GR 7_Science in Action_case cvr 12/14/06 3:34 PM Page 1

AUTHORS

Carey Booth
George Cormie
Dean Eichorn
Aubry Farenholtz
Josef Martha
Joanne Neal
Shelagh Reading
Lionel Sandner

ISBN 0-201-70756-X

9 780201 707564
www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:20 PM Page i
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:20 PM Page ii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page iii

Addison Carey Booth

Wesley Science Education Writer, Canmore, Alberta
Science
Authors George Cormie
Kyn Barker
Black Gold Regional Schools, Leduc, Alberta
Carey Booth
Dean Eichorn
Steve Campbell
Langley School District, Langley, British Columbia
George Cormie
Dean Eichorn Aubry Farenholtz
Aubry Farenholtz School Division 35, Langley, British Columbia
Gary Greenland
Douglas Hayhoe Josef Martha
Doug Herridge Northern Gateway Regional Division 10, Onoway, Alberta
Kathy Kubota-Zarivnij
Josef Martha Joanne Neal, Ph.D.
Joanne Neal, Ph.D. Faculty of Education, University of Alberta, Edmonton,
Shelagh Reading Alberta
Lionel Sandner
Beverley Williams Shelagh Reading
Calgary Board of Education, Calgary, Alberta

Lionel Sandner
Saanich School Board, Saanich, British Columbia

Toronto
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page iv

Copyright © 2001 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Addison Wesley would like to thank the teachers who field-tested the
Toronto, Ontario Science in Action resources prior to publication. Their feedback and
constructive recommendations have been most valuable in helping us
All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, to develop a quality science program that we know will serve Alberta
and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to students and teachers well.
any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or
transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, Field Test Teachers
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For Rachelle Becker, Parkdale School, Edmonton School District No. 7
information regarding permission, write to the Permissions
Kerry Blum, Midsun Junior High School, Calgary School District No. 19
Department.
Peggy Bly, Broxton Park School, Parkland School Division No. 70
The information and activities presented in this book have been Karin Boldt, St. Margaret School, Calgary Roman Catholic Separate
carefully edited and reviewed. However, the publisher shall not School District No. 1
be liable for any damages resulting, in whole or in part, from Cathy Crichton, Tom Baines Junior High School, Calgary School District
the reader’s use of this material. No. 19
Nicole Duigou-Jones, St. Elizabeth Seton, Edmonton Catholic Regional
Brand names that appear in photographs of products in this Division No. 40
textbook are intended to provide students with a sense of the Rhonda Easton, Bentley School, Wolf Creek School Division No. 72
real-world applications of science and technology and are in no Joan Farrell, Ecole Dickinsfield School, Fort McMurray School District
way intended to endorse specific products. No. 2833
Tara Fullam, St. Anthony School, St. Thomas Aquinas Roman Catholic
Separate, Regional Division No. 38
Project Team Kelly Goheen, Central Middle School, Red Deer School District No. 104
Laurel Bishop May Look Gary Hanna, Tomahawk School, Parkland School Division No. 70
Cecilia Chan Louise MacKenzie
Kim Hodder, Senator Riley School, Foothills School Division No. 38
Ellen Davidson Sandra Magill
Dawna Day-Harris Georgina Montgomery Deborah Hymers, Elboya Elementary Junior High School, Calgary School
District No. 19
Jackie Dulson, Ph.D. Alex Odulak
Kathleen ffolliott Kathrine Pummell Lynne Jewell, Camilla School, Sturgeon School Division No. 24
Lee Geller Jeff Siamon Randall Kondruk, Elmer S. Gish School, St. Albert Protestant Separate
Susan Green Theresa Thomas School District No. 6
Lynne Gulliver Yvonne Van Ruskenveld Shelley Lammie, Akiva Academy, Congregation House of Jacob - Mikveh
Mary Hargan Heather Walter Israel
Dominic Ho Judy Wilson David Luyten, Alexandra Junior High School, Medicine Hat School District
Keith Lennox No. 76
Heather MacDonald, Caledonia Park School, Black Gold Regional Division
Photo Research No. 18
Nancy Belle Cook Blake MacKay, Eastview Middle School, Red Deer School District No. 104
Colborne Communications/Eva Blank Laura Magowan, Blackie School, Foothills School Division No. 38
Paulee Kestin
Nancy Mar, Londonderry School, Edmonton School District No. 7
Karen Taylor
George Nickel, John D. Bracco School, Edmonton School District No. 7
Paul Nickerson, St. Joseph Elementary/Junior High School, Calgary
Design
Roman Catholic Separate School District No. 1
Word & Image Design Studio Inc.
Brenda Stafford, Prairie River Junior High School, High Prairie School
Division No. 48
Rick Stoltz, Fox Creek School, Northern Gateway Regional Division
ISBN 0-201-70756-X
No. 10
Printed and bound in Canada
Maria Straus, Dr. Swift Middle School, Northern Lights School Division
2 3 4 5 — TR — 08 07 06 No. 69
Gordon Strowbridge, Westpark Middle School, Red Deer School District
No. 104
Peter Thorpe, Griffiths-Scott School, Wetaskiwin Regional Division No. 11
Gillian Vas, Prairiehome Colony School, Horizon School Division No. 67
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page v

