EXP : 5

POTENTIOMETER 1

(COMPARISON OF EMF’S OF TWO CELLS)

AIM:

To compare the EMF’s of two given primary cells using a potentiometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Potentiometer , Lechlanche cell ,a Daniel cell ,galvanometer , a battery (or

battery eliminator) a rheostat of low resistance a resistance box,DPDT
switch ,a jockey, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

FORMULA:

The ratio of the EMF’S of two given primary cells.

𝐸1 l1
= (No unit)
𝐸2 𝑙2

Where E1 and E2 are the e.m.f of two given cells and l1 and l2 are the
corresponding balancing lengths on potentiometer wire.

PROCEDURE:

01.Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in figure.

02.Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a
sand paper.

03.Measure the e.m.f(E) of the battery and the e.m.f’s(E1 and E2) of the
cells. See that E>E1 and also E>E2.

04.Connect the positive pole of the battery to the zero end (A) of the
potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key ammeter and a
low resistance rheostat to the other end (B)of the potentiometer.
05. Connect the positive poles of the cells E1 andE2 to the terminal at the
zero end (A) and the negative poles to the terminals of the two way key.

06. Connect the common terminal of the two –way key through the
galvanometer (G) to the jockey J.

07.Press the jockey t zero end and note the direction of deflection in the
galvanometer.

08. Press the jockey at the other end of the potentiometer wire.if the
direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the connections are
correct.

09. Insert the plug in the key K as well asK1 of two-way key. Slide the
jockey gently over the potentiometer wires till you obtain a point where
galvanometer shows no deflection.

10. Note the length of the wire using a set square for all the cell E1.Also
note the current as indicated by the ammeter.

11. Disconnect the cell E1 by removing the plug from K1 of two-way and
connect cell E2 by inserting plug into K2 of the two-way key. Slide the
jockey gently over the potentiometer wires till you obtain a point where
galvanometer shows no deflection.

12. Note the length of the wire using a set square for the cell E2.Also note
the current as indicted by the ammeter.

13. Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and obtain at least eight
sets of observations in a similar way.

14. Record your observations in the given table.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations
are to be taken.

3. The positive poles of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should all be
connected to the terminal at the zero of the wires.

4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should not touch
the wire gently.

5. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of

observations. If necessary, adjust the rheostat for this purpose.

6. The e.m.f of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f’s of the either of
the two cells.

RESULT:

The ratio of E.M.F.s of Lechlanche cell and Daniel cell = (no unit)
 Circuit diagram

Experimental Observations :

E.M.F of battery E = V

E.M.F of Lechlanche cell = V

E.M.F of Daniel cell = V

 Observation Table:

S:No Balancing Balancing

length with E1 length with E1 E1/E2 = l1/l2
in cm in cm

Mean =

Calculation:
EXP:No:2

METER BRIDGE-I

(SPECIFIC RESISTANCE)

AIM:

To find the resistance of a given wire using Meter Bridge and hence determine
the specific resistance of the material of the wire.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

Power supply/Battery, Meter Bridge, a resistance box, resistance wire, screw

gauge, Galvanometer, Key, Rheostat and connecting wires.

FORMULA

(a)Unknown Resistance in the right gap X=R * 100-l/l

(b)Unknown Resistance in the left gap X=R* l/100-l

Where R – Known resistance; l-Balancing length

(c)Specific resistance of the given wire p= X Пr 2 /L ohm-m

Where r-radius of the wire, L-length of the wire

PROCEDURE:

01. Arrange the apparatus according to the circuit given above.

02. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the
right gap. Take care that no part of it forms a loop.
03. Take out some resistance (say 1 ohm) form the resistance box and plug the
key K.
04. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the wire.
Note the deflection in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows
deflection in opposite directions, the connections are correct.
05. Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives no deflection. It is the null point.
06. Measure the distance of this null point from the left end. It is equal to ‘l’.
07. Take at least five sets of observations in the same way by changing the
value of R.
08. Record your observations in table I.
09. Repeat the same experiment by keeping the unknown resistance in the left
gap and record your observations in table II.
Using the formula, calculate the value of X and take the average of all the
values.

Result:

The value of unknown resistance = Ω

The specific resistance of material of the given wire = Ω-m

Circuit diagram

S:No Resistance(Ω) Balancing length in 100 – L (cm)

(cm)
Calculation:
Exp:No:1

OHM ‘S LAW

AIM:

(a) to establish Current –Voltage relationship for a given resistance using an

Ammeter and a voltmeter by plotting graph. [Verificiation of Ohm’s Law]

(b) To find out the resistance per unit length of the given wire.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Power supply / battery, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Key, Rheostat and connecting

wires.

FORMULA :

R = dv /dl (Ohm) Where, V is the potential difference (Volt)

I is the current through the resistor (A)

R is the resistance

Resistance per unit length =R/l where ‘I’ is the length of the wire (m)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the circuit and check if the meters show deflection to the right. If
not,
Reverse the connections [only for the meters].
3. Adjust the rheostat jockey [power supply voltage settings] and note down
the
Ammeter and volt meter readings.
4. Switch off the circuit and move the jockey to a new position [change the
voltage setting on the power supply].
 5. Close the circuit and note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Repeat the experiment for different values of the voltage.
7. Draw a graph taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis [the origin is 0,0]

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. The circuit should be switched off between the readings to maintain the
constant temperature.
3. The Zero errors in the ammeter and voltmeter should be taken care.
4. All readings should be without parallax error.

Result:

It is found that the ratio of V/I is constant

1) Unknown resistance of the given wire Ω

2) Resistance per unit length of wire Ω/m

Circuit Diagram

S:No Voltage Current Resistance (Ω)

EXP .NO:04

METER BRIDGE –III

Resistance in Parallel
AIM:

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Power supply/Battery, Meter Bridge, a resistance box, resistance wire, Screw

gauge, Galvanometer, Key, Rheostat and connecting wires.

FORMULA:
𝒍
(a) Resistance of the wire R = S Ω
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
Where S- Known resistance ; l – Balancing length
(b) Sum of resistances in parallel R= (R1R2)/(R1 + R2) Ω

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the apparatus according to the circuit given above.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance R1 is to be determined in the
right gap. Take care that no part of it forms a loop.
3. Take out some resistance (say 1 ohm) from the resistance box and plug the
key K.
4. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the wire.
Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows
deflections in opposite directions, the connections are correct.
5. Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives no deflection. It is the null point.
6. Measure the distance of this null point from the left end. It is equal to ‘I’.
7. Repeat the experiment by changing the value of R1 to R2.
8. Record your observations in table I.
9. Repeat the same experiment by keeping the resistances in parallel and
record your observations.
Using the formula, verify the laws of combination of resistances.

Result:
Circuit Diagram

Experimental Observations

Resistor in left Balancing (100-L) cm Mean

gap ( p )Ω length L cm
EXP :03

METER BRIDGE –II

Resistance in Series

AIM:

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Power supply/Battery, Meter Bridge, a resistance box, resistance wire, Screw

gauge, Galvanometer, Key, Rheostat and connecting wires.

FORMULA:
𝒍
Resistance of the wire R = S Ω
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍

Where S- Known resistance ; l – Balancing length

(a) Sum of resistances in series R= (R1 + R2) Ω

PROCEDURE:

1. Arrange the apparatus according to the circuit given above.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance R1 is to be determined in the
right gap. Take care that no part of it forms a loop.
3. Take out some resistance (say 1 ohm) from the resistance box and plug the
key K.
4. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the wire.
Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows
deflections in opposite directions, the connections are correct.
5. Slide the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives no deflection. It is the null point.
6. Measure the distance of this null point from the left end. It is equal to ‘I’.
7. Repeat the experiment by changing the value of R1 to R2.
8. Record your observations in table I.
9. Repeat the same experiment by keeping the resistances in series and record
your observations.

Result:
Resistor in left Balancing (100-L) cm R=p(100-L)/L Mean
gap ( p )Ω length L cm
 Exp:6

Potentiometer II
(Internal resistance of cell)

AIM:

To determine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A potentiometer, a battery, two one–way keys, a rheostat of low resistance, a

galvanometer, a high resistance box, a fractional resistance box (1-10 Ω), an
ammeter, a voltmeter (0-5V), Lechlanche cell/ Daniel cell, a jockey,
connecting wires.

FORMULA:

The internal resistance of a cell is given by

r = ( (l1 –l2) / l2) * R

Where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without shunt and with shunt,
respectively, and R is the shunt resistance in parallel with the given shell.

PROCEDURE:

01. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight
connections according to the circuit diagram.
02. Tight the plugs of the resistance box.
03. Check the e.m.f of the battery and cell and see that e.m.f of the battery is
more than that of the given cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be
obtained.
04.Take minimum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance zero.
05.To test the correctness of the connections. (Insert the plug in the key K and
note the ammeter reading. Place the jockey first and the end A of the wire and
 then at the end B. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite directions
in two cases, the connections are correct.)
06.Without inserting the plugs in the key K1 adjust the rheostat so that a null point
is obtained on the potentiometer wire.
07.Measure the balance length l1 between the null point and the end A of the wire
using a set square.
08.Introduce the plugs in K1 as well as in key K2. Take out a small resistance (2
Ω) from the resistance box R connected in parallel with the cell.
09.Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain null point.
10.Measure the balancing length l2 from end A.
11.Remove the plug keys at K1 and K2. Wait for some time and for the same
value of current, repeat the experiment with 4 Ω and 6 Ω in the resistance box
R.
12.Record your observations as given below.
Circuit Diagram

Experimental observations
 Exp: 7.

Half deflection method

(figure of merit)

AIM:

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and

hence to find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Power supply/Battery, Galvanometer, Keys, two resistance boxes (0-100ohm

and 0-1000ohm) and connecting wires.

FORMULA:

(a) The resistance of the given galvanometer :

Where R is the resistance connected in series and S is the shunt resistance.

(b) The figure merit:

A/division
Where E is the emf of the cell and the θ is the deflection produced with
resistance R.

PROCEDURE:

01.Connect the circuit according to the given diagram.

02.Ensure that the plugs in the resistance box are tight. In case of using knobs set
them at zero.
03.Keep the key K1 closed and K 2 open.
04.Introduce a suitable resistance in box R such that the deflection in the
galvanometer is an even number within the scale. Note down the deflection.
Let it be θ.
05.Close the key K 2 also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of
S. such that the deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value
obtained in step 4.
06.Note the value of resistance S.
07.Repeat the steps 3 to 6 for different values of R and note down the readings in
table 1.
08.Calculate the value of G using the given formula.
09.Measure the emf of the cell using a multimeter let it be E.
10. Keeping the key K1 closed and K 2 open, adjust the value of R to obtain
certain deflection θ.
11.Note down the values of resistance R and θ.
12.Repeat the steps 9 to 11 for different emf’s.
Experimental observations
EXP : 08

SONOMETER- AC FREQUENCY
AIM:

To find the frequency of AC mains using a Sonometer .

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

Sonometer , Step down transformer , Knife edges , Horse shoe magnet , Slotted weights ,
paper rider and connecting wires .

Formula ;

The frequency of AC cycle is given

1 √𝑇
𝜗=
2𝑙 √𝑚

Where L is the length , T is Tension and m is mass per unit length of the stretched wire.

PROCEDURE :

1) Connect the primary of the step down transformerto AC mains , while the secondary to the
two ends of the sonometer wire.
2) The horse shoe magnet is placed in middle of the wire such that the magnetic field is
applied in a horizontal plane and at right angles to the length of the wire.
3) Hang a mass m (say ½ kg) from one end of the wire and adjust the distance L between two
bridges and symmetrically with respect to magnet till the wire appears to be vibrating with
the maximum amplitude . Note that distance L between the two bridges.
4) By increasing the tension on the wire , repeat the experiment for three or more different
tensions
5) Measure the diameter of the wire in mutually perpendicular directions at various points.
6) Note the density of the table from the table of constants.
 PRISM-MINIMUM DEVIATION

AIM

To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a
graph between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A drawing board, a glass prism, a white sheet of paper, drawing pins, a scale, a
graph paper, a protractor

FORMULA

The refractive index of the given material of the prism

(𝐴 + 𝐷)
sin
𝜇= 2 (𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡)
𝐴
sin 2
 Where A is the angle of prism and D is the angle of minimum deviation

PROCEDURE

1. With the help of drawing pins ,fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board.
2. Divide the given sheet into 4 quadrants by drawing lines. At the centre of each
quadrant, keep the prism and draw its outline.
3. In the quadrant 1, draw a normal N at the centre of the face as shown in the
diagram.
4. Using a protractor, measure 30º and draw a line. Fix two pins P and Q vertically on
this line. The distance between the pins should be about 8 cm. Now view the
images of P and Q from the other side.
5. Fix two more ins R and S on the paper vertically and about 8 cm apart such that the
tips of these pins and the tips of the images of the incident ray pins P and Q, all lie
on the same straight line.
6. Remove the pins and join the points (pin pricks) R and S and produce it backwards
to meet the incident ray produced as shown in figure using dotted line. RS is the
emergent ray corresponding to the incident ray PQ.
7. Measure the angle of deviation D.
8. Repeat the steps 4 to 7 for angles 30°, 40°, ……….65°.
9. Record all the observations in the table.
10. Measure the angle BAC. This gives the angle of the prism A.
11. Plot a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
12. Measure the angle of minimum deviation Dm as shown in the graph
Ray Diagram:

Experimental observations