SEDL insights

Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014

Concepción “Como” Molina, EdD

Teaching Mathematics Conceptually

Mathematics instruction in the United States has historically focused on procedures, facts, and
algorithms. Because of that focus, mathematics instruction, in essence, becomes lessons in
arithmetic and efficiency. While there are promising changes occurring in mathematics instruc-
tion, we still need to help both teachers and students develop a more conceptual understand-
ing of mathematics. This issue of SEDL Insights explains how educators can shift from helping
students memorize rules to facilitating a deeper understanding of mathematics concepts.

I
t is entirely possible for students to memorize
mathematics facts and manipulate numbers
without having any deep knowledge of the
concepts or processes involved. Memorization of
rules and mastery of computation are not the same as
true knowledge of mathematical concepts and ideas.
The result of these practices is lower achievement in
mathematics. According to the National Assessment
of Educational Progress, only 42% of fourth-grade
students and only 35% of eighth-grade students were
at or above the proficient level in mathematics for
their grades.1 Similarly, only 44% of 2013 U.S. high school graduates are ready for college-level math.2 If
we want to help students develop the math skills that
will enable them to enter STEM (science, technology,
SEDL Insights on Teaching engineering, and mathematics) fields and allow the
Mathematics Conceptually U.S. to remain competitive globally, we need to change
some of our instructional strategies.
1. Use instructional language with care. The insights described below are based on
2. Emphasize concepts instead of both my professional and personal experiences in
algorithms and shortcuts. the world of mathematics education—as a student
3. Avoid naked numbers.
4. Help students make connections 1
NAEP, 2013.
among concepts. 2
ACT, 2013.

Advancing Research, Improving Education Copyright © 2014 by SEDL http://www.sedl.org/insights

2 Teaching Mathematics Conceptually SEDL Insights / Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014

simultaneously learning mathematics and English

as a second language, as a secondary math
teacher, as a professional development consultant
at SEDL, and as a doctoral student surveying the
existing research and curricula for mathematics
instruction in the United States. Because of these
experiences, I am calling on educators to shift
their instructional focus. Instead of emphasizing
misleading instructional language, short cuts, and
the memorization of algorithms in math class, we
can help students develop a deep understanding
of mathematical concepts and identify connections
between these concepts.3 Math teachers and
instructional coaches should find these insights
helpful in developing a deeper understanding of
mathematics concepts, which should improve both plodded onward without any real understanding.
instruction and student learning.4 Fortunately, new curricula and texts describe the
process of changing 9/12 to 3/4 as simplifying

1
rather than reducing.
Use instructional Mathematics is a precise discipline, and
Insight language with care. teachers sometimes don’t realize that a slight
deviation in language can render the content
erroneous. Take for example the definition of an
Over time, common terms have become embedded
exponent. Some teachers drift from the correct
in mathematics instruction; these terms often have
version—the exponent indicates how many times
a different definition in standard English than in
the base appears as a factor—and instead inform
mathematics. This can be extremely confusing or
students that the exponent tells you how many
misleading—and inaccurate.
times the base is multiplied. Correctly expanded,
For example, a teacher might write the fraction
the expression 73 would be 7 • 7 • 7. Note that
9/12 and tell students to reduce the fraction. The
there are two multiplications, not three. Based
students are expected to follow the computation
on the careless definition, 73 would be expressed
process and arrive at the solution 3/4. The careless
as 7 • 7 • 7 • 7, which is, of course, incorrect. The
use of the term reduce in mathematics is in direct
slight deviation is well intended, but the result
contradiction to the standard English definition, “to
is a mathematically incorrect definition that is
make smaller.” Is it any wonder that some students
inadvertently taught to students and that affects
get confused and think that 3/4 is smaller than
future learning.
9/12? After all, 3 and 4 are smaller than 9 and 12.
These shortcomings are not limited to
When I was a student, my teacher had a difficult
language and can be due to omission rather than
time convincing me that those two fractions were
carelessness. The sign “–” is an excellent example.
equal. This was like many other experiences where
The tendency is to focus on interpretations such
I blindly accepted what the teacher said and
as minus, subtract, or negative. A poll of my
colleagues, many of whom hold doctorates in
3
These concepts are outlined in greater detail in Molina’s book
The Problem with Math Is English: A Language-Focused Ap-
education, revealed that most had never been
proach to Helping All Students Develop a Deeper Understanding taught that in certain contexts, this sign should
of Mathematics. See Molina, 2012. be interpreted as meaning “the opposite of.” This
4
Kilpatrick et al., 2001; Molina, 2004.
 SEDL Insights / Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014 Teaching Mathematics Conceptually 3