Contributors/Consultants Program Reviewers Language and Readability

Susan Tywoniuk
David Blades, Ph.D. Bill Andrews, Ph.D. Mary Butterworth School,
Department of Secondary Education, Department of Education, Edmonton, Alberta
University of Alberta, Edmonton, University of Toronto,
Alberta Toronto, Ontario Social Considerations
Shelley Agecoutay
Steve Cairns Brenda Andrews, Ph.D. Saskatoon Public School Division,
Buckingham Elementary School, Department of Medical Genetics and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Burnaby, British Columbia Microbiology,
University of Toronto, Social Considerations
Janet Chow Don Kindt
Toronto, Ontario
Buckingham Elementary School, Consultant, formerly Yellowknife
Burnaby, British Columbia Melody Baxter Catholic Schools, Yellowknife,
Cardston Junior High School, Northwest Territories
Julie Czerneda
Cardston, Alberta
Writer, Orillia, Ontario Accuracy Reviews
Debby Belyea Michelle Arnot, Ph.D.
Clayton Ellis
Siksika Nation High School, Postdoctoral Research Associate
Central Technical School, Toronto,
Siksika Nation, Alberta Department of Physiology and
Ontario
Graham Best Biophysics
Jane Forbes Neuroscience Research Group
Vancouver Technical Secondary
E.C. Drury High School, Milton, University of Calgary
School, Vancouver, British Columbia
Ontario
Rob Bichel Ronald A. Kydd
Dianne Guy Professor and Head
H.J. Cody School, Sylvan Lake, Alberta
Windsor Elementary School, Burnaby, Department of Chemistry
British Columbia Kim Burley University of Calgary
Lindsay Thurber Composite High
Don Kindt Dr. Alfredo A. Louro
School, Red Deer, Alberta
Consultant, formerly Yellowknife Senior Instructor
Catholic Schools, Yellowknife, Jayni Caldwell Department of Physics & Astronomy
Northwest Territories Foothills Composite High School, University of Calgary
Okotoks, Alberta
Holly Lloyd Jean-Michel Maillol, Ph.D.
Buckingham Elementary School, Linda Crandall Assistant Professor of Earth Science
Burnaby, British Columbia Hamilton Junior High School, University of Calgary
Lethbridge, Alberta
Mary McDougall Dr. David A. Naylor
Calgary Separate School Board, Michael Dzwiniel Professor of Physics
Calgary, Alberta Harry Ainley High School, Edmonton, University of Lethbridge, Alberta
Alberta
Gordon Spann Kim H. Rensing, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.
H.D. Stafford Secondary School, Sandra Eix, Ph.D. Department of Botony
Langley, British Columbia Physical Sciences Curator University of British Columbia
Science World British Columbia
ICT Consultant Dr. Robert I. Thompson
Joanne Neal, Ph.D. Bruce Gurney Assistant Professor
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Sutherland Secondary School, Department of Physics & Astronomy
Alberta North Vancouver, British Columbia University of Calgary
Zenovia Lazaruik Svein Vagle, Ph.D.
Siksika Nation High School, Research Scientist
Siksika Nation, Alberta Ocean Sciences and Productivity
Rick Stoltz Division
Fox Creek School, Fox Creek, Alberta Institute of Ocean Sciences
Department of Fisheries and Oceans,
Safety Canada
Margaret-Ann Armour, Ph.D.
Chemistry Department, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page vi

CONTENTS
Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems 2 2.0 The flow of energy and the cycling of matter
can be traced and interpreted in ecosystems. 26
Exploring 4
2.1 Ecosystems Have Interactions among
Saving Frank Lake 5
Producers, Consumers, and
Give it a TRY Activity: Creating a Plan 6
Decomposers 27
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 7
Give it a TRY Activity: Creating a Food List 27
1.0 Relationships exist between living things You and Other Animals Are Food
and their environments. 8 Consumers 28
Food Consumers Depend on Food
1.1 Defining an Ecosystem and Learning
Producers 28
about Basic Needs 9
A Special Group of Consumers:
Give it a TRY Activity: Biotic and Scavengers and Decomposers 31
Abiotic Factors in the Classroom 9 Decomposers Can Be Helpful or Harmful 32
Your Schoolyard 10 Decomposers Are Essential to All
The World within an Ecosystem 11 Ecosystems 33
The Needs of Living Things 12 Check and Reflect 33
Decision Making Activity: Buried Alive 14
Meeting Your Basic Needs 15
2.2 Food Chains Demonstrate the Flow
Check and Reflect 15
of Energy in Ecosystems 35

Give it a TRY Activity: Where Did

1.2 Interactions among Living Things 16
That Food Come From? 36
Symbiotic Relationships 16 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 36
Inquiry Activity: Ecosystem in a Jar 18 Check and Reflect 38
Adapting to the Environment 19
Check and Reflect 19
2.3 Food Webs 39

Food Webs and Ecosystems 39

1.3 Human Impacts on Ecosystems 20
Give it a TRY Activity: Disappearing
Declining Beaver Population 20 Organisms 39
Give it a TRY Activity: Impacts on Inquiry Activity: Food Web Chain Reaction 40
Ecosystems 20 Meadow Food Web 42
Dealing with Our Garbage 21 Check and Reflect 43
Decision Making Activity: What Kind
of Drink Container Would Lessen Our 2.4 Matter Cycles in Ecosystems 44

Impact on the Environment? 22 Water and Carbon Cycles 45

The Garbage Solutions 23 Check and Reflect 46
Check and Reflect 24 Careers and Profiles:
Naturalists—Our Environmental Watchdogs 47
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 25
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 25 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 48
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 49
Ethnobotanists 49

vi
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page vii

3.0 Changes can be observed and 4.0 Maintaining sustainable environments

monitored in ecosystems. 50 requires knowledge, decisions, and actions. 66

3.1 Investigating the Distribution of 4.1 There Are Intended and Unintended
Living Things in an Environment 51 Consequences of Human Activities
Distribution of Living Things 51 within Ecosystems 67

Inquiry Activity: Human Impact in Human Impact on Ecosystems:

the Schoolyard 52 Chemical Use 67
Check and Reflect 54 Human Impact on Ecosystems:
Too Little Too Late? 69
3.2 Interactions and Changes Occur in
Decision Making Activity:
Ecosystems 55
Crossing the Border 70
Give it a TRY Activity: To Change Famous Potatoes 71
or Not to Change 55 Check and Reflect 71
All Things Change 56 TRY This at Home Activity:
Bioinvasion 56 Impacts on the Environment 72
Competition 57
Inquiry Activity: Survival in the Field 58 4.2 Information from Scientific Investigations
Predation 60 Can Assist Environmental Decision-Making 73

Weather 60 Give it a TRY Activity: Investigating

Check and Reflect 60 the Elk Population 73
Experiment on Your Own: Competition The Saving of the Peregrine Falcon 74
between Three or More Species 61 Check and Reflect 75

3.3 Succession: How Ecosystems Change 4.3 There Are Limitations to Scientific and
over Time 62 Technological Knowledge 76

Give it a TRY Activity: Can You The Walk That No Wolf Would Take 77
Identify the Pioneer Species? 62 Check and Reflect 77
What Is Succession? 63
4.4 Using Evidence from Many Sources Can
Check and Reflect 64
Help Analyze a Local Environmental
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 65 Problem 78
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 65 Ecological Footprint 78
Comparing Ecological Footprints 79
Decision Making Activity: What Can You
Do to Reduce Your Ecological Impact? 80
Factors That Reduce Your Ecological
Footprint 82
Check and Reflect 82

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 83

Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 83

Science World Case Study:

Forest Harvesting 84

Unit Summary 85

Project: Design a Land-Use Plan 86

Unit Review 89

vii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page viii

Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre 92 Plants Are Adapted to Their
Environments 118
Exploring 94 Check and Reflect 120
Surviving in the Wilderness 95
1.5 Plant Needs and Growing Conditions 121
Give it a TRY Activity: Survivor! 96
Give it a TRY Activity: Planting a
Focus On: Science and Technology 97
Virtual Garden 121
1.0 Understanding structures and life processes Plants Need Different Amounts
of plants helps us to interpret their needs. 98 of Light 122

1.1 The Body of Seed Plants 99 Plants Need Different Amounts

of Water 122
Give it a TRY Activity: Plant Part
Plants Need Different Nutrients 122
Charades 99
Plants Need Different Amounts of
Problem Solving Activity: Design a
Space 122
Model of a Seed Plant 100
Inquiry Activity: Investigating
Each Plant Structure Has a Function 101
Growing Conditions 123
Check and Reflect 101
Check and Reflect 124
1.2 Plant Processes 102
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 125
Give it a TRY Activity: Moving in the Focus On: Science and Technology 125
Right Direction 102
A Process for Moving Water Up
2.0 Plants play an essential role in the
from the Roots 103
environment and in meeting human needs. 126
A Process to Make Food 104
A Process to Use Food 104 2.1 The Role of Plants in the Environment 127

Inquiry Activity: Plants at Work 105 Give it a TRY Activity: Nature’s

Processes to Move Substances In and Connections 127
Out of Plant Cells 106 Problem Solving Activity: Why in the
A Process to Exchange Gases 107 World Do We Need Plants? 128
Check and Reflect 107 Check and Reflect 129
Experiment on Your Own: Light and
2.2 We Use Plants in Many Ways 130
Plant Growth 108
Give it a TRY Activity: When Is a
1.3 Reproduction of Seed Plants 109 Tree Not a Tree? 130
Give it a TRY Activity: The Secret Plants for Food 131
of Seeds 109 Plants for Fibre 131
The Life Cycle of Seed Plants 110 Plants Can Be Used in
Reproduction of Seed Plants 111 Many Other Ways 132
Problem Solving Activity: Check and Reflect 132
Germination and Growth 112 Careers and Profiles: Syrup Producer 132
Check and Reflect 115
2.3 Managing Living Resources 133
1.4 Plant Structures Are Adapted to Their Give it a TRY Activity: Using a
Environment 116 Living Resource 133
Give it a TRY Activity: Beneath Problem Solving Activity:
Your Feet 116 Communicating Ideas about
Problem Solving Activity: Creating a Managed Resource 134
a Lesson About Flowers 117 Changes Caused by Human Activity 135

viii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page ix

Managing Living Resources for Now Problem Solving Activity: Growing

and the Future 136 Plants without Soil 152
Check and Reflect 136 Technologies to Produce and Harvest
Plants 154
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 137
Artificial Environments to Control
Focus On: Science and Technology 137
Growing Conditions 155
Check and Reflect 155
3.0 Soil is an important resource that human
activity can protect or degrade. 138 4.2 New Plant Varieties Are Developed by
Selective Breeding 156
3.1 What Is Soil? 139
Give it a TRY Activity: A Rose by
Give it a TRY Activity: All Soils Are Any Other Name 156
Not Created Equal 139 Problem Solving Activity: The Key
Problem Solving Activity: Designer to Variety 157
Soil 140 We Grow Particular Varieties of Plants 158
Soil Contains Minerals and Organic Varieties Are Developed by Selective
Matter 141 Breeding 158
Different Plants for Different Soils 142 Check and Reflect 159
Check and Reflect 142 Careers and Profiles: Plant Pathologist 159
TRY This at Home Activity: How Does
Your Garden Grow? 142
4.3 Controlling Weeds and Pests 160

3.2 Our Practices Can Improve or Degrade Soil 143 Give it a TRY Activity: What’s the Real
Story Here? 160
Give it a TRY Activity: Human
Controlling Weeds with Herbicides 161
Activity and the Soil 143
Controlling Insects with Pesticides 161
Soil Is an Important Natural
Biological Control 162
Resource 144
Check and Reflect 162
Fertilizer Use 144
Irrigation 144 4.4 Consequences of Environmental
Clearing the Land Can Damage Soil 145 Management 163
Decision Making Activity: Fertilizers Give it a TRY Activity: Intended and
and Soil 146 Unintended Consequences 163
Plowing Changes Soil 147 Some Practices Have Unintended
Crop Rotation Helps to Keep Soil Consequences for the Environment 163
Healthy 147 Problem Solving Activity: Reducing
Check and Reflect 148 Our Impact 165
Sustainable Management 166
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 149
Check and Reflect 166
Focus On: Science and Technology 149
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 167
4.0 The ways that plants are grown and used Focus On: Science and Technology 167
are related to human needs, technology,
and the environment. 150 Science World Case Study:
Genetically Modified Organisms 168
4.1 Modifying Environments to Increase Yields 151
Unit Summary 169
Give it a TRY Activity: Making
Changes 151 Project: Design and Build a Growth Chamber 170

Unit Review 172

ix
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page x

Unit C: Heat and Temperature 174 How the Particle Model Explains
Changes in State 196
Exploring 176 Check and Reflect 197
Survival in a Space Suit 177
2.2 Heat and Temperature 198
Connecting Space and Earth 178
Total Kinetic Energy 198
Give it a TRY Activity:
Energy Transfers 199
Is It Hot? Is It Cold? 178
The Difference between Heat and
Focus On:
Temperature 199
Social and Environmental Context 179
Understanding the Difference 200
Measuring Temperature with
1.0 Human needs have led to technologies Thermometers 200
for obtaining and controlling heat. 180 Inquiry Activity: Investigating
Temperature Measurement 201
1.1 History of Heat Technologies 181
History of the Thermometer 202
Early Theories of Heat 181 Check and Reflect 202
Heat Is Energy 181
2.3 Heat Affects the Volume of Solids,
Humans Using Heat 182
Liquids, and Gases 203
Give it a TRY Activity: No More Heat 182
Heat and Human Needs 183 Observing the Effect of Heat 203

