MAHARISHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY,

ROHTAK

Department of Physics

Session 2019-2020

Lab report

Submitted by :- 1837, 1844 & 1855

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Objective : To perform following experiments using semiconductor LASER KIT

1. Determination of wavelength of

LASER source using Grating

2. To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fiber

3. To measure thickness of human hair

Equipment: DIODE LASER source, microscope objective, fiber optic chuck, optical fiber,

grating (100/300/600 Lines per mm), holder, scale, screen and base.

Theory:
Semiconductor lasers are lasers based on semiconductor gain media, where optical gain is usually
achieved by stimulated emission at an interband transition under conditions of a high carrier
density in the conduction band.
The physical origin of gain in a semiconductor (for the usual case of an interband transition) is
illustrated in Figure Without pumping, most of the electrons are in the valence band. A pump
beam with a photon energy slightly above the band gap energy can excite electrons into a higher
state in the conduction band, from where they quickly decay to states near the bottom of the
conduction band. At the same time, the holes generated in the valence band move to the top of the
valence band. Electrons in the conduction band can then recombine with these holes, emitting
photons with an energy near the bandgap energy. This process can also be stimulated by incoming
photons with suitable energy. A quantitative description can be based on the Fermi–Dirac
distributions for electrons in both bands. Most semiconductor lasers are laser diodes, which are
pumped with an electrical current in a region where an n-doped and a p-doped semiconductor
material meet. However, there are also optically pumped semiconductor lasers, where carriers are
generated by absorbed pump light, and quantum cascade lasers, where interband transitions are
utilized.
Common materials for semiconductor lasers (and for other optoelectronic devices) are
• GaAs (gallium arsenide)

• AlGaAs (aluminum gallium arsenide)

• GaP (gallium phosphide)

• InGaP (indium gallium phosphide)

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• GaN (gallium nitride)

• InGaAs (indium gallium arsenide)

• GaInNAs (indium gallium arsenide nitride)

• InP (indium phosphide)

• GaInP (gallium indium phosphide)

These are all direct bandgap semiconductors; indirect bandgap semiconductors such as
silicon do not exhibit strong and efficient light emission. As the photon energy of a laser diode is
close to the bandgap energy, compositions with different bandgap energies allow for different
emission wavelengths. For the ternary and quaternary semiconductor compounds, the bandgap
energy can be continuously varied in some substantial range. In AlGaAs = AlxGa1−xAs, for
example, an increased aluminum content (increased x) causes an increase in the bandgap energy.

The energy band gap Eg of AlxGa1-xAs alloys depends on the aluminium content x. In the range of x <
xc = 0.45 the gap is direct. At x > xc the gap is indirect.
At room temperature (300 K) the dependency of the direct gap on aluminium content x can be
calculated by the equation
Eg,dir (x) = 1.422 eV + x 1.2475 eV

In this equation the symbols have the following meaning:

 Eg,dir - direct energy band gap of AlxGa1-xAs for x < 0.45

 x- aluminum fraction of the AlxGa1-xAs alloy

While the most common semiconductor lasers are operating in the near-infrared spectral
region, some others generate red light (e.g. in GaInP-based laser pointers) or blue or violet light
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(with gallium nitrides). For mid-infrared emission, there are e.g. lead selenide (PbSe) lasers (lead
salt lasers) and quantum cascade lasers.
Apart from the above-mentioned inorganic semiconductors, organic semiconductor
compounds might also be used for semiconductor lasers.

Construction and working of a semiconductor LASER:

Figure shows the basic construction of semiconductor laser. The active medium is a p-n
junction diode made from the single crystal of gallium arsenide. This crystal is cut in the form of a

platter having thickness of 0.5μmm. The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN
junction (in order of few microns). The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal through the electrode
fixed on the upper surface. The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each
other. They act as an optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out. When the PN
junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the electrons and holes are injected into junction
region in considerable concentration. The region around the junction contains a large amount of
electrons in the conduction band and a large amount of holes in the valence band. If the population
density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved. The electrons and holes recombine
with each other and this recombination’s produce radiation in the form of light. When the forward –
biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted and the light production instantly
becomes stronger. These photons will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the
release of photons in phase. The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by
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reflection between two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength. The
wavelength of LASER light is given by

Eg = hυ = hc/λ
λ = hc/Eg
where Eg is the band gap energy.
1. Determination of wavelength of LASER source using grating:

A diffraction grating consists of a transparent material into which a very large number of
uniformly spaced wires have been embedded. One section of such a grating is shown in figure. As
the light impinges on the grating, the light waves that fall between the wires propagate straight on
through. The light that impinges on the wires, however, is absorbed or reflected backward. At
certain points in the forward direction the light passing through the spaces (or slits) in between the
wires will be in phase, and will constructively interfere. The condition for

constructive interference can be understood by studying figure. Whenever the difference in path
length between the light passing through different slits is an integral number of wavelengths of the
incident light, the light from each of these slits will be in phase, and the it will form an image at
the specified location. Mathematically, the relation is simple:
d sin θ = mλ
where d is the distance between adjacent slits (which is the same is the distance between adjacent
wires), θ is the angle the recreated image makes with the normal to the grating surface, λ is the
wavelength of the light, and m = 0, 1, 2, . . . is an integer.
By shining a light beam into a grating whose spacing d is known, and measuring the angle θ where
the light is imaged, one can measure the wavelength λ.
Consider figure given below, which shows the set-up for a diffraction grating experiment. If a
monochromatic light source shines on the grating, images of the light will appear at a number of
angles—θ1, θ2, θ3 and so on.
The value of θm is given by the grating equation shown above, so that θm =sin-1 ( mλ/d)
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Procedure:

1. Set up the laser and grating as shown in figure above.

2. Measure the distance L between the meter stick and the diffraction grating.
3. Turn on the laser and center the meter stick at the 0th order image.
4. Measure the distance S1 between the 1st order images appearing on the left and right sides of
the center line.
5. Measure the distance S2 between the 2nd order images appearing on the left and right sides of
the center line.
It should be clear from simple trigonometric considerations that θ1 = tan-1 ( S1/2L) and θ2 = tan-1
(S2/2L) from which you can extract two independent measurements of the laser wavelength.
Observations:
L, distance between grating and screen = 2m8cm = 2.08m
d, resolution of grating = 1÷(the grating element) = 1/100 mm
S1 = 28cm = 0.28m
S2 = 56cm = 0.56m
Calculations: As,
θ1= tan-1 ( S1/2L)
Therefore, θ1 = tan-1 ( 0.28/4.16) = 3.8502°
And similarly θ2 = tan-1 ( 0.56/4.16) = 7.6665°
Now as mλ=dsinθ
Hence, for m=1,
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λ=(1/100)×sin(3.8502) = 0.000671mm = 671nm For m=2,
λ=[(1/100)×sin(7.6665)]÷2 = 0.000667mm = 667nm
Average value = (671+667)÷2 = 669nm
Result:
Calculated value of λ = 669 nm
Rated value on LASER device = 635-670 nm

2. Measuring the numerical aperture of an optical fiber:

An optical fiber is used to transmit light signals over long distances. It is essentially a light
transmitting medium. Optical fiber requires a light source for launching light into the fiber at its
input end and a photodetector to receive light at its output end. Considered propagation of light in
an optical fiber, the condition of total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface is necessary.
Therefore, for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must be
incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle (αmax).
Thus, αmax is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to be
propagated and is often referred to as the acceptance angle for the fiber. A more generally used
term, the numerical aperture relates the acceptance angle and refractive indices of the three

media involved (the core, cladding and air) and is a basic descriptive characteristic of a specific
optical fiber. It represents the size or degree of openness of the input acceptance cone.
Mathematically it is defined as the sine half angle of the acceptance cone and is a very useful
measure of light-collecting ability of a fiber. Using Snell’s law, the maximum angle within which
light will be accepted into and guided through optical fiber is, NA = n0 Sin (αmax) = (n1²-n2²)½
where αmax is the half acceptance angle, n0 the refractive index of air and n1 and n2 are the
refractive indices of the core and the cladding respectively.
Procedure:
1. Mount Laser source, objective and screen on the respective holders as shown in Fig. below.
2. Mount both the ends of the optical fiber on the fiber holders.
3. Align the different objects as per the setup shown in figure.
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4. Couple the light from the laser source onto one of the fiber ends using a microscopic objective
(provided with the kit).
5. Place the screen (sheet having circular markings) at some distance from the output end of the
fiber such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber. Now move the screen towards or away
from the output end of the fiber such that circular beam emanating from the fiber end covers
the (1st or 2nd or 3rd) circle on the screen.
6. Measure the distance between the output end of optical fiber and screen. Let this be L, also
measure the diameter of the circular spot formed on the screen. (Diameters are mentioned in
mm). Let it be D.
7. Use the formula’s to calculate NA for the fiber

NA = Sin αmax = sin[tan-1(D/2L)]

Observations:
Diameter of spot, D = 2.9 cm
Distance between screen and fiber end, L = 2.7 cm
Calculations:
As, NA = sin[tan-1(D/2L)]

= sin[tan-1(2.9/2×2.7)]
=0.53705
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Result:
The calculated value of numerical aperture of given optical fiber is 0.53705.
3. Measuring the diameter of human hair using LASER diffraction
Often it is necessary to determine the diameter of a fine wire, thin thread or other
object that cannot be measure by convectional means. These items can be measured by
using methods of diffraction and interference known as Young’s Double Slit Experiment.
While Young’s experiment deals with the pattern of light impinging on two narrows slits
separated by a small distance, the method can by applied to an object with a small diameter
as well. Where the diameter is within an order of magnitude of the wavelength of laser
light used.
Diffraction due to a narrow wire:
In given figure, S is a narrow slit illuminated by monochromatic light, AB is the diameter of the
wire and MN is the screen. The length of the wire is parallel to the illuminated slit and
perpendicular to the plane of paper. XY is the incident cylindrical wave front. P is a point on the
screen such that SOP is perpendicular to the screen. EF is the region of geometrical shadow and
above E and below F, the screen is illuminated. Now,

let us consider a point P' on the screen in the illuminated portion. Let us join S to O', a point on the
wave front. O' is the pole of wave front with reference to P'. The intensity at P' due to wave front
above O' is the same at all points and the effect due the wave front BY is negligible. The intensity
at P' will be a maximum or a minimum depending on whether the number of half period strips
between O' and A is odd or even. Thus in the illuminated portion of the screen, diffraction bands
of gradually diminishing intensity will be observed. The distinction between Maxima and minima
will become less if P' is far away from edge E of geometrical shadow. Maxima and minima cannot
be distinguished if the wire is very narrow, because in that case the portion BY of wavefront will
also produce illumination at P.
Next let us consider a point P” in the region of the geometrical shadow. Interference bands of equal
width will be observed in this region due to the fact that points A and B, of the incident wave front
are similar to two coherent sources. The point P” will be of maximum or minimum intensity,
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depending on whether the path difference (BP”-AP”) is equal to even or odd multiples of λ/2. The
fringe width β is given by
β = Dλ/d
where D is the distance between the wire and the screen, λ is the wavelength of light and d is the
distance between two coherent sources.

Procedure:

1) Take a 15 cm by 15 cm piece and make a 10cm by 10cm hole in the center of the
cardboard piece. This is your mounting bracket.

2) Select one strand of hair approximately 15-25cm long. This hair needs to be mounted
on the mounting bracket from step 1.

3) Mount the hair on the bracket using tape. Place the hair so that it bisects the mounting
bracket. Make sure the hair is taut and straight.

4) Set the laser pointer (or laser) on the lab table. Positioning the laser so the beam strikes
the hair in the mounting bracket. (You may use binder clips or books to position the
laser source and the mounting bracket on the table.)

5) Make sure the laser setup and mounting bracket face a wall or screen.

6) Record the following key parameters on the data sheet provided. Record the
wavelength of the laser as λ. In some case to maybe necessary to average the
wavelength values given on the laser’s label. Typical values for a semiconductor Laser
are 635 nanometers – 670 nanometers. Record the distance (D) between the mounting
bracket and screen or wall. (If you are using a wall for a screen it might be prudent to
tape a piece of white paper on the wall to use as a background).

Examine the pattern striking the screen. It should appear similar to the image below.
(You may need to darken the work area or wall to see the faint higher order bands.)

7) Carefully measure the bright bands by measuring from the center of the bright
central band to the starting edge of first bright band on the left. Record this value
as Y1i, under the Ymi column. (You may find a bring spot in the center of the
central band. This point can be used as reference.) Measure from the center of the
central band again to the end of the first bright band on the left. Record this as Y1f,
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under the Ymf column. The average of theses two same measurements is the
distance between the central bright band and the 1st order maximum (m=1) on the
left side. Record this on the data table as Y1avg under the Ymavg column on the data
sheet. Repeat the steps for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th order bands. If you can see
the bands beyond m = 5, measure those as well. Make sure you measure from the
middle of the central band to the beginning and the end of each of the mth order
bands. (You may have to darken the room to see all the bands.
8) After measuring all the bands on the left. Proceed to measure the mth order bands
on the right side of the central band using the techniques outlined in step 8. This
should yield a total set of at least ten measurements.

9) For each Ymavg calculate the diameter of the human hair (d) using:
𝑑 = (𝜆 𝑚 𝐷) / 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑣𝑔
Observations:
LASER Wavelength = 670nm
D, distance between hair and screen=2m22cm=2.22m
m |m| Ymi(cm) Ymf(cm) Ymavg(cm) Calculated
diameter
(μm)
+5 5 9.4 10.5 9.95 74.743
+4 4 7.7 8.8 8.25 72.116
+3 3 5.9 7.0 6.45 69.181
+2 2 3.9 5.25 4.575 65.022
+1 1 2.2 3.3 2.75 54.087
0 N/A
-1 1 2.2 3.5 2.85 52.189
-2 2 4.2 5.2 4.75 63.293
-3 3 5.9 7.0 6.45 69.181
-4 4 7.9 8.9 8.4 70.828
-5 5 9.7 10.6 10.15 70.160
Mean value of diameter = 66.08μm
Results: Calculated value of diameter is 66.08μm
Average value of diameter of human hair lies in range 17-181μm

★ References:

Optics – Dr. N Subrahmanyam, Brij Lal

Experiments in engineering physics – Dr. Narendra L Mathakari
Solid state electronic devices – Ben G Streetman