5.

Coagulation, Softening,
Flocculation, Sedimentation and
Filteration

Objective

In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

 How do coagulation and flocculation fit into the
water treatment process?
 Which chemicals are used in coagulation?

 What factors influence coagulation and flocculation?

 Coagulation consist of adding a floc forming chemical
reagent to a water to combine with nonsettleable colloidal
solids so they can stick together.
 Colloids are negatively charged particles. The addition of
a coagulant, which has positively charged particles, would
neutralize the negative charge on the colloids.
 Slow settling suspended solids to produce a rapid settling
floc. The floc is subsequently removed in most cases by
sedimentation.
 Flocculation is the slow stirring or gentle agitation to
aggregate the destabilized particles and form a rapid
settling floc.
 Mixing of the coagulated suspension to promote colloid-
contact forming larger solids called flocs that can be
removed by gravity settling
Particles Size (mm) Settling
Velocity
Coarse sand 1 0.23 m/s

Fine sand 0.1 0.6 m/min

Silt 0.01 8.6 m/day

Large colloid 0.0001 0.3 m/year

Fine colloid 0.000001 3 m/mil. year

Colloidal Particles

 particulates in water source that contribute

to colour and turbidity
 mainly clays, silts, viruses, bacteria, fulvic
and humic acids and organic particulates
 at pH levels above 4.0, particles or
molecules are generally negatively
charged
 have a very large ratio of surface area to
volume
Uses of Coagulation

The primary purpose of the coagulation process is

the removal of turbidity from the water. Turbidity
is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small
particles suspended therein. Water with little or no
turbidity will be clear.
Methods of Coagulation Process

 mixing water with coagulant chemicals such as

alum or ferric chloride

 the purpose of rapid mixing is to provide a

uniform dispersion of coagulant chemical
throughout the influent water

 coagulant chemicals can be mixed by several

methods, including:
– Mechanical method: flume mixer
– Hydraulic method: flash mixer
Factors Affected Coagulation Process
 Coagulant dosage

 Adjustment of pH

 Turbidity
Types of Mixture
 Mechanical mixer (Propellers or paddle
types mixer
 In-line mixers
 Pump mixers
Important Parameter in Rapid and slow mixing


Factors Affecting Coagulation/Flocculation
1. The most commonly used coagulants are:
 Alum (aluminium sulphate), Al2(SO4)3. 14.3 H2O
 Ferric chloride, FeCl3 . 6H2O,

 Ferric sulphate, Fe2(SO4)3,

 Cationic polymers.

2. Coagulant concentration (1% - 3%)

3. pH
Alum: 5.5 – 7.5 (Optimum pH ≈ 7.0)
Ferric: 5.5 – 8.5 (Optimum pH ≈ 7.5)
= =
4. Chemical composition of water (eg. SO4 , CO3 ,
PO4=)
5. Nature of Turbidity
Particles of different size are easier to coagulate
than uniform size particle.
Highly turbid waters may require a lesser amount of
coagulant thant waters with slight turbid.
6. Temperature
Cold water near 0 oc is difficult to coagulate

7. Rapid mixing (degree and type of mixing)

8. Coagulant / flocculant aids
Aid are used to improve settling and strength of flocs and to
enhance turbidity and colour removal.

Examples of aids: activated silica, oxidants (chlorine, ozone,

potassium permanganates to aid in color removal), and
polymers.
 Theoretical Chemical Reaction




–

Example
Treatment of 35,000 m3/day of water requires 20 mg/L of alum
as a coagulant. The natural alkalinity of the water is equivalent to
4 mg/L of CaCO3.

(a) What dosage of lime as CaO needs to be added in order to

react with alum after the natural alkalinity is exhausted?

(b) Determine the required quantities of quicklime (containing

80% CaO) and alum in kg/day.