Heat-Related Materials and Inquiry Activity: Heating and Cooling

Technologies 183 a Copper Wire 204

Heating Technology through Time 184 Expansion and Contraction of Solids 205

Check and Reflect 184 Heat Affects the Volume of Liquids

and Gases 205
1.2 Heat Technologies in Everyday Life 185
Expansion and Contraction in
Give it a TRY Activity: Household Tour 185
Liquids and Gases 206
Personal and Societal Choices 185
Check and Reflect 207
Problem Solving Activity: Dissecting an
TRY This at Home Activity:
Electrical Device 186
Homemade Hot-Air Balloon 208
Making Sustainable Choices 187
Check and Reflect 187 2.4 Heat Transfers by Conduction 209
Careers and Profiles: Winter Sportswear Conduction 209
Designer 188 Problem Solving Activity:
The Butter Test 210
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 189
Conductors 211
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 189
Insulators 211
Check and Reflect 211
2.0 Heat affects matter in different ways. 190
2.5 Heat Transfers by Convection and Radiation 212
2.1 States of Matter and the Particle Model of
Give it a TRY Activity: Candle Magic 212
Matter 191
Understanding Convection 213
Give it a TRY Activity: A “Cool” Heat Inquiry Activity: Investigating
Challenge 192 Convection 214
Water’s Changing State 192 Convection Currents in Air 216
Particle Model of Matter 193 Energy Efficient Windows 216
Heat and the Particle Model of Matter 194 Heat Transfers by Radiation 217
The Effect of Heat on Particles 194 Inquiry Activity: Heating Different
Inquiry Activity: Acting Out the Coloured Surfaces 218
Particle Model 195 Reflect or Absorb? 220
Check and Reflect 220

x
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xi

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 221 4.0 Technologies that use heat have
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 221 benefits and costs to society and to the
environment. 238

3.0 Understanding heat and temperature helps 4.1 Looking at Different Sources of Heat 239
explain natural phenomena and Give it a TRY Activity: Lost! 239
technological devices. 222 Focus on Fossil Fuels 240
3.1 Natural Sources of Thermal Energy 223 Alternatives for Thermal Energy 241
Problem Solving Activity: What’s
Give it a TRY Activity: Applications
the Best Choice? 243
of Thermal Energy 224
Comparing the Options 244
Focus on Solar Energy 224
Check and Reflect 244
Using the Sun’s Energy for Solar
Heating 225 4.2 Energy Consumption 245
Passive Solar Heating 225 Give it a TRY Activity: Energy
Active Solar Heating 226 Consumption 245
Decision Making Activity: Is Solar Decision Making Activity:
Energy a Practical Option? 227 Conserving Energy in Your
Solar Energy and Electricity 228 Community: Cogeneration 249
Costs and Benefits of Solar Being a Responsible Citizen 250
Energy 228 Check and Reflect 250
Check and Reflect 228
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 251
3.2 Heating System Technologies 229 Focus On: Social and Environmental
Give it a TRY Activity: Thermostat: Context 251
What’s Inside? 229
Heating Systems 230 Science World Case Study: The Ostrowskis:
Keeping Cool 232 Clean, Green Living 252
Check and Reflect 232
Unit Summary 253
3.3 Heat Loss and Insulation 233
Project: Using Thermal Energy More
Insulation 233
Efficiently 254
Heat Loss 234
Problem Solving Activity: Mars Unit Review 256

Mission 235
Check and Reflect 236
Experiment on Your Own: Design
Challenge: Insulate It! 236

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 237

Focus On: Social and Environmental
Context 237

xi
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xii

Unit D: Structures and Forces 258 2.0 External and internal forces act on structures.280

Exploring 260 2.1 Measuring Forces 281

Rugged Computers for a Rugged Life 261 Magnitude, Direction, and Location 281
Give it a TRY Activity: Save This Egg! 262 Inquiry Activity: Direction and Location
Focus On: Science and Technology 263 of a Force 283
The Newton 284
1.0 Structures are found in natural and
Check and Reflect 284
human-made environments. 264
2.2 External Forces Acting on Structures 285
1.1 Classifying Structural Forms 265
Centre of Gravity 286
Give it a TRY Activity: Take the Pop Symmetry 287
Bridge Challenge 265 TRY This at Home Activity:
Solid Structures 266 Testing Teepees 287
Frame Structures 266 Load 288
Shell Structures 267 Problem Solving Activity: My Bridge Is
Check and Reflect 268 Stronger Than Yours 292

1.2 The Function of Structures 269 Measuring a Structure’s 294

Load Performance
Multiple Functions 269
Comparing Performance 294
Function and Effective Design 270
Give it a TRY Activity: Figuring Tripod
Problem Solving Activity: Design the
Performance 295
Perfect Desk 271
Check and Reflect 295
Common Function, Different Design 272
Other Characteristics of Structures 273 2.3 Internal Forces within Structures 296
Aesthetics 274 Compression, Tension, and Shear 297
Check and Reflect 275 TRY This at Home Activity:
1.3 Human-Built Structures around the World 276 Modelling Internal Forces 298
Complementary Forces 298
The Human Home 276
Give it a TRY Activity: Modelling
Give it a TRY Activity: Current or
Complementary Forces 299
Classical? Analyze a Structural
Check and Reflect 299
Design 278
Check and Reflect 278 2.4 Designing Structures to Resist Forces and
Maintain Stability 300
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 279
Focus On: Science and Technology 279 Strong Structural Shapes 301
Structural Components 302
Structural Stress, Fatigue, or Failure 303
Problem Solving Activity:
The Tallest Tower 304
Building for Structural Stability 306
Check and Reflect 306

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 307

Focus On: Science and Technology 307

xii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xiii

3.0 Structural strength and stability depend 4.0 Structures are designed, evaluated, and
on the properties of different materials improved in order to meet human needs. 324
and how they are joined together. 308
4.1 Building Safe Structures in All Environments 325
3.1 Materials and Their Properties 309 Margin of Safety 325
Classifying Material Properties 309 Accounting for Environmental Factors 326
Testing Deformation and Flexibility of Check and Reflect 327
Materials in Structures 310 Experiment on Your Own: Build a
Inquiry Activity: Material Strength and Working Model of a Drawbridge 328
Stability 311
4.2 Strengthening Materials to Improve
Give it a TRY Activity: Measuring
Function and Safety 329
Deformation 312
Check and Reflect 312 Altering Materials for Strength 329
Give it a TRY Activity: Designing a Better
3.2 Joining Structural Components 313 Backpack 329
Joints That Rely on Friction 313 Problem Solving Activity:
Joints That Rely on Bonding 315 Building Strong 331
Fixed or Movable? Which Joint for New Materials 332
Which Structure? 315 Check and Reflect 332
Problem Solving Activity: A Home
Careers and Profiles:
for Time 316
Roller-Coaster Designer 333
Designing Joints to Last 318
Building Inspector 333
Check and Reflect 318
4.3 Evaluating Designs from an Overall
3.3 Properties of Materials in Plant and
Perspective 334
Animal Structures 319
A Case Study in Improving Designs 334
Materials in the Human Structure 319
Give it a TRY Activity: Structural Report
Give it a TRY Activity: Materials in
Card 336
Plants and Animals 320
Check and Reflect 336
Materials in a Tree’s Structure 321
Check and Reflect 321 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 337
Focus On: Science and Technology 337
Careers and Profiles: Designing for
the Environment 322
Science World Case Study: Preserve or Replace? 338
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 323
Focus On: Science and Technology 323 Unit Summary 339