2
interpretation is the least used but arguably the
Emphasize concepts
most important. Consider the expression –y. A Insight instead of algorithms
common mistake is to pronounce this expression
and shortcuts.
as “negative y.” This problematic pronunciation
leads students to the false conclusion that the Another tradition deeply ingrained in mathematics
expression represents a negative number. What instruction is a focus on algorithms and shortcuts
if y = –4? In this case, the value of –y is –(–4), without first ensuring conceptual understanding.
or a positive 4. The difficulty in an expression Algorithms and shortcuts are not inherently bad;
such as –(–4) is that each negative sign must the key to using them to help rather than hinder
be translated differently. The negative sign understanding lies in the sequence of events
outside the parentheses should be translated that occur in learning mathematics concepts.
as “the opposite of,” while the sign inside the Mathematics instruction must first ensure that
parentheses should be translated as “negative,” students’ conceptual understanding is deeply
for the full interpretation, “the opposite of embedded. When students have truly mastered
negative 4.” This interpretation enables students a concept, they should be able to show all the
to understand better why the end result is a detailed steps in a process, explain why those steps
positive 4. In addition, the interpretation “the occur, and connect the process to related concepts.
opposite of” not only simplifies and deepens Once students reach this level of understanding,
content understanding but helps instruction a teacher can then expose them to more efficient
by eliminating inaccurate rules such as “two ways to express or perform those same processes.
negatives make a positive,” a rule that is yet Relying only on algorithms and procedures and
another example of how mathematics instruction focusing on shortcuts results in teaching efficiency,
is sometimes far more complex than is necessary. not mathematics. Shortcuts become the means to
The above examples illustrate just a few ways get to the answer with the unfortunate result of
that careless language can cause confusion in bypassing conceptual understanding, a tradeoff
mathematics instruction. If a student is struggling that may make it more difficult for students to
to understand a mathematical concept, consider understand more complex topics as they advance
whether language is playing a role in the difficulty. in school.
By focusing on the language of mathematics, The process of simplifying a fraction provides an
teachers can improve both content and instruction, excellent example of the shortcomings of shortcuts.
ensuring that students gain a deep understanding Refer to the examples shown below.
of mathematics.

6 3 x 2 3
___ = _______ – ___
8 4 x 2 4

versus
6 3 x 2 3 2 3 3
___ = _______ = ___ x ___ = ___ x 1 = ___
8 4 x 2 4 2 4 4
4 Teaching Mathematics Conceptually SEDL Insights / Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014

Although efficient, the first—and shorter—

method leaves students with a fuzzy notion of
what really happened. Contrast the shortened
approach with the second, complete, process, which
includes all the appropriate steps. By including each
step, the complete process imparts a conceptual
understanding of the multiplicative identity, the
basic idea that any number multiplied by 1 remains
the same. This fundamental property is the lynchpin
for a deep understanding of what truly happens
when you simplify a fraction. More important,
the multiplicative identity is one of the primary
algebraic tools used in solving equations. my professional experience, naked numbers are
If teachers simply show students the first one of the prime offenders lurking behind this poor
method, students only learn that this “shortcut” performance. Measurement is not just about inches
is the way the teacher showed them and is what and pounds and liters. It must be perceived from
they are expected to do. Instead, by insisting that a much broader lens. An 8 isn’t just that numerical
students use the full process and explain what they symbol, and it isn’t necessarily 8 meters or 8 pounds.
are doing, teachers help them establish a foundation It can represent an infinite number of concepts
for algebra. The detailed method that shows all the from 8 elephants to 8 computers. Thus, we need to
critical steps guides students through the process, connect the idea of measurement to the larger idea
resulting in a more thorough understanding of what of representation in mathematics. That is, students
simplifying a fraction involves and why it works. recognize that a numeral such as 8 is an incomplete

3
expression and that it has meaning beyond a
simple quantity. Students’ poor performance in
Insight Avoid naked numbers. the measurement strand could be a symptom of
the system’s lack of emphasis on the language and
representation of mathematics and not just an
The phrase naked numbers refers to the prevalent indication that students have trouble with standard
use of numerals in isolation—without any units of measure.
descriptors, units, or context. Traditional instruction Unfortunately, the problems that have
continually uses naked numbers, especially in been discussed do not occur in isolation. These
the form of drill and practice geared to student shortcomings often occur simultaneously and
memorization of facts or procedures. As a result, reinforce each other, compounding students’
students can easily lose sight of the meaning of confusion and misconceptions. Examine the problem
numbers and numerals, resulting in a diminished 8 ÷ 1/2. Careless vocabulary is used when students
view of mathematics. are taught to interpret this expression as “how many
Without any context, teachers and students times does 1/2 go into 8?” Add to this confusing
alike forget the meaning of the numerals and the language the lack of instructional emphasis on what
key idea that they represent something. In looking those naked numbers represent. Just what do the 8
at student performance on state-mandated exams, and the 1/2 actually mean? Even if students manage to
measurement is one of the areas where students block out the confusion, do they really understand the
historically perform poorly.5 Why is this? Based on procedure? If students do attain the correct solution,
do they have any idea what the correct answer,16,
5
Chen, Reys, & Reys, 2009. represents? Can they make sense of why the result of
 SEDL Insights / Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014 Teaching Mathematics Conceptually 5

