Basic Concepts in Mathematics

MATH 10: Mathematics in the Modern World

Sections XX and GGG
Jasper John Segismundo
1 Sets

2 Relations and Functions

3 Elementary Logic

Basic Concepts in Mathematics

1 Sets

2 Relations and Functions

3 Elementary Logic

Basic Concepts in Mathematics

Sets
Preliminaries

Definitions:
• A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
• These objects in a set are called elements (or members).

Remarks:
• We denote sets with uppercase letters and elements with
lowercase letters.
• For a set A, we write a ∈ A to denote a is an element of A,
and a ∉ A if a is not an element of A.
• A set is completely determined by what its elements are—
not the order in which they might be listed or the fact
that some elements might be listed more than once.
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Sets
Special Sets

• ℝ: set of all real numbers

• ℝ+ : set of all positive real numbers
• ℤ: set of all integers
• ℤ+ : set of all positive integers
• ℕ: set of all natural numbers
• ℚ: set of all rational numbers
• 𝕀𝕀: set of all imaginary numbers
• ℂ: set of all complex numbers

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Sets
Notations

• A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by

writing all of its elements between braces.

Examples:
• {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• {5, 5, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1}
• {ENGL 11, FILI 11, MATH 10, THEO 11}
• {2, 4, 6, 8, …, 100}
• 1, 1 , 2, 4 , 3, 9 , …, 10, 100
• {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}}

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Sets
Notations

• Another way to specify a set is to use the set-builder

notation by stating the property that needs to be
satisfied to be a member of the set.
• It has the form x ∈ S | P x , where P x is the property
that the elements of the set S should satisfy.

Examples:
• red, yellow, blue = x | x is a primary color
• a, b = x ∈ ℝ | a ≤ x < b = x | a ≤ x < b
• A = x ∈ ℝ | −2 < x2 < −1

• B = x ∈ ℤ+ | 3 2 + 4 2 = x2

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Sets
Empty and Singleton Sets

• The empty set is the set containing no elements. It is

denoted by ∅ or { }.
• A set containing one element is called a singleton set.

Examples:
• ∅ = x ∈ ℝ | −2 < x2 < −1

• 5 = x ∈ ℤ+ | 3 2 + 4 2 = x2
• ∅ = x | x is a primary and a secondary color
• 1 = x > 0 | x2 = 1

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Sets
Subsets

• Let A and B be sets. A is called a subset of B if and only if

every element of A is also an element of B . This is
denoted by A ⊆ B.
• A is a proper subset of B if and only if every element of A
is in B but there is at least one element of B that is not in
A. This is denoted by A ⊂ B.
• If there is at least one element in A not in B, then A ⊈ B.

Examples:
• ℤ ⊆ ℚ and ℤ ⊆ ℝ
• x ⊆ w, x, y, z but a ⊈ w, x, y, z
1 1 1
• , , ⊆ x|0≤x≤1
2 3 4
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Sets
Exercises

Determine whether the ff. statements are true or false:

1. 2 ∈ 1, 2, 3

2. 2 ∈ 1, 2, 3

3. 2 ⊆ 1, 2, 3

4. 2 ⊆ 1, 2, 3

5. 2 ⊆ 1, 2

6. 2 ∈ 1, 2

7. 2 ∈ 1, 2, 1 , 2
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Sets
Exercises

Describe each of the following sets:

1. x ∈ ℝ | −2 < x < 5

2. x ∈ ℝ+ | −2 < x < 5

3. x ∈ ℤ | −2 < x < 5

4. x ∈ ℤ− | −2 < x < 5

5. x ∈ ℤ+ | −2 < x < 5

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Sets
Exercises

Let A = ℤ+ , B = n ∈ ℤ | 10 ≤ n ≤ 100 , and C = {100, 200,

300, 400, 500} . Determine whether the ff. statements are
true or false:
1. B ⊆ A

2. C ⊂ A

3. C ⊆ B

4. C ⊂ C

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Sets
Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product

Definitions:
• The notation a, b denotes an ordered pair, where a is
the first element and b is the second element.
• Two ordered pairs a, b and c, d are equal if and only if
a = c and b = d.
• Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered pairs a, b ,
where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

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Sets
Exercises

Let A = 1, 2, 3 and B = u, v .
1. Find A × B.