Project: Survive!! 340

Unit Review 342

xiii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xiv

Unit E: Planet Earth 346 2.0 The rock cycle describes how rocks form
and change over time. 368
Exploring 348
2.1 What Are Rocks and Minerals? 369
Earth-Shattering Events 348
Give it a TRY Activity: Examining Earth 350 Minerals in Rocks 369
Focus On: The Nature of Science 351 Give It a TRY Activity: Mission Control,
This Is … 369
1.0 Earth’s surface undergoes gradual and Using Properties to Identify Minerals 371
sudden changes. 352
Identifying Minerals 372

1.1 A Model for Earth 353

Careers and Profiles:
Volcanologist 373
Developing a Model 353
Seismologist 373
Give It a TRY Activity: What’s Inside? 353
Inquiry Activity: Prospecting for Minerals 374
What’s inside Earth 354
Prospecting for Wealth 376
The Crust 356
Check and Reflect 376
Check and Reflect 356
2.2 Three Classes of Rocks: Igneous,
1.2 Sudden Earth Events 357
Sedimentary, and Metamorphic 377
What Causes Earthquakes? 358
The First Break 358
Types of Rock 377

Measuring the Strength of Earthquakes 359

Igneous Rocks 378

Volcanoes 360
Sedimentary Rocks 379

Tools and Techniques for Studying Give It a TRY Activity: Graph It! 379

Earth 361
Metamorphic Rocks 380

Check and Reflect 362

Identifying Classes of Rock 381
Inquiry Activity: Classifying Rocks 382
1.3 Incremental Changes: Wind, Water, and Ice 363 Geology Tools and Techniques 384
The Effects of Moving Water 364 Check and Reflect 384
Eroding Away 365
2.3 The Rock Cycle 385
Glaciers—Rivers of Ice 366
Check and Reflect 366
Investigating the Rock Cycle 386
The Alberta Story: Investigating the
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 367 Changing Earth 387
Focus On: The Nature of Science 367 Inquiry Activity:
Sorting Out the Soil 388
Check and Reflect 390

Careers and Profiles: Geologist 390

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 391
Focus On: The Nature of Science 391

xiv
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xv

3.0 Landforms provide evidence of change. 392 4.0 The fossil record provides evidence of
Earth’s changes over time. 410
3.1 Continental Drift 393
Continents on the Move 393 4.1 Tracing Evidence of Geologic Change Using
Check and Reflect 394 Fossils 411

Fossils 411
3.2 Plate Tectonics 395
Becoming a Fossil 413
Developing a New Theory 395
Telling Time Geologically 414
Inquiry Activity: Earthquakes, Check and Reflect 414
Volcanoes, and Plate Tectonics 396
Interpreting the Patterns 397 4.2 Methods Used to Interpret Fossils 415

The Theory of Plate Tectonics 398 Studying Sedimentary Layers of Rock 416
Check and Reflect 400 Give it a TRY Activity: Fossils
Experiment on Your Own: Predicting through Time 416
Continental Drift 401 Fossil Beds 417
The Royal Tyrrell Museum 417
3.3 Mountain Building 402
Check and Reflect 418
What Is Mountain Building? 402
Building the Mountains: An Alberta Story 403 4.3 Geologic Time 419

The Structure and Development of Fold Looking Back into Time 419
and Fault Mountains 405 Geologic Time Scale 421
Inquiry Activity: Forming Folded Give it a TRY Activity: Measuring Time 422
Mountains 406 Understanding Fossil Evidence 422
Where Does the Folding Happen? 407 TRY This at Home Activity: Making
Mountains with Faults 408 a Fossil 424
Check and Reflect 408 Check and Reflect 424

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 409 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 425
Focus On: The Nature of Science 409 Focus On: The Nature of Science 425

Science World Case Study: What Happened

to the Dinosaurs? 426

Unit Summary 427

Project: Earth Models and Simulations 428

Unit Review 430

Toolbox 432
Glossary 457
Index 464
Photo Credits and Acknowledgements 468

xv
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xvi

WELCOME TO
You are about to begin a scientific exploration
using Science in Action 7. To assist you in
your journey, this book has been designed
with the following features to help you.

An outline gives you an overview of

what you will be learning. You may
want to use this as a guide to help
you study.

1 Unit Outline
The book is divided into five
units. Each unit opens with a
large photograph that
captures one of the ideas that
--

- - in the unit.
will be covered
-- -
--------

2 Exploring
This section is an
introduction. It has
an interesting
real-world example
to introduce the
unit.
----- ---

The Give It a Try Activity is a

short activity that helps introduce
the topic of the unit and allows
you to start thinking about what -
-------
you will be exploring.

xvi
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xvii

Each section has two to five subsections. Each subsection

3 The Sections heading clarifies and provides more information about the
Each section heading statement in the section heading.
summarizes what you will
learn in this section. These
can be very useful to help you 1.0 Relationships exist betw
things and their environm
een living
ents.
1.1 Defining an Ecosystem and
about Basic Needs
Learning
organize your thoughts when Any place on earth
where living things
things and non-living interact with other
living
things is called an info BIT
you have to study. Key Concepts
In this section, you will
about the following key
learn
things are called the
non-living things are
word comes from a
ecosystem. The living
biotic factors, or parts,
called the abiotic factors
Greek word that means
of the ecosystem; the
. The “bio” part of
the
An Ecosystem?
concepts: life, and the “a” part
means not, so biotic
• interactions and means living, and abiotic
means not living.
interdependencies
• environmental monitorin
g
• environmental impacts
• environmental managem
ent