division was “larger” than the original number rather

than “smaller”? The keys lie in understanding the
question posed by the symbolism and knowing what
the solution represents. Instead of using the infamous
“goes into,” what if the students understood that the
question was “How many halves are there in 8?” In
turn, the students would understand that the quotient
is 16 halves, not just the naked number 16. Now the
“larger” answer makes sense because you have taken
the 8 wholes and partitioned them into 16 smaller
pieces, in this case, halves.

4
Help students make
Insight connections among multiplication. Many teachers define multiplication
concepts. as repeated addition, but with that limited
understanding, the progress to an understanding of
We have all heard the expression “work smarter, an average comes to a screeching halt. It is true that
not harder.” It seems that teachers are continually multiplication is repeated addition, but the critical
expected to take on more and more responsibilities. missing component is the idea that multiplication
In mathematics, one way to improve teaching and is repeated addition of equal-sized groups. The
maximize instructional time is to find and utilize expression 3 × 4 can be expanded to 4 + 4 + 4, which
connections among mathematical concepts and represents 3 equal-sized groups of 4 each.
ideas. As previously mentioned, making these The next step to a deeper understanding of an
connections takes advantage of the fact that average is to make a connection to the concept of
knowledge about one topic comprises part of the division. Closer inspection of both multiplication
knowledge of another. That common knowledge and division at the elementary and middle school
does not have to be taught again, but the teacher levels reveals that both processes involve the same
does have to recognize and make the connection. basic three components: a total, a certain number
Recognizing the connections depends on deep of groups, and a constant size for each group.
understanding of math concepts and processes. Multiplication and division are actually more similar
An example of an opportunity to make than different. The only difference between the two
connections is the conceptual definition of processes is which of the components are known
an average. The key to that definition is a and which are unknown.
deep understanding of the related concept of By focusing on equal-sized groups, students
see that division is about equal sharing. With
division, we start with a known total, whereas in
an averaging context the total is unknown. So,
the key difference is the starting point. For an
average, we must combine the different-sized
groups into one total. After doing that, we are at
the starting point of a division context. By making
this connection, students realize that if division is
about equal distribution, then an average is simply
an equal redistribution. Let that soak in. Defining
an average as an equal redistribution is simple,
6 Teaching Mathematics Conceptually SEDL Insights / Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014

yet deep and conceptual, as well as applicable

to a multitude of contexts; however, such a
conceptual definition could not be attained without
a connection to division and in turn, a connection
to multiplication that is founded on a complete in-
depth understanding of multiplication as a concept
(and not just how to multiply).
The multiplication of decimals is another
example of how making connections to related
concepts can help students develop a deeper
understanding of a process. Most of us are familiar
with the old adage that laments not seeing the
forest because of the trees. In this situation, it is easy
to miss connections because they are almost too
numbers in decimal form, most of us pretended that
obvious. Consider the example below:
we were dealing with whole numbers—because
that is what we had been taught. Now note that the
3.5 result in the denominator is 1000. What is a simple
.13
x______ way to divide by 1000? Move the original decimal
105 point 3 spaces to the left. We realize that there was
35 no magic, and the process with decimals makes
______ sense via the fraction connection. Note the depth
455 of understanding possible when we make this
connection instead of following the rule without
thinking about why it gives us the answer.
We are taught to pretend there are no decimals
Lastly, it is critical to understand that we
and complete the operation as if we are multiplying
sometimes teach more than one concept or process
whole numbers. That is what is illustrated above. We
simultaneously, yet the teacher and, in turn, the
are instructed to then count the number of places to
students do not make the connection and miss
the right of the decimal point in the two factors and
an opportunity to save extensive work and effort.
that total is the number of places we should have to
Examine the process below as an example:
the right of the decimal point in the product. Thus,
the solution above is .455. But, again, the question
2 2 2 2 2 x 2 4
is why? The answer lies in making the connection ___ = ___ x 1 = ___ x ___ = _______ = ___
to what this problem looks like when the decimals 3 3 3 2 3 x 2 6
are expressed as fractions! Note the same problem
below expressed in fractional form:
You will recognize this as the process involved in
creating an equivalent fraction. Note that the critical
35 13 455
___ x ___ = _____ idea is multiplication by 1 and also that there are no
10 100 1000 shortcuts. Now examine a similar example:

4 2 x 2 2 2 2 2
If we follow this process, we will see the forest! ___ = _______ = ___ x ___ = ___ x 1 = ___
Note that we multiply the numerators, which are 6 3 x 2 3 2 3 3
whole numbers. When we were multiplying the
 SEDL Insights / Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 2014 Teaching Mathematics Conceptually 7

You should recognize that this is the process

for simplifying a fraction (not reducing it) that
was illustrated in Insight 1. If we examine both
processes, we can easily make a connection. Note
that one process is simply the other in reverse
order. Using shortcuts can mask the similarities and
hinder teachers from seeing the connection. By not
taking shortcuts and insisting on illustrating the full
process, teachers would actually do less work by
teaching two ideas simultaneously.

Conclusion
Few would argue that there are opportunities to
improve student achievement in mathematics
• The Problem with Math Is English: A
in schools across the United States. By skipping
Language-Focused Approach to Helping All
shortcuts that are a common component of
Students Develop a Deeper Understanding of
mathematics instruction and instead focusing on
Mathematics
instructional language and a deep understanding
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/ms108.html
of mathematical concepts, educators can help
their students develop the math skills necessary for • Center for High-Performing Schools at SEDL
progress and innovation in STEM fields. http://highperformingschools.sedl.org/cc_math/
• SEDL’s free resources for mathematics and
sciences
How SEDL Can Help http://www.sedl.org/pubs/free_mathscience.html
The insights described above are based on my • Common Core State Standards Video Series for
book, The Problem with Math Is English: A Language- Mathematics
Focused Approach to Helping All Students Develop http://secc.sedl.org/common_core_videos/
a Deeper Understanding of Mathematics. The • Information about SEDL’s expertise in
book explores these insights in greater detail mathematics
and provides a more in-depth explanation of http://www.sedl.org/expertise/mathematics.html
how teachers can help their students develop a
conceptual understanding of mathematics. For more information about mathematics instruction
SEDL also offers a suite of free resources, and teaching math conceptually, contact Concepción
professional development, and evaluation services “Como” Molina at [email protected].
for educators who are interested in improving
mathematics instruction in their district or school.
For more information, please explore the
following resources:
8 Leadership
Teaching Mathematics
Actions forConceptually
Transforming Schools SEDL Insights
SEDL
/ Vol.
Insights
1, No. 1,
/ Vol.
Spring
1, No.
2013
4, Winter 2014

References Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., Findell, B., & Mathematics Learning
Study Committee, National Research Council (U.S.).
ACT. (2013). The condition of college and career readiness: (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics.
2013. Iowa, City, IA: Author. Retrieved from http://www. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
act.org/research/policymakers/cccr13/pdf/CCCR13- Molina, C. (2004). A qualitative case study of the subject matter
NationalReadinessRpt.pdf knowledge of central Texas middle school mathematics
Ahn, S., & Choi, J. (2004). A synthesis of the quantitative literature teachers (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M
on students’ mathematics achievement. Paper presented University–Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX.
at the American Educational Research Association, San Molina, C. (2012). The problem with math is English: A language-
Diego, CA. focused approach to helping all students develop a deeper
Chen, J., Reys, B. J., & Reys, R. E. (2009). Analysis of the learning understanding of mathematics. San Francisco, CA:
expectations related to grade 1–8 measurement in some Jossey-Bass.
countries. International Journal of Science and Mathematics National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2013). The
Education, 7(5), 1013–1031. Nation’s Report Card: Reading and mathematics 2013.
Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences. (2001). Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://
The mathematical education of teachers. Providence, RI: nationsreportcard.gov/subject/reading_math_2013/pdf/
American Mathematical Society. infographic.pdf

Falkner, K., Levi, L., & Carpenter, T. (1999). Children’s

understanding of equality: A foundation for algebra.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 6(4), 232–236.

Copyright Permission Acknowledgment

Examples used from The Problem with Math is English: A Language-Focused Approach to Helping All Students Develop a Deeper
Understanding of Mathematics, by C. Molina, 2012, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Copyright ©2012 by SEDL. Adapted by SEDL
in compliance with SEDL’s agreement with the publisher for the author’s use of his published work.

SEDL Insights is based on the experience, expertise, and research of SEDL staff. It is designed to give
education practitioners practical suggestions for implementing school improvement strategies.

About SEDL http://www.sedl.org

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SEDL Insights
Author: Concepción “Como” Molina Copyright © 2014 by SEDL
Editor: Laura Shankland, MA, PMP You are welcome to reproduce issues of SEDL Insights and distribute
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