones is about half the spacing in
non-seismic structures. The spacing may be further reduced by a factor
of 2 in the potential plastic hinge zones.
Bond and Anchorage at Beam-Column Joints
The high moment gradients existing at joints imply that high bond forces
need to be developed, if plastic hinges are to form next to the joints. The
tendency of repeated cycles of loading (both tensile and compressive) is
to break down the bond between steel and concrete.
At internal joints, through which the top and bottom steel pass
continuously, UBC 91 requires bar diameters not to exceed one-
twentieth of the column width.
At exterior joints, the tension steel does not have a corresponding
compression zone on the opposite side of the column for anchorage.
UBC 91 treats the problem by requiring increases of around 35 per cent
of normal embedment lengths, to allow both for cyclic degradation of
bond and for strain hardening in the reinforcement.
A hook at least 12 bar diameters long is required to ensure that a
complete bar pullout is prevented by direct bearing at the hook. The
UBC requirement is that the hook should be anchored within the
confined joint zone at the far side from entry. Similar rules apply to
interior joints where the main steel is not continuous (Fig. 3.13 & 3.14).
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 26
Splices
The splices may be made by lapping, welding or use of mechanical
couplers.
The additional stresses generated by lapped splices make them
undesirable in regions where plastic hinges are expected to form, and
thus they are prohibited in these regions. Avoiding lapped splices at the
ends of columns causes a construction difficulty, since the column
starter bars become very long. Full tension laps are always required
when splicing main bars in columns or beams and the splices must be
adequately confined by transverse steel.
Both welded splices and mechanical couplers are permitted at any
location.
Full-strength butt welding to form splices between bars can be an
acceptable procedure. The welding procedure must be properly
controlled and reinforcement specification must ensure the absence of
brittleness caused by welding. UBC 91 restricts welded splices to
alternate bars within any layer of reinforcement; lap joints must be
spaced by at least 600 mm.
UBC 91 restricts the mechanical splices to alternate bars at any section,
as for welded splices.
Amount of Longitudinal Steel
A minimum quantity of top steel is required for the full length of beams.
A maximum amount of tensile steel is also specified in plastic hinge
zones to ensure adequate curvature ductility. UBC 91 limit is 2.5 per
cent. The bottom steel must be adequately anchored into supports. The
need to provide for moment reversal gives rise to these rules.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 27
Frames of Limited Ductility or Intermediate Ductility
Frames of intermediate ductility may be used in areas of moderate
seismicity (UBC Zone 2) with R equal to 8.
The UBC 91 provisions apply less stringent requirements to frames of
intermediate ductility, compared to those for high ductility. The design
shear can be taken as that corresponding to twice the specified
earthquake load, combined with normally factored gravity loads. There
are provisions for minimum positive and negative bending strength in
beams, and for maximum spacing of transverse steel in beams and
columns. Typical details are given in Fig. 3.15 and Fig. 3.16. There is no
requirement to demonstrate that column bending strength is greater than
that of the beam or to restrict the position of the lapped splices, and there
are no dimensional restriction placed on the overall sections of beams
and columns.
Frames of Ordinary Ductility
The normal detailing requirements in codes for structures designed to
withstand wind and gravity load would provide a level of resistance
without any additional provisions. The provisions for robustness,
minimum lateral strength and continuity found, for example in BS 8110,
taken together with non-seismic detailing for minimum and maximum
main and transverse steel may be sufficient for areas of low seismicity.
Ordinary concrete frames without any special seismic detailing are not
permitted at all by UBC 91 in areas of moderate to high seismicity
(Zones 2 to 4), but they are allowed in the least seismic Zone 1. The R
factor is 5.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 28
Flat Slabs
Flat slabs, where the lateral strength relies on transfer of moments
between slabs and columns, are not generally suitable for providing
lateral resistance in areas of high seismicity. However, they can be
classified as structures of intermediate ductility. UBC 91 gives special
detailing requirements for flat slabs of intermediate ductility.