2. Find B × A.

3. Find B × B.

4. How many elements are there in these sets?

5. Describe ℝ × ℝ.

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1 Sets

2 Relations and Functions

3 Elementary Logic

Basic Concepts in Mathematics

Relations and Functions
Preliminaries

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Relations and Functions
Relations

• Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset

of A × B.
• Given an ordered pair in A × B, x is related to y by R,
denoted by x R y, if and only if x, y is in R.
• The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called
its co-domain.
• The arrow diagram for R is obtained as follows:
• Represent the elements of A as points in one region and the
elements of B in another region.
• For each x ∈ A and y ∈ B, draw an arrow from x to y if and only if
x is related to y by R.

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Relations and Functions
Exercise

Let A = 2, 3, 4 and B = 6, 8, 10 and define a relation R

from A to B as follows:
y
For all x, y ∈ A × B, x, y ∈ R means that is an integer.
x

1. Write A × B as a set of ordered pairs.

2. Is 4 R 6? 4 R 8?
3. Is (3, 8) ∈ R? Is (2, 10) ∈ R?
4. Write R as a set of ordered pairs.
5. Draw an arrow diagram for R.

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Relations and Functions
Functions

• A function F from set A to set B is a relation that satisfies

the following properties:
• For every element x ∈ A, there is an element y ∈ B
such that x, y is in F.
• For all elements x ∈ A and y, z ∈ B, if x, y ∈ F and
x, z ∈ F, then y = z.
• The unique element in B that is related to x by F is
denoted by F(x).

Remark:
In a function, each element in the domain A corresponds to
one, and only one element of the co-domain B.

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Relations and Functions
Exercise

Let A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 3, 5}. Define the relations R, S, and

T from A to B as follows: For all x, y ∈ A × B,
• x, y ∈ R means that y – x > 2
x
• x, y ∈ S means that y – 1 =
2
• T = 2, 5 , 4, 1 , 2, 3

1. Write R and S as a set of ordered pairs.

2. Draw the arrow diagrams for R, S, and T.

3. Which of the following relations are functions?

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Relations and Functions
Equality of Functions

• If f and g are functions from a set A to a set B, then

f = x, y ∈ A × B | y = f x
g = x, y ∈ A × B | y = g x
• It follows that f equals g, written f = g, if and only if f x =
g x for all x in A.

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Relations and Functions
Exercises

1. For all x, y ∈ ℝ2 , x, y ∈ C means that x2 + y2 = 1.

Is C a function? Explain.
2. For all x, y ∈ ℝ2 , x, y ∈ D means that y – x2 = 1.
Is D a function? Explain.
3. Define f and g from ℝ to ℝ by the following formulas:
2x3 + 2x
for all x ∈ ℝ, f x = 2x and g x = . Does f = g?
2
x +1
4. Define h and j from ℝ to ℝ by the following formulas:
x2 – 9
for all x ∈ ℝ, f x = x + 3 and g x = . Does h = j?
x–3
NOT INCLUDED IN THE QUIZ

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1 Sets

2 Relations and Functions

3 Elementary Logic

Basic Concepts in Mathematics

Elementary Logic
Propositions

• A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true

or false, but not both.
• Every proposition has a truth value, namely true or false.

Examples:
• Mathematics makes the invisible visible.
• How are you doing?
• 2019 is divisible by 3.
• Pass your papers forward.
• x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 = 125.

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Elementary Logic
Compound Propositions

• A simple proposition conveys a single idea, while a

compound proposition conveys two or more ideas.
• Compound propositions are formed from existing
propositions using logical operators.
(e.g. negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional)
• A truth table shows the truth value of a proposition for
all possible truth values of its simple propositions.