The Key Concepts are the main Learning Outcomes

When you have complete
this section, you will be
d
able
Is this an example of
ecosystem?
an

to:

ideas you will learn in this • define an ecosystem

• identify abiotic and biotic
factors
• explain how basic needs
are

section. By the end of the met in an ecosystem

• describe interactions
among living things
• identify human impacts
on Figure 1.1 A rotting

section, you should be able to

ecosystems log ecosystem
• recognize that in order
to
make an informed decision Ecosystems may be
large, such as an ocean
about an environmental also be small, such or desert. They may
as a puddle or a rotting
log.
describe each concept.
issue, scientific knowledg
e Imagine sitting quietly
and exploration are involved in a natural setting
side of a mountain. such as a field or on
What sensations would the
certainly would be you have? There
a wide variety of plants
be rocks, sand piles, to look at. Would there G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I
and soil, too? Would T Y
around? What would you see animals moving
you smell: flowers,
Would you hear bird pine needles, wet grass? BIOTIC AND ABIOT
calls, the buzz of insects IC FACTORS IN
grass or bushes? The , rustling in the THE CLASSROO
environment in which Look around your classroo M
of a wide variety of we live is composed m. Try to find as many
living and non-living (non-living) factors as biotic (living) and abiotic

The Learning Outcomes life—all life—depends things. In fact, your possible. Work with a
on and is connected partner.
things. with other living Compare your table with
those of other pairs. Did
Add any missing factors you have similar tables?
to your table.

outline what you should know 8 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

For Web links relating
to 1.0, visit www.pea
rsoned.ca/school/sciencein
action

and be able to demonstrate Relationships Exist between

Living Things and Their Environment
s 9

your understanding of on
completing the section.
Check out this Web site
for relevant links.

An infoBIT is an
interesting fact Topic subheadings make
relevant to what the text easier to follow.
you will be
investigating in
the subsection. To begin each subsection, your
teacher may choose to use a
short Give It a Try Activity.
The Focus On section has This helps you start thinking
several questions to help about what you will be learning.
you think about what you
are learning and how it
connects to your life as
you work through the unit.
The questions focus on one
of three areas or emphases
of science: the nature of
At the end of the subsection
science, the relationship
is a reSEARCH. This is an
between science and
additional way to study one
technology, and the social
of the ideas in the
and environmental
subsection.
situations that involve
science and technology.

xvii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xviii

You will find numerous photos

and illustrations to help explain
or clarify many of the ideas in
this unit.

The Section Review has

questions relevant to the
whole section. Answering
the questions will help you
consolidate what you have Check and Reflect questions
learned in the various parts provide opportunities for you
of the section. to review the main ideas you
There is also a Focus On have learned.
activity to help you connect
what you have learned in
this section to activities in
-
your own life. -------

4 Science Activities
There are three main types of activities.

Inquiry Activity: These activities provide

the opportunity for you to work in a lab
setting. You will develop scientific skills
of predicting, observing, measuring,
recording, inferring, analyzing, and much
more. In these activities, you investigate
many different phenomena found in our -
world. -------

xviii
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xix

- - - - - - - - - Decision Making Activity: These activities present issues

- -- --
or questions related to everyday life. You will need to

-
-
develop an opinion based on the evidence you collect and
make a decision. Be prepared to present your decision to
your classmates.

---
--

--
Problem Solving Activity: These

-
are open-ended activities that
allow you to be creative. You
will identify a problem and
make a plan and then construct
a solution. These activities tend
to have very little set-up and
there is usually no one correct
solution.

AND ECOSYSTEMS
NTERACTIONS
U N I T S U M M A RY : I

Section Summaries
Key Concepts ments.

5
things and their environ

Unit Summary
exist between living abiotic factors and
1.0 Relationships factors interact with
1.0 on earth where biotic
• Ecosystems are places
and
• interactions and other biotic factors. nsalism, mutualism,
symbio tic relationships: comme
interdependencies • There are three major
types of
ring
• environmental monito parasitism. oxygen, and sustain
able
• environmental impacts all organis ms are water, energy, food,
• environmental manage
ment • The basic needs of for waste to go.
as space and a place
living conditions such using scientific
n-making and actions
At a glance, you can find out all • There is a need for
information, and that
responsible decisio
involves consideration
of environmental impacts
.

and interpreted in
the cycling of matter can be traced

the key concepts you have

and
2.0 The flow of energy
2.0 ecosystems. . This energy is
energy flows through
ed of food webs that
• interactions and • Ecosystems are compos
the
interdependencies supplied by the sun. things and back to
ng things to the living
moves from the non-livi
learned within the unit. You can cycle and the carbon
ers,
• producers, consum • Matter continually matter are the water
and decomposers important cycles of
non-living things. Two
energy
• nutrient cycles and cycle. an effect on all living things
in that
it will have
flow web changes,
• If any part of a food
• environmental impacts
also read the summary of ideas ecosystem.

red in ecosystems.
be observed and monito
3.0 Changes can their needs.
living things with all
in each section of the unit.
3.0

• interactions and
• Ecosystems provide
• Some of the ways
that changes can occur
in ecosystems include
n, and weather.
human activity,
PROJECT
interdependencies es competition, predatio ary succession.
ring bioinvasion, resourc succession and second
• environmental monito of succession: primary
• There are two types

This is a good page to help you • environmental impacts

• species distribution
• succession decisions, and
DESIGN A LAND-USE PLAN
requires knowledge,

- 4.0 Maintaining sustain

able environments

-------
organize your notes for studying. 4.0 actions. ment with deadly
through an environ
es, such as DDT, can enter and move
• endangered species • Pesticid
global
• environmental monito
ring effects. both the local and
have an impact on
• environmental impacts of human actions may
• The consequences
• extinction environments. d decisions, but
ment help them make informe
• environmental manage scientists collect can ems can be explain
ed by science
• The information that s in ecosyst
everything that happen
unfortunately, not
from
and technology. analyze information
problem, it helps to
a local environmental d decision.
• When looking at to make an informe
a complete picture
many sources to get
Getting Started
Unit Summary
xix In this unit, you learned
that
ecosystems develop
and are
maintained by natural
cycles and
succession, and are impacte
d by
human change. You have
investigated human impacts
on
ecosystems, and you
understand
that human actions have
intended
and sometimes unintend
ed
consequences. Environ Your Goal
mental
monitoring and research
are Your goal is to balance