Jar Test

 To determine the optimum coagulant

dosage
 Test repeated with every significant
change of raw water quality
 Results used to determine quality of
coagulant used in water treatment
plant.
Method

1. Fill four to six beakers with 1 litre raw

water sample
2. Add various coagulant dose into each
beaker
3. Mix rapidly for 30 to 60 seconds
4. Mix slowly for 15 minutes
5. Stop mixing and let flocs settle.
Determine the optimum dosage by
observation
6. To determine the optimum pH, repeat
step 5 but vary the pH in each beaker.
Example 1

From jar test results, it was found

that the optimum alum dose was 20
mg/L. Determine the quantity of
alum required for a month’s supply
for a 20 MLD water treatment plant.
Solution

1 litre require 20 mg
1 m3 require 20 x 103 mg or 20 g

20 MLD or 20000 m3 require 20 g x 20000

or 400 kg

For 1 month, alum required

= 400 kg x 30
= 12000 kg
Example 2

A water treatment plant treats 43200 m3

of water in a day. Based on Jar Test, the
optimum dosage obtained when 50 mL
of 1g/L is added into 2 L of water. Find

i- the amount of alum required (kg) in a

month
ii- the flow rate of the alum solution
(m3/day).
Solution

Alum concentration = 1g/L

Dosage = 50 mg/2L = 25 mg/L

i- alum required
= 43200 m3/day x 25mg/L
= 32400 kg/month
 Q alum = ?
C alum = 1g/L = 1000 mg/L

Q water = 43200
C water = 0

C TOTAL = 25 mg/L
 0
QwCw + QaCa = (Qw+Qa) CT
Qa x 1000 = (43200 + Qa) 25
1000 Qa = 1080000 + 25Qa
Qa = 1108 m3/day
Removal of Dissolved Solids
(1) Softening
 Purpose: to remove metallic ions that cause hardness
(particularly Ca++ and Mg++)
 Hardness:
Carbonate hardness : bicarbonate and carbonate salts.
[e.g. Ca(HCO3)2, CaCO3, Mg(HCO3)2, MgCO3].
Non-carbonate hardness : non-carbonate salts.
[e.g. CaSO4, CaCl2, MgSO4, MgCl2].
Types of Softening Processes
(1) Precipitation Softening (Lime-Soda Softening)
 Lime, CaO: When slaked with water, Ca(OH)2 (lime slurry) is
formed:
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
CaO can be obtained by heating CaCO3:
CaCO3 + heat (825 OC) CaO + CO2
Forms of lime:
Quicklime (granules): contains a minimum of about 90%
CaO + impurities.
Hydrated lime (powder): contains about 68% of CaO.
Soda ash, Na2CO3: grayish-white powder containing at least
98% Na2CO3.
Chemistry of Precipitation Softening
Lime is added to remove carbonate hardness by converting
soluble bicarbonate (HCO3-) to insoluble carbonate (CO3- -).
Soda ash is added to remove non-carbonate hardness.
CO2 is applied after lime treatment to lower the pH (re-
carbonation).
 Softening Reactions:
˟ Lime reacts with free CO2 forming CaCO3 precipitates:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O
˟ Lime reacts with calcium bicarbonate forming CaCO3 precipitate:
Ca(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 2 CaCO3 + H2O
˟ Lime reacts with magnesium bicarbonate forming Mg(OH)2
precipitates:
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2 Ca(OH)2 2 CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2 H2O
˟ Lime reacts non-bicarbonate magnesium salts:
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
No softening results from the last two reactions because CaSO4
and CaCl2 are formed.
˟ Soda ash, Na2CO3, is added to remove CaSO4 and/or CaCl2
originally present in water and also that formed from previous
reactions:
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2CO3
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
Types of lime-soda softening
(A) Excess-lime softening. (B) Selective Calcium Removal. (C)
Split-flow Softening.

(A) Excess-Lime Softening

Addition of lime raises the pH to about 10.3, which is enough
to suppress the solubility of CaCO3.
But precipitation of Mg(OH)2 requires a higher pH, and thus an
excess amount of 35 mg/L of CaO is added to precipitate
magnesium.
 Complete removal of hardness is not possible because of solubility limits of CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2 of about 40 mg/L as CaCO3 [30 mg/L of CaCO3 as CaCO3 + 10 mg/L of
Mg(OH)2 as CaCO3]. That is, a hardness of about 40 mg/L as CaCO3 remains in the
softened water.

Re-carbonation (addition of CO2 after lime treatment)

Stage One: CO2 is added to lower the pH to about 10.3 and convert the dissolved
excess lime into solid CaCO3:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Stage Two: CO2 is added to reduce the pH to the range of 8.5 to 9.5 to convert most
of the remaining carbonate to bicarbonates:
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2
(B) Selective Calcium removal:
* Used to soften a water low in magnesium hardness (less
than 40 mg/l as CaCO3).