Flat slabs proportioned to resist only gravity loads may be used with
caution in areas of high seismicity, provided this is done in conjunction
with a stiff lateral load-resisting system. Caution is necessary because
the transfer of bending moments between columns and slabs greatly
reduces their punching shear resistance.
Frames Not Proportioned to Resist Lateral Loads
Structures in which the lateral strength is provided by walls or perimeter
tube frames often carry the major proportion of their gravity load on
relatively flexible internal frames, which do not contribute significantly
to the lateral strength. It may appear conservative to neglect lateral
strength of such gravity frames. However, particularly when the lateral
load-resisting system is a ductile moment-resisting frame, the gravity
frames may be subjected to very large lateral deflections during a severe
earthquake and it must be ensured that this does not cause them to lose
their gravity load carrying capacity.
ACI 318:89, section 21.8, requires that the frames should be checked for
the calculated lateral deflections, suitably factored to allow for plastic
yielding. Where these deflections do not result in the nominal yield
strength of any members being exceeded, the only additional
requirements are firstly that the minimum percentage of top and bottom
steel in the beams should be the same as for fully ductile members and
secondly that the maximum link spacing in columns is restricted.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 29
If the calculated deflections imply that the yield strength is reached or
exceeded, some of the detailing requirements for a fully ductile members
apply. The transverse steel required for ductile members must be
provided and the same restrictions on maximum and minimum
longitudinal steel are imposed. Shear strength must be shown to be at
least as great as that corresponding to plastic hinge formation.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 30
Fig. 3.8 Ultimate seismic base shears for ductile moment resisting
frames for the most seismic zone of UBC 91
Fig. 3.9 Vertical distribution of seismic loads from UBC 91, Section
2334(d)
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 31
Fig. 3.10 Beams and columns sway mechanisms
Fig. 3.11 Ensuring adequate shear strength in beams
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 32
Fig. 3.12 Confining steel details in rectangular columns. (From NZS 3101:
Part 2)
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 33
Fig. 3.13 Interior beam – column joints
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 34
Fig. 3.14 Exterior beam – column joints
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 35
Fig. 3.15 Detailing requirements of UBC 91 for beams of frames of
‘intermediate’ or ‘limited’ ductility
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 36
Fig. 3.16 Detailing requirements of UBC 91 for columns of frames of
‘intermediate’ or ‘limited’ ductility
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 37
Shear Wall Structures
Shear walls are excellent for seismic-resistance provided they are
properly designed and detailed for strength and ductility.
Fig. 3.17 Failure modes of cantilever shear wall: (a) flexural failure,
(b) shear failure, (c) sliding failure.
When H / B > 2, H is the height of the wall,
B is the depth of the wall,
the wall is designed as a column.
Most of the flexural steel must be placed at the extreme fibres with a
minimum of 25% of vertical bars in the remainder of the wall.
The hinge zone is taken as length on plan or one-sixth of the total height,
but not more than twice the length on plan. The ultimate failure state
(Fig. 3.17(a)) is by yielding of tension steel.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 38
Shear wall with small aspect ratio could fail in shear –
• diagonal tension failure occurs if horizontal reinforcement content
is small
• diagonal compression failure occurs if vertical reinforcement is
inadequate.
Sliding shear failure:
- shear wall moves horizontally at the construction joint.
Vertical reinforcement uniformly spaced and diagonal reinforcements
are effective in preventing the sliding failure.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 39
Coupled Shear Walls
Fig. 3.18 Shear failure of walls with openings.
Fig. 3.19 Typical reinforcement arrangement for deep coupling beams.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 40
The coupled shear walls are designed to have plastic hinges in the
coupling beams first, followed by hinges at the base of the wall.
When the depth of the coupling beam is greater than the clear span, the
recommended reinforcement detail is shown in Fig. 3.19.
CE 6705 Chapter 3 Pg 41
