INDEX
Introduction
Basic principles
Basic transformer parameters and construction
Construction
Conclusion
Bibliography
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TRANSFORMER
Introduction
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a
varying magnetic fluxin the core and a varying magnetic field impinging
on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary
induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary
winding. Making use of Faraday's Law in conjunction with
highmagnetic permeability core properties, transformers can thus be
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designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to
another within power networks.
Basic principles
Ideal transformer connected with source VP on primary and load
impedance ZL on secondary, where 0 < ZL < ∞.
Ideal transformer
Ideal transformer equations (eq.)
By Faraday's law of induction
. . . (1)[a]
. . . (2)
Combining ratio of (1) & (2)
Turns ratio . . . (3) where
for step-down transformers, a > 1
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for step-up transformers, a < 1
By law of Conservation of
Energy, apparent,real and reactive power are each conserved in
the input and output
. . . (4)
Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote[b] yields the ideal
transformer identity
. (5)
By Ohm's Law and ideal transformer identity
. . . (6)
Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)
. (7)
It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to
analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as represented in
the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer
that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there are no energy
losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core. Perfect
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coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding
inductances and zero net magnetomotive force.
Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side
terminal
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable
approximation for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio
and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the
corresponding current ratio.
Polarity
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams,
nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of
transformer windings. Positively-increasing instantaneous current
entering the primary winding's dot end induces positive polarity voltage
at the secondary winding's dot end.
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Real transformer
Deviations from ideal
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in
real transformers.
Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consist of
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the
transformer core, and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional
to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.
Whereas windings in the ideal model have no resistances and infinite
inductances, the windings in a real transformer have finite non-zero
resistances and inductances associated with:
Leakage flux of a transformer
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Leakage flux
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the
primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In
practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are
operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance[l] and
associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two
transformers were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers
would share power in proportion to their respective volt-ampere ratings
(e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would
carry twice the current). However, the impedance tolerances of commercial
transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R ratio of
different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA
and 500 kVA units' values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%,
X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~ 4.75.
Equivalent circuit
Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may
be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an
ideal transformer.
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Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the
following series loop impedances of the model:
Primary winding: RP, XP
Secondary winding: RS, XS.
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in
practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these
impedances by the turns ratio squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.
Real transformer equivalent circuit
Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg
impedances of the model:
The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit
based on linearity assumptions, retains a number of
approximations.[30] Analysis may be simplified by assuming that
magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch
to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows
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combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances
by simple summation as two series impedances.
Basic transformer parameters and construction
Effect of frequency
By Faraday's Law of induction shown in eq. (1) and (2), transformer emf
voltages vary according to the derivative of flux with respect to time. The
ideal transformer's core behaves linearly with time for any non-zero
frequency. Flux in a real transformer's core behaves non-linearly in
relation to magnetization current as the instantaneous flux increases
beyond a finite linear range resulting in magnetic saturation associated
with increasingly large magnetizing current, which eventually leads to
transformer overheating.
Energy losses
Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance joule
and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing
transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is
between about 98 and 99 percent.
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Winding joule losses
Current flowing through winding conductors causes joule heating. As
frequency increases, skin effect and proximity effect causes winding
resistance and, hence, losses to increase.
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost
due to hysteresis within the core. According to Steinmetz's formula, the
heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
, and,
hysteresis loss is thus given by
where, f is the frequency, η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the
maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from about
1.4 to 1 .8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.
Eddy current losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from
such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout
its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a
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plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the
core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of
supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to
physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic
field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which
produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its
magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle.
However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials
such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents
and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the
oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes
fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This
energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus
amplifying audibletransformer hum.
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Core form and shell form transformers
Core form = core type; shell form = shell type
Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'.
When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when
windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell
form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution
transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core
around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more
economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high
voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage
and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or
75 MVA).
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Construction
Cores
Laminated steel cores
Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo
Power transformer inrush current caused by residual flux at switching
instant; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores
made of high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many
times that offree space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the
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magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples
the windings Early transformer developers soon realized that cores
constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and
their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of
insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers
of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each
lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer
of insulation. The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum
cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation.
Solid cores
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power
supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of
kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high
bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF
band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials
called ferrites are common. Some radio-frequency transformers also have
movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of
the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency
circuits.
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Toroidal cores
Small toroidal core transformer
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which,
depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite. A strip
construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance.
The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of
an E-I core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular,
but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available.
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Conclusion
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a
varying fluxing the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a
varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.
Making use of Faraday's Law in conjunction with high magnetic core
properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently
change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power
networks.
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Bibliography
Central Electricity Generating Board (1982). Modern Power
Station Practice. Pergamon. ISBN 0-08-016436-6.
Daniels, A.R. (1985). Introduction to Electrical Machines.
Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-19627-9.
Flanagan, William M. (1993). Handbook of Transformer Design &
Applications (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-021291-0.
Gottlieb, Irving (1998). Practical Transformer Handbook: for
Electronics, Radio and Communications Engineers .
Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-3992-X.
Hammond, John Winthrop (1941). Men and Volts: The Story of
General Electric . J.B. Lippincott Company. pp. see esp. 106–107,
178, 238.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer#
www.google.com
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