6 Unit Project
important in the decision the needs for human
-making with the needs of the growth and development
process. Look through biotic and abiotic factors
your notes of ecosystems.
from this unit. Think
about the What You Need to
Know
ways human actions The town of Forest Grove
can affect has a population of 1200
ecosystems. With a partner, unemployment rate has people. The
discuss the responsibilities been 20% for the past
town council has decided several years. The
that to develop a piece of
people have for making to attract businesses, unused land. It hopes
sure that industries, and people

A project at the end of each unit presents a ecosystems are healthy.

categories you think
should use when they
List the
people
make
piece of land has an
area of 2000 ha. (One
100 m by 100 m.) Imagine
group. Forest Grove’s
to Forest Grove. The
hectare, or 1 ha, measure
you are a member of
a land-use planning
s
town council has hired
decisions that affect plan to develop this land. your team to design
ecosystems. a

hands-on opportunity for you to demonstrate Afterward, share your

other groups. In what
they similar and differen
list with
ways are
The map shown here
closely. Many differen
outlines the various features
t groups of people have
of the land. Study it
t? Are this land. You will have ideas for developing
there any additions you to decide which ideas

what you’ve learned. You’ll work both in a to make to your list?

would like and which to change.
Use the Impact Assessm
you evaluate your plans.
to use, which to ignore,
ent Checklist to help

86 Unit A: Interactions and

group and individually. The project requires Ecosystems

you to apply some of the skills and knowledge -

that you’ve acquired to a new situation. -------

xix
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xx

7 Unit Review
• questions that require
The Unit Review presents: you to use the ideas in • opportunities to
• a chance to review the important more than one section in express your thoughts
terms in the unit the unit to answer about ideas you have
discovered in the unit

• questions designed to test

your basic understanding of
the ideas in each section of
the unit • questions that relate
• questions that are related to specific
skills you have learned in the unit to the specific
emphasis of the unit

8 Other Features
Here are other features you will
find in each unit. Each one has a
different purpose and is designed
to help you learn about the ideas
in the unit.

Science World
This feature is a case study
related to an issue that can -
------
have more than one solution
or opinion.
Careers and Profiles
Here you will find profiles or interviews with
-
people whose careers use the science and- - - - - - -
technology you study in the unit.

xx
00_G7_FM 12/14/06 2:21 PM Page xxi

---------
-

--
--
Try This at mathLink These
Home are opportunities
This is an for you to apply
activity you some of your
can try at math skills.
home on
-
--

- - own.
your
--- Experiment on Your
---
Own
- - - -This
- - - is your chance

--
to design your own

------
experiment to check
out a hypothesis or to

--
solve a problem.

-
--
------

9 The Toolbox
These pages provide
references to lab safety and
other basic scientific skills
that will help you as you do
the activities. Remember to
check the toolbox when you
need a reminder about these
skills.

10 Icons
means you will be working with toxic or
unknown materials and should wear safety
goggles for protection or precaution 11 Glossary
means you should wear a lab apron to The Glossary provides a comprehensive,
protect clothing alphabetical list of the important terms
in the book and their definitions.
means you should wear rubber gloves for
protection when handling the materials

means you will be working with glassware and

you should exercise caution to avoid breakage

reminds you that you can find more information

in the Toolbox section of the book

Now it’s time to start. We hope you will enjoy your scientific
exploration using Science in Action 7 !

xxi
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:53 PM Page 2

UNIT

2
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:53 PM Page 3

In this unit, you will cover the following sections:

1.0 Relationships exist between living things and their

environments.
1.1 Defining an Ecosystem and Learning about
Basic Needs
1.2 Interactions among Living Things
1.3 Human Impacts on Ecosystems

2.0 The flow of energy and the cycling of matter can be traced and
interpreted in ecosystems.
2.1 Ecosystems Have Interactions among Producers,
Consumers, and Decomposers
2.2 Food Chains Demonstrate the Flow of Energy in Ecosystems
2.3 Food Webs
2.4 Matter Cycles in Ecosystems

3.0 Changes can be observed and monitored in ecosystems.

3.1 Investigating the Distribution of Living Things in an
Environment
3.2 Interactions and Changes Occur in Ecosystems
3.3 Succession: How Ecosystems Change over Time

4.0 Maintaining sustainable environments requires knowledge,

decisions, and actions.
4.1 There Are Intended and Unintended Consequences of
Human Activities within Ecosystems
4.2 Information from Scientific Investigations Can Assist
Environmental Decision-Making
4.3 There Are Limitations to Scientific and Technological
Knowledge
4.4 Using Evidence from Many Sources Can Help Analyze a
Local Environmental Problem

3
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 4

Exploring
Imagine you are out on a winter camping trip in northern Alberta.
You see a wolf chasing a rabbit among the snow-covered trees. At
that moment, you all have something in common. You are all part
of an ecosystem. An ecosystem is an area where living things
interact with other living and non-living things.
In this unit, you will find out how all living things are related
and depend on each other. You will learn how ecosystems work
and are maintained and why that is important for the well-being of
Earth. You will discover how human actions can impact Earth in
both positive and negative ways. In Alberta, a new wetland was
created thanks to many concerned organizations and individuals.

4 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 5

SAVING FRANK LAKE

Just east of the town of High River, in south-central Alberta, a
wetland has been created. It is called Frank Lake. Thanks to Ducks
Unlimited, a national non-profit conservation organization, what
was once a shallow lake that disappeared in dry summers, is now a
wetland which will have water all year.
Ducks Unlimited works to restore, improve, and/or preserve
habitats that are critical for ducks and other migrating waterfowl.
Alberta is home to 20% of all the ducks surveyed each spring in
North America. The Frank Lake project is an important one since
its location is a stopover spot for birds like ducks, geese, and
shorebirds as they make their way north in spring and south in fall.
It is also a breeding ground for many of these birds.

Frank Lake before it became a wetland

What human actions were needed to make Frank Lake a

wetland? Finding a source of water was the key factor. This
happened through a unique partnership between Ducks Unlimited
and a local meat-packing plant.
Waste water from the meat-packing plant is treated and cleaned.
The water is then piped from the town of High River to Frank Lake.
Water levels and water quality are continually monitored at Frank
Lake. During dry, hot years, more water can be piped into the lake.
If there is a wet period, less water is required.

Exploring 5
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 6

Now the water flows all year in Frank Lake, providing a habitat
for amphibians, fish, and plants as well as rare birds like the
peregrine falcon and trumpeter swan. It also provides a grazing area
for the cattle of local farmers, and a rich wildlife viewing area for
local naturalists. According to Jerry Brunen, an area manager for
Ducks Unlimited, “Frank Lake is once again the most important
wetland in southwestern Alberta.”

