The Endocrine System
• Second messenger system of the body
• Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are released into the blood
• Hormones control several major processes
• Reproduction
• Growth and development
• Mobilization of body defenses
• Maintenance of much of homeostasis
• Regulation of metabolism
• Hormone is a chemical messenger that is released in one tissue (endocrine tissue/gland) and transported
in the bloodstream to reach specific cells in other tissues.
• Hormones are referred to as first messengers and the agents that are activated by the hormones are
called second messengers.
Hormone Overview
• Hormones are produced by specialized cells
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• These hormones regulate the activity of other cells
The Chemistry of Hormones
• Amino acid-based hormones
• Proteins
• Peptides
• Amines
• Steroids – made from cholesterol
• Prostaglandins – made from highly active lipids
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells or organs)
• Target cells must have specific protein receptors
• Hormone binding influences the working of the cells
Effects Caused by Hormones
• Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state
• Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
• Activation or inactivation of enzymes
• Stimulation of mitosis
Steroid Hormone Action
• Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
• Enter the nucleus
• Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus
• Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
• Activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins
Steroid Hormone Action
Nonsteroid Hormone Action
• Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
• Hormone does not enter the cell
• Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
• Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second messenger molecule
• Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response
Nonsteroid Hormone Action
Control release of hormones
• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers the release of more hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
• Endocrine glands are activated by other hormones
Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
• Changing blood levels of certain ions stimulate hormone release
Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
• Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
• Most are under control of the sympathetic nervous system
Location of Major Endrocrine Organs
Pituitary Gland
• Size of a grape
• Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
• Protected by the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
• Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
• Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
Hormones of the pituitary gland
• Six anterior pituitary hormones
• Two affect non-endocrine targets
• Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic hormones)
• Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones
• Proteins (or peptides)
• Act through second-messenger systems
• Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly negative feedback
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth
• Function in males is unknown
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Gonadotropic hormones
• Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
• Stimulates sperm development in testes
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Gonadotropic hormones (continued)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Triggers ovulation
• Causes ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum
• Stimulates testosterone production in males
• Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Pituitary - Hypothalamus Relationship
• Release of hormones is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
• Hypothlamus produces two hormones that are transported to neurosecretory cells of the posterior
pituitary
• The posterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland, but does release hormones
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
• Oxytocin
• Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor
• Causes milk ejection
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Can inhibit urine production
• In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure (vasopressin)
Thyroid Gland
• Found at the base of the throat
• Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
• Produces two hormones
• Thyroid hormone
• Calcitonin
Thyroid Hormone
• Major metabolic hormone
• Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
• Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid follicles
• Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at target tissues
Calcitonin
• Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
• Produced by C (parafollicular) cells
Parathyroid Glands
• Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid hormone
• Stimulate osterclasts to remove calcium from bone
• Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
• Raise calcium levels in the blood
Adrenal Glands
• Two glands
• Cortex – outer glandular region in three layers
• Medulla – inner neural tissue region
• Sits on top of the kidneys
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
• Produced in outer adrenal cortex
• Regulate mineral content in blood, water, and electrolyte balance
• Target organ is the kidney
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
• Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
• Promote normal cell metabolism
• Help resist long-term stressors
• Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
• Sex hormones
• Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
• Androgens (male) and some estrogen (female)
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
• Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress
Roles of the Hypothalamus and Adrenal Glands in the Stress Response
Pancreatic Islets
• The pancreas is a mixed gland
• The islets of the pancreas produce hormones
• Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from beta cells
• Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
• These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis
Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar
Pineal Gland
• Found on the third ventricle of the brain
• Secretes melatonin
• Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
• May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions
Thymus
• Located posterior to the sternum
• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin
• Matures some types of white blood cells
• Important in developing the immune system
Hormones of the Ovaries
• Estrogens
• Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta
• Stimulates the development of secondary female characteristics
• Matures female reproductive organs
• Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg
• Helps maintain pregnancy
• Prepares the breasts to produce milk
Hormones of the Ovaries
• Progesterone
• Produced by the corpus luteum
• Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
• Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
Hormones of the Testes
• Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-producing
• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important androgen
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
• Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
• Required for sperm cell production