Examples:
• You will not buy milk tea nor eat samgyup this week.
• If it is raining hard, then classes will get suspended.

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Elementary Logic
Negation

• Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p,

is the proposition “not p.” The truth value of ¬p is the
opposite of the truth value of p.

p ¬p
T F
F T

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Elementary Logic
Negation

Consider the proposition:

p: Harry Potter is a full-blooded wizard.
Then,
¬p: Harry Potter is not a full-blooded wizard.

Exercise: What is the negation of the ff. propositions?

• Pineapples go on pizzas.
• There are 13 items in a baker’s dozen.
• John sends more than 100 text messages everyday.

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Elementary Logic
Conjunction

• Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q,

denoted by p ∧ q, is the proposition “p and q.” It is true
when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Remark: In logic, the word “but” is sometimes used instead

of “and” in a conjunction.

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Elementary Logic
Conjunction

Consider the propositions:

p: Captain America is worthy of the Mjölnir.
q: Iron Man collected all six infinity stones.
Then,
p ∧ q: Captain America is worthy of the Mjölnir and Iron
Man collected all six infinity stones.

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Elementary Logic
Disjunction

• Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q,

denoted by p ∨ q, is the proposition “p or q.” It is false
when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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Elementary Logic
Disjunction

Consider the propositions:

p: I will finish all my requirements tonight.
q: I will sleep and rest for tomorrow’s exam.
Then,
p ∨ q: I will finish all my requirements tonight or I will
sleep and rest for tomorrow’s exam.

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Elementary Logic
Compound Propositions

• If a compound proposition is written in symbolic form,

then parentheses are used to indicate which simple
propositions are grouped together.
• If it is written as an English sentence, then a comma is
used to indicate which simple propositions are grouped
together.

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Elementary Logic
Compound Propositions

Consider the propositions:

p: Stephen Curry is a football player.
q: Stephen Curry is a basketball player.
r: Stephen Curry is a rock star.
s: Stephen Curry plays for the Warriors.

Exercise: Write the following propositions in English.

• (p ∨ q) ∧ ¬r
• (¬q ∧ r) ∨ s

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Elementary Logic
Conditional

• Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement

p → q, is the proposition “if p, then q.” It is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise.

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Remark: A conditional prop. is also called an implication.

In addition, p is called the hypothesis (antecedent) and q is
called the conclusion (consequent).
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Elementary Logic
Conditional

• “If we don’t get that stone, billions of people stay dead.”

(Black Widow to Hawkeye)
• “If you want to be my lover, you got to get with my
friends.” (Spice Girls)
• “If I get an A in the MATH 10 long exam, then I will treat
you in a buffet.”

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Elementary Logic
Conditional*

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Consider the propositions:
p: I will get an A in the MATH 10 long exam.
q: I will treat you in a buffet.
Then,
p → q: If I get an A in the MATH 10 long exam, then I will
treat you in a buffet.
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Elementary Logic
Conditional

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Consider the propositions:
p: I win in the elections.
q: I will help in the education sector.
Then,
p → q: If I win in the elections, then I will help in the
education sector.
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Elementary Logic
Exercise

Determine the truth value of the following.

• If Mars is the fourth planet in the Solar System, then 9
plus 16 is equal to 25.
• If 2019 is a positive integer, then π is a rational number.
• If a rectangle is a square, then 7 × 8 = 56.

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Elementary Logic
Conditional

• Other forms of p → q include:

• q if p
• p only if q
• p implies q
• q when p
• q follows from p

Examples:
• p → q: If it is sunny, then I wear shades.
• p → q: I wear shades if it is sunny.
• p → q: It is sunny only if I wear shades.

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Elementary Logic
Conditional

• Other forms of p → q include:

• q if p
• p only if q
• p implies q
• q when p
• q follows from p

Examples:
• q → p: If I wear shades, then it is sunny.
• q → p: It is sunny if I wear shades.
• q → p: I wear shades only if it is sunny.

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Elementary Logic
Conditional

• The converse of p → q is q → p.
• The inverse of p → q is ¬p → ¬q.
• The contrapositive of p → q is ¬q → ¬p.

Examples:
• p → q: If it is sunny, then I wear shades.
• q → p: If I wear shades, then it is sunny.
• ¬p → ¬q: If it is not sunny, then I do not wear shades.
• ¬q → ¬p: If I do not wear shades, then it is not sunny.

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Elementary Logic
Logical Equivalence

• Two propositions p and q are equivalent (p ≡ q) if they

both have the same truth values for all possible truth
values of their statements.

Exercise: Construct a truth table for the ff. propositions:

• ¬p ∨ q (p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q)
• ¬q → ¬p (p → q ≡ ¬q → ¬p)
• (¬p ∨ q) → p
• [p ∧ (q ∨ ¬p)] → ¬p
• (r ∨ p) ∧ q

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Elementary Logic
Propositional Function

• p: Jake is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.

• q: Amy is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.
• r: Terry is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.
• s: Gina is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.

How to write: “Every person who is at least 18 years old is

eligible to vote in the 2022 elections.”

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Elementary Logic
Propositional Function

• A statement involving a variable can be represented as

P x , where P is the propositional function and x is the
variable.
• P x can be divided into two parts: the variable(s) is/are
the subject, while the predicate refers to the property or
characteristic that the subject can have.

Captain Holt is eligible to vote in the 2022 elections .

subject predicate

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Elementary Logic
Exercise

Let P x denote the statement |x| ≤ 5, where the domain

consists of all real numbers. Determine the truth values of
the following.
• P(3)
• P(12)
• P(−5) ∧ P(5)
• P(10) → P(−1)

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Elementary Logic
Quantifiers

• A quantifier expresses the extent to which a predicate is

true over a range of elements.
• The domain is the set of all possible values of the variable
x in the propositional function P x .

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Elementary Logic
Quantifiers

• The universal quantification of P x , denoted by ∀x P x ,

is the statement
“P x for all values of x in the domain.”
• The symbol ∀ is read as “for all,” “for every,” or “for each.”

Example:
• All Avengers have superpowers.
• Every integer is a rational number.

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Elementary Logic
Quantifiers

• The existential quantification of P x , denoted by ∃x

P x , is the statement
“There exists an element x in the domain such that P x .”
• The symbol ∃ is read as “there exists,” or “for some.”

Example:
• Some Avengers have flying superpowers.
• There exists an even number that is divisible by 4.

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Elementary Logic
Truth Value of Quantifiers

∀x P x
• True: P x is true for every x in the domain.
• False: There is an x for which P x is false.

∃x P x
• True: There is an x for which P x is true.
• False: P x is false for every x in the domain.

Therefore, ¬∀P x ≡ ∃¬P x and ¬∃P x ≡ ∀¬P x .

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Elementary Logic
Truth Value of Quantifiers

Therefore, ¬∀P x ≡ ∃¬P x and ¬∃P x ≡ ∀¬P x .

The negation of ∀P x is ∃¬P x .
The negation of ∃P x is ∀¬P x .

Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.
Some X are not Y. All X are Y.

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Elementary Logic
Truth Value of Quantifiers

Example:

• ∀P x : All Avengers have superpowers.

• ¬∀P x : Not all Avengers have superpowers.
• ∃¬P x : There is an Avenger who has no superpowers.

• ∃P x : Some Avengers have flying superpowers.

• ¬∃P x : Not some Avengers have flying superpowers.
• ∀¬P x : No Avengers have flying superpowers.

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Elementary Logic
Exercise

Write the negation of the following statements.

• There is an honest politician.
• Some dogs are not friendly.
• All Filipinos eat sisig.
• No odd numbers are divisible by 2.

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Basic Concepts in Mathematics
MATH 10: Mathematics in the Modern World
Sections XX and GGG
Jasper John Segismundo