Frank Lake, the new wetland

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

CREATING A PLAN
Think about a natural area in your community that you enjoy. Work with a
partner or small group to brainstorm ways that people might have a negative
impact on this area. For example, too much litter in a park or too many people
in an area can damage plants. Once you have identified three to five negative
impacts, suggest some possible ways to reduce these impacts. Your
suggestions can be creative, but make sure they can be done in a reasonable
amount of time at a reasonable cost.

Select your best idea and be prepared to share it with the class.

6 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 7

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
As you work through this unit, you will be asked to organize your
thoughts about how society and environmental changes influence
ecosystems. Many decisions regarding ecosystems involve a variety
of perspectives. You will be asked to consider some of these
perspectives as you perform certain activities and answer certain
questions throughout this unit. As you work through this unit,
think about the following questions:
1. How do human activities affect ecosystems?
2. What methods can we use to observe and monitor changes in
ecosystems?
3. How can we assess the impact of our actions on ecosystems?
The answers to these and other questions about ecosystems will
help you understand the role that science and technology has in
monitoring and maintaining ecosystems, as well as the intended
and unintended consequences of human activity, and the need for
responsible decision-making and action. The project at the end of
the unit allows you to apply your knowledge of how to balance the
needs for human growth and development with the needs of an
ecosystem.

Exploring 7
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 8

1.0 Relationships exist between living

things and their environments.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• interactions and
interdependencies
• environmental monitoring
• environmental impacts
• environmental management

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed
this section, you will be able
to:
• define an ecosystem
• identify abiotic and biotic
factors
• explain how basic needs
are met in an ecosystem
• describe interactions
among living things
• identify human impacts on
ecosystems
• recognize that in order to
make an informed decision
about an environmental
issue, scientific knowledge Imagine sitting quietly in a natural setting such as a field or on the
and exploration are side of a mountain. What sensations would you have? There
involved certainly would be a wide variety of plants to look at. Would there
be rocks, sand piles, and soil, too? Would you see animals moving
around? What would you smell: flowers, pine needles, wet grass?
Would you hear bird calls, the buzz of insects, rustling in the grass
or bushes? The environment in which we live is composed of a
wide variety of living and non-living things. In fact, your life—all
life—depends on and is connected with other living things.

8 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 9

1.1 Defining an Ecosystem and Learning

about Basic Needs
Any place on Earth where living things interact with other living info BIT
and non-living things is called an ecosystem. The living things are
called the biotic factors, or parts, of the ecosystem; the non-living An Ecosystem?
things are called the abiotic factors. The “bio” part of the word
comes from a Greek word that means life, and the “a” part means
not, so biotic means living, and abiotic means not living.

Is this an example of an
ecosystem?

Figure 1.1 A rotting log ecosystem

Ecosystems may be large, such as an ocean or desert. They may

also be small, such as a puddle or a rotting log.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS IN THE CLASSROOM

Look around your classroom. Try to find as many biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) factors as possible. Work with a partner to make a table.

Compare your table with those of other pairs. Did you have similar tables?
Add any missing factors to your table.

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 9

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 10

YOUR SCHOOLYARD
Is your school located in the heart of a major city? Is it in the
suburbs, or in a smaller city or town, or in the countryside?
Regardless of where your school is located, it’s probably
surrounded by plants, soil, animals, rocks, and other living and
non-living things including you and the people that go to your
school. Some things may be big enough for you to notice easily.
Others may be small enough for you to have missed. Until now.
Take a moment. Consider what living and non-living things
make your schoolyard their home. Make a list of them. Now think
about the relationships between the abiotic and biotic factors on
your list. Describe the interactions among them.

Figure 1.2
Interactions
between biotic and
abiotic factors

Figure 1.3 What biotic and abiotic factors can you see in this photo?

10 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 11

THE WORLD WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM

Earth contains many ecosystems. Each ecosystem contains a variety
of different species. Living things of the same species are able to
reproduce and have young that are also able to reproduce. The
young usually look very similar to the parents. When a number of
individuals from the same species live together in the same area,
the group is called a population. All the populations of different
species that live and interact in the same place form a community.
An ecosystem could be considered the area where all the living and
non-living things within a community interact.

Figure 1.4a) This ant is a member of Figure 1.4b) All the ants of this species living together in one area form a population.
one of many species of ants. Ants of the same species living in another area would form a separate population.

Figure 1.4c) This tree is a member Figure 1.4d) All the trees of this species Figure 1.4e) All the populations of various
of the species Picea glauca. that grow in the same area form one living things that live together in an area—
population. including trees and ants—form a community.
How many different populations can you see
in this community?

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 11

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 12

THE NEEDS OF LIVING THINGS

Some living things are able to live in your schoolyard while other
living things just visit or pass through your schoolyard. You are an
example of a living thing that just visits your schoolyard. This is
because all of your basic needs cannot be met in the schoolyard
ecosystem. An ecosystem must meet the needs of the living things
that are present in it. What do living things need in order to
survive?

Living Things Need Water

About three-quarters of our planet’s surface is covered with water.
Water not only makes up the majority of Earth’s surface, but also
makes up the majority of all living things. For example, about two-
thirds of your body is made up of water. About nine-tenths (or
Figure 1.5 A tiger meeting
more) of a head of lettuce is water! Life cannot exist without water.
its basic need of water

Figure 1.6 Students getting the nutrients they need

Living Things Need Food

You need food for the nutrients it provides. Nutrients include
substances such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and
minerals. All these substances supply your body with energy and
materials that you need to move, grow, and to repair and maintain
the health of the billions of cells in your body. Most other living
things need nutrients for the same reason.

Living Things Need Energy

You need energy to walk, run, breathe, eat, digest what you eat, and
grow. You need energy even when you’re sitting still and relaxing.
Energy keeps your heart beating, air moving in and out of your
lungs, and the rest of your organs working properly. So you need
energy even when you’re asleep!
• Where do you get the energy you need to survive?
Figure 1.7 An athlete using
• Where does this energy source come from?
energy to win a race

12 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 13

Living Things Need Oxygen

When you eat, chemical reactions take place inside your body.
These reactions use oxygen to break down the food to provide you
with energy. With only a few exceptions, all living things need
oxygen to provide the energy they need to survive. This includes
animals, plants, fungi such as mushrooