Programmable Logic Controllers

(PLCs): Basics, Types & Applications

What is a PLC?
PLC stands for “Programmable Logic Controller”. A PLC is a computer specially
designed to operate reliably under harsh industrial environments – such as
extreme temperatures, wet, dry, and/or dusty conditions. It is used to automate
industrial processes such as a manufacturing plant’s assembly line, an ore
processing plant, or a wastewater treatment plant.

PLCs share many features of the personal computer you have at home. They
both have a power supply, a CPU (Central Processing Unit), inputs and outputs
(I/O), memory, and operating software (although it’s a different operating
software). The biggest differences are that a PLC can perform discrete and
continuous functions which a PC cannot do, and a PLC is much better suited to
rough industrial environments. A PLC can be thought of as a ‘ruggedized’ digital
computer which manages the electromechanical processes of an industrial
environment.

PLCs plays a crucial role in the field of automation, using forming part of a
larger SCADA system. A PLC can be programmed according to the operational
requirement of the process. In the manufacturing industry, there will be a need
for reprogramming due to the change in the nature of production. To overcome
this difficulty, PLC based control systems were introduced. We’ll first discuss
PLC basics before looking at various applications of PLCs.

PLC Basics
PLCs were invented by Dick Morley in 1964. Since then PLC has revolutionized
the industrial and manufacturing sectors. There is a wide range of PLC functions
like timing, counting, calculating, comparing and processing of various analog
signals.
The main advantage of PLC over a “hard-wired” control system is that you can
go back and change a PLC after you’ve programmed it, at little cost (just the cost
of the programmer’s time). In a hard-wired control system, you’re essentially
having to rip out wires and start from scratch (which is more expensive and
takes longer). Let’s look at an example to better understand this advantage.
Imagine you have a light connected to a switch. In general, the light operates
under two conditions – ON and OFF. Now you are given a task that when you
turn ON the switch, the light should glow only after 30 seconds. With this hard-
wired setup – we’re stuck. The only way to achieve this is to completely rewire
our circuit to add a timing relay. That’s a lot of hassle for a minor change.

Light Switch

This is where a PLC comes into the picture, which doesn’t require any additional
wiring and hardware to make sure a change. Rather it requires a simply change
in code, programming the PLC to only turn on the light 30 seconds after the
switch is turned ON. So, by using a PLC, it is easy to incorporate multiple inputs
and outputs. This is just a simple example – a PLC has the ability to control much
larger and more complex processes. A PLC can be customized depending on the
application and needs of the user.
Light operated by a PLC

How Does a PLC work?

The working of a PLC can be easily understood as a cyclic scanning method
known as scan cycle.
Block Diagram of How A PLC Works

A PLC Scan Process includes the following steps

 The operating system starts cycling and monitoring of time.

 The CPU starts reading the data from the input module and checks the
status of all the inputs.
 The CPU starts executing the user or application program written in relay-
ladder logic or any other PLC-programming language.
 Next, the CPU performs all the internal diagnosis and communication
tasks.
  According to the program results, it writes the data into the output module
so that all outputs are updated.
 This process continues as long as the PLC is in run mode.

Physical Structure of PLC

The structure of a PLC is almost similar to a computer’s architecture.

PLC Block Diagram

Programmable Logic Controllers continuously monitors the input values from

various input sensing devices (e.g. accelerometer, weight scale, hardwired
signals, etc.) and produces corresponding output depending on the nature of
production and industry. A typical block diagram of PLC consists of five parts
namely:

 Rack or chassis
 Power Supply Module
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Input & Output Module
 Communication Interface Module
Rack or Chassis
In all PLC systems, the PLC rack or chassis forms the most important module
and acts as a backbone to the system. PLCs are available in different shapes and
size. When more complex control systems are involved, it requires larger PLC
racks. Small sized PLC is equipped with fixed I/O pin configuration. So, they
have gone for modular type rack PLC, which accepts different types of I/O
modules with sliding and fit in concept. All I/O modules will be residing inside
this rack/chassis.

Breakdown of PLC Rack

Power Supply Module
This module is used to provide the required power to the whole PLC system. It
converts the available AC power to DC power which is required by the CPU and
I/O module. PLC generally works on 24V DC supply. Few PLC uses an isolated
power supply.

CPU Module and Memory

CPU module has a central processor, ROM & RAM memory. ROM memory
includes operating system, driver and application program. RAM memory is
used to store programs and data. CPU is the brain of PLC with an octal or
hexagonal microprocessor. Being a microprocessor based CPU, it replaces timers,
relays, and counters. Two types of processors as a single bit or word processor
can be incorporated with a PLC. One bit processor is used to perform logic
functions. Whereas word processors are used for processing text, numerical data,
controlling and recording data. CPU reads the input data from sensors, process it
and finally sends the command to controlling devices. DC power source, as
mentioned in the previous discussion is required voltage signals. CPU also
contains other electrical parts to connect cables used by other units.

Input and Output Module

Have you ever thought about how to sense physical parameters like
temperature, pressure, flow, etc? using PLC? Of course, PLC has an exclusive
module for interfacing inputs and output, which is called an input & output
module. Input devices can be either start and stop push buttons, switches, etc
and output devices can be an electric heater, valves, relays, etc. I/O module helps
to interface input and output devices with a microprocessor. The input module
of PLC is explained in the below figure.
PLC Input Module

Circuit Diagram of PLC Input Module

The input module of PLC does four main functions.

1. Input module interface receives the signal from process devices at 220 V
AC
2. Converts the input signal to 5 V DC that can be used by PLC
3. Isolator block is used to isolate/prevent PLC from undergoing fluctuation
4. After which the signal is sent to the output end i.e the PLC
There are two main sections in the input module namely power section and
logical section. Both the sections are electrically isolated from each other. Initially
push button is closed. So, 220 V AC supply is given to the bridge circuit through
the resistors R1 and R2. The bridge rectifier is used to convert the AC signal into
DC and zener diode is used to provide low voltage supply to LED. When the
light from LED falls on the phototransistor, it works in the conduction region.
Finally, 5V DC supply is given to the processor.

The output module of PLC works similar to the input module but in the reverse
process. It interfaces the output load and processor. So here the first section
would be logic session and power section comes next. The working of the output
module is shown in the below figure

PLC Output Module

So, here when the logic high signal is generated from the processor, LED will
turn ON and allow the light to fall on a phototransistor. When the transistor goes
to conduction region, it generates a pulse to the gate of the triac. Isolator block is
used to isolate the logic section and control section.

Communication Interface Module

To transfer information between CPU and communication network, intelligent
I/O modules are used. These communication modules help to connect with other
PLCs and computers which are placed at a remote location.

Types of PLCs
The two main types of PLC are fixed / compact PLC and modular PLC.
Compact PLC
Within a single case, there would be many modules. It has a fixed number of I/O
modules and external I/O cards. So, it does not have the capability to expand the
modules. Every input and output would be decided by the manufacturer.

Modular PLC
This type of PLC permits multiple expansion through “modules”, hence referred
to as Modular PLC. I/O components can be increased. It is easier to use because
each component is independent of each other.

A Modular Type PLC

PLC are divided into three types based on output namely Relay output,
Transistor output, and Triac Output PLC. The relay output type is best suited for
both AC and DC output devices. Transistor output type PLC uses switching
operations and used inside microprocessors.

According to the physical size, a PLC is divided into Mini, Micro and Nano PLC.

Some of the manufacturers of PLCs include:

  Allen Bradley
 ABB
 Siemens
 Mitsubishi PLC
 Hitachi PLC
 Delta PLC
 General Electric (GE) PLC
 Honeywell PLC
PLC Applications
PLCs have a variety of applications and uses, including:

1. Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)

2. Glass Industry
3. Paper Industry
4. Cement Manufacturing
5. In boilers – Thermal Power Plants
PLC Programming
When using a PLC, it’s important to design and implement concepts depending
on your particular use case. To do this we first need to know more about the
specifics of PLC programming. A PLC program consists of a set of instructions
either in textual or graphical form, which represents the logic that governs the
process the PLC is controlling. There are two main classifications of PLC
programming languages, which is further divided into many sub-classified
types.

1. Textual Language
 Instruction list
 Structured text
2. Graphical Form
 Ladder Diagrams (LD) (i.e. Ladder Logic)
 Function Block Diagram (FBD)
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC)
Due to the simple and convenient features, graphical representation are much
preferred to textual languages.
Ladder Logic
Ladder logic is the simplest form of PLC programming. It is also known as “relay
logic”. The relay contacts used in relay controlled systems are represented using
ladder logic.
The below figure shows the simple example of a ladder diagram.

PLC Ladder Logic

In the above-mentioned example, two push buttons are used to control the same
lamp load. When any one of the switches is closed, the lamp will glow. The two
horizontal lines are called rungs and two vertical lines are called rails. Every
rung forms the electrical connectivity between Positive rail (P) and Negative rail
(N). This allows the current to flow between input and output devices.

Functional Block Diagrams

Functional Block Diagram (FBD) is a simple and graphical method to program
multiple functions in PLC. PLCOpen has described using FBD in the standard
IEC 61131-3. A function block is a program instruction unit which, when
executed, yields one or more output values. It is represented by a block as shown
below. It is represented as a rectangular block with inputs entering on left and
output lines leaving at the right. It gives a relation between the state of input and
output

Function Block
The advantage of using FBD is that any number of inputs and outputs can be
used on the functional block. When using multiple input and output, you can
connect the output of one function block to the input of another. Whereby
building a Function Block Diagram.

Example Functional Block Diagram

The figure below shows various function blocks used in FBD programming.
Functional Block Programming

The figure below shows a ladder diagram and its function block equivalent in
Siemens notation.
 Ladder
to functional block [Source]

Ladder to functional block diagram [Source]

Structured Text Programming

Structured text is a textual programming language that utilizes statements to
determine what to execute. It follows more conventional programming protocols
but it is not case sensitive. A series of statements (logic) is constituted of
expressing assignments and relationships using several operators. The structures
text operators are listed below in the image.
 Structured Text Programming

PLC Programming Examples

A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and the
pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp test switch is closed. In this application, if
there should be an output from the lamp inputs from both pump and pressure
sensors are required. Hence,
AND logic is used. OR logic is used for the test input condition, it is required to
give an output of lamp on regardless of whether there is a signal from the AND
system. By using END or RET instruction in the ladder diagram, we can tell PLC
has reached the end of the program. The function block diagram and the ladder
diagram are shown below in the figure.
 PLC Program to Test
Lamp Glowing

As another example, consider a valve which is to be operated to lift a load when

a pump is running and either the lift switch is operated or a switch operated
indicating that the load has not already been lifted and is at the bottom of its lift
channel. OR logic is used for two switches and an AND logic is used with two
switches and the pump. Valve will be operated only if the pump is ON and two
switches are operated.

PLC
Program to Operate Valve

Consider a drinks machine that allows the selection of tea or coffee, milk or no
milk, sugar or no sugar, and will supply the required hot drink on the insertion
of a coin. From the below-shown figure, it is seen that either tea or coffee is
selected using the first OR logic gate. The first AND gate give an output when
either Tea or coffee is selected and a coin is inserted into the machine. The output
from this AND gate is given to second AND gate. The second AND gate operate
only when hot water combines with tea. Milk and sugar are optional additions
which can occur after a coin has been inserted.

FBD for
Drinking Machine
 Ladder
Logic for Drinking Machine Application