* Lime is added to remove the calcium hardness without

adding excess lime.

* CO2 is added to reduce scalling of the filter media and to

produce stable softened water (re-carbonation).
 (C) Split Flow Softening
• Raw water is divided into two streams.
• The larger portion is given excess lime treatment in the first stage of
treatment (to remove both Ca and Mg hardness.
• In the second stage, soda is added to the mixture of the split flow (by-pass
flow) and the treated water.
• Excess lime used in the first stage is used now to precipitate the Ca
hardness in the by-pass flow (thus, no need for re-carbonation).
• The desired level of Mg in the softened water can be controlled.
• Used when the desired hardness is > 40 mg/l as CaCO3.
Softened Sludge

Contains CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2.

CaCO3 compacts readily.
Mg(OH)2 gelatinous and does not consolidate well by gravity
settling.
Settled solids concentrations range from 2% to 15%
depending on the Ca to Mg precipitate.

Other benefits of Chemical Softening

Disinfection of water (due to high pH.
Removal of heavy metals (due to high pH.
Example:
Water defined by the following analysis is to be softened by excess lime treatment. Assume that the
practical limit of hardness removal for CaCO3 is 30 mg/l, and that of Mg(OH)2 is 10 mg/l as CaCO3.

CO2 = 8.8 mg/

Ca + + = 40.0 mg/l
Mg + + = 14.7 mg/l
Na+ = 13.7 mg/l
Alk(HCO3-) = 135 mg/l as CaCO3
SO4 = = 29.0 mg/l
Cl - = 17.8 mg/l

(a) Sketch a meq/l bar graph, and list the hypothetical combinations of chemical compounds in
solution.
(b) Calculate the softening chemicals required, expressing lime dosage as CaO and soda ash as
Na2CO3.
(c) Draw a bar graph for the softened water before and after recarbonation. Assume that half the
alkalinity in the softened water is in the bicarbonate form.
Solution:

Components mg/l Equivalent Weight meq/l

CO2 8.8 22.0 0.40

Ca + + 40.0 20.0 2.00
Mg + + 14.7 12.2 1.21
Na + 13.7 23.0 0.60
Alk 135 50.0 2.70
SO4 = 29.0 48.0 0.60
Cl - 17.8 35.0 0.51
 0.0 2.00 3.21 3.81

CO2 Ca++ Mg++ Na+

0.4 HCO3 - SO4= Cl-
0.0 2.70 3.3 3.81

Meq/l bar graph for the raw water before treatment

Components MEQ/L Application Lime Soda Ash

Equation Meq/l Meq/l

CO2 0.40 7-15 0.40 0

Ca(HCO3)2 2.00 7-16 2.00 0
Mg(HCO3)2 0.70 7-17 1.40 0
MgSO4 0.51 7-18 & 7-19 0.51 0.51
4.31 0.51

Lime dosage = stoichiometric quantity + excess lime (35 mg/l CaO)

= 4.31 X 28 + 35 = 156 MG/L CaO
[note: eq. wt of CaO = (40 + 16) / 2 = 28]

Soda ash dosage = 0.51 x 53 = 27 mg/l Na2 CO3

[note: eq. wt. of Na2CO3 = (23 x 2 + 12 + 16 x 3) / 2 = 106/2 = 53]
 0.0 0.6 0.8 1.91
Ca++ Ca++ Mg++ Na+

OH- OH- CO3= SO4= Cl-

1.25 of excess lime 0.0 0.2 0.8 1.40 1.91

meq/L bar graph for water after excess lime softening but before
carbonation

Note on the above Figure:

• Excess lime = 35 mg/L CaO 35/28 = 1.25 meq/L
• Practical limits for hardness reduction:

* 30 mg/L of CaCO3 30/50 = 0.6 meq/L

* 10 mg/L of Mg(OH)2 as CaCO3 10/50 = 0.2 meq/L

Thus, alkalinity after softening and before re-carbonation consists of 0.2

meq/L of OH - associated with Mg and remaining 0.6 meq/L in the CO3 - form.

• Na+ : 0.6 meq/L originally present in water + 0.51 meq/L due to Na2CO3
addition = 1.11 meq/L
• SO4 = and Cl - meq/L are unchanged by the softening process.
0.0 0.6 0.8 1.91

Ca++ Mg++ Na+

HCO3- CO3= SO4= Cl-

0.0 0.4 0.8 1.40 1.91

meq/L bar graph for the softened water after re-carbonation

This bar graph is based on the assumption that half of the remaining alakalinity is in the
bicarbonate form. Recarbonation converts the excess hydroxide ions to carbonate ions
and converts the carbonate ions to bicarbonate ions.
Re-Carbonation:
First Stage: CO2 is added to convert excess OH- to carbonate ions:

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

The amount of CO2 = (1.25 + 0.2 ) X 22 = 31.9 mg/l

Thus, the total amount of co2 required for re-carbonation = 31.9 + 8.8 = 40.7 mg/l
 Cation-Exchange Softening

 Hard water is passed through a filter bed containing cation-exchange media (resins) where
Ca++ and Mg++ are absorbed on the media and an equivalent amount of Na+ is released into
solution.
Note:
Resin: insoluble polymers containig fixed cations or anions capable of reversible
exchange with mobile ions in the solution with which they are brought into contact.

When the media is exhausted, a strong sodium chloride solution (NaCl) is passed
through the bed to regenerate the media with Na+.
Brine containing Ca + + ,
Raw water and Mg + +
Ca + + and Mg + +

Sofetening:
Exchange Media
Ca + + containig Na+
Mg + +
(Polyster Resin)
0.5 mm in
diameter

Water free of Ca + + and Mg + + Re-generation solution

(NaCl)
But contain Na +
Desalination (Removal of salt)
 Processes used for desalination / deminerilazation

 Distillation – Reverse Osmosis – Ion exchange - Electrodialysis

 Salinity of wastewater ≈ 35,000 mg/L (mostly sodium

chloride).
 Salinity of brackish groundwater > 1000 mg/L

 Reverse Osmosis
* Osmosis: the process of diffusion/transfer of a solvent
(water) through a semi-permeable membrane from a solution of
a lower to one of a higher concentration.
*Reverse Osmosis: The forced passage of water through a
semi-permeable membrane against the natural osmotic pressure
to accomplish separation of water and ions.
*Membranes
● 100-150 mocrons (skin layer < 1 micron + porous support
structure).
● Size of pores: 0.001 microns (theoretical).
● Membrane material: cellulose acetate, polyamide

● Membrane configurations / modules:

● Spiral-wound module
Spiral-wound module membrane

Hallow fiber module membrane

Full Scale
Reverse
Osmosis units

Full Scale
Reverse Osmosis
plants
 * Operating pressure of RO a system: 350-1500 psi (24-100 bar)
Note: Osmotic pressure of sea water = 350 psi
Osmotic pressure of groundwater is much less (because TDS is low)

* Pre-treatment
● Saline water fed to RO system must be free of SS, organic matter, excessive hardness, and
Fe and Mn to prevent fouling and scaling of membranes.
● Pre-treatment Methods:
● Coagulation and filtration: to remove turbidity, Fe and Mn.
● Softening: to remove hardness.
● Adsorption (by AC): to remove organics.
● Acidification (addition of H2SO4): to reduce pH to less than 6 to convert HCO3- to CO2
gas in order to reduce CaCO3 scale and oxidation of Fe and Mn.
● Addition of scale inhibitors (e.g.hexametaphosphate): to prevent chemical scaling.
* Post-treatment
● RO product (permeate) must be stabilized.
● Post-treatment methods:
● Aeration: to remove CO2
● Addition of lime and soda ash: to adjust pH to about 8.0.
* Membrane Cleaning
● Flushing with acid rinses and cleaning agents to remove build-up of salts, metal ions,
organic matter or biological growths.
* Reject Brine
● Reject = 10% to 30% of the feed water.
FLOCCULATION

The objective of flocculation is to

provide for an increase in the number
of contacts between coagulated
particles suspended in water by gentle
and prolonged agitation. Agitation
results in collision of the particles
leading to the formation of floc large
enough to settle in a sedimentation
tank.
 Flocculation Theory

 The flocculation process relies on turbulence

to promote collisions between destabilized
particles to form large and dense flocs.

Design parameter for flocculation is Camp

Number, Gt ( a dimensionless number )
where
G = velocity gradient, s-1 ( 20 – 75 s-1 )
t = time, s ( 10 – 60 min )
Gt = 12 000 – 270 000
 Types of flocculation

Flocculation can be achieved by

mechanical devices or hydraulic
methods. Hydraulic methods are used
most often in small plants. Mechanical
flocculators cover a broad range of
configurations.
 Mechanical Flocculation

Advantages
 Flexibility of control
 Reduction in amount of chemicals used
 Less head loss
 Better floc formation if properly adjusted

Disadvantages
 Low velocity around the shaft
 Dead spaces in corners and possibility of
short circuiting
 High operation and maintenance cost
Design detail

Power = Force x Velocity

P  FD x p (1)

where
P = power input, Watt or Nm/s
FD = drag force on paddles, N
P = velocity of paddles (velocity
relative to the water), m/s
 1
FD  C D Ap p  (2)
2

where
CD = coefficient of drag, 1.8 for flat
blades
AP = area of paddle blades, m2
 = density of water, kg/m3
P  G 2 

P  G 
2
(3)

where
G = velocity gradient, s-1
 = dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2
= volume of mixing tank, m3
Therefore

C D AP p  
3

P (4)
2
Example 1 :

A 20 MLD water treatment plant has two mechanical

flocculating tanks each having a retention time of 35
minutes.
Based on the information below, answer the following
questions:

Length:Width Ratio = 4:1

Depth of water in tank = 3.0 m
Hydraulic gradient = 50 s-1
Dynamic viscosity = 0.798 x 10-3 kg/ms
Velocity of paddle = 0.4 m/s
Coefficient of drag = 1.8
 Determine the length and width of the
flocculating tank
 Calculate the power required for
each tank
 Find the area of each plate if the
flocculator has 3 paddles and every
paddle has 3 plates.
Flocculation basins (a) Horizontal paddles (b) Vertical paddles
 Hydraulic Flocculation

 Baffle type mixing basins are

examples of hydraulic flocculation
device. Baffles are provided in the
basins which induce the required
velocity gradients for achieving floc
formation.
Hydraulic Flocculation

Baffles
Advantages
 Simple to construct and operate

 Less chance of short-circuiting

Disadvantages
 Cannot be easily adjusted

 Increase head loss

Design details

1. Velocity in the channel should be 10 – 30

cm/s
2. Width of the channel should be minimum of
45 cm
3. Depth of flow should not be less than 1.0 m
4. The usual detention time is 20 – 30 minutes
5. Clear distance between baffle end and
wall normally 1.5 times distance between
baffles.
6. Minimum of two tanks to be built in any
treatment plant.
Example 2:

Design a baffle type basin of round the end

type with the following data:

Daily quantity of water to be treated = 15 MLD

Detention time = 25 min.
Average velocity of flow = 0.17 m/s
Distance between baffles = 0.75 m
Thickness of each baffle = 0.075 m
3 compartment, width of each
compartment = 3m
Thickness of compartment wall = 0.15 m
Solution:

 Calculate the tank volume, 

 = Q x t = 15 x 106 L/day x 25 min
= 260 m3
 For a detention time period of 25 min.
and a velocity of flow of 0.17 m/s, the
total distance of flow by water,
D = tx
= 25 min. x 0.17 m/s = 255 m.
Cross-sectional area of a channel
between baffles, Ax
Ax = /D
= 260/255 = 1.02 m2

Depth of channel, d
= A/(distance between baffles)
= 1.02/0.75
= 1.36m
The clear distance between baffle and
the end of wall is taken as 1.5 times the
distance between baffles; y
y = 1.5 x 0.75
= 1.125 m

The effective length of each channel; Pe

Pe = 3 - y = 3 – 1.125
= 1.875 m
No. of channels required for a flow length of
255 m
= D/Pe = 255/1.875 = 136

No. of channels for each compartment

= 136/3 = 46

Length of basin
= (46 x 0.75) + (45x 0.075) = 38 m

Width of basin
= (3x3) + (2x0.15) = 9.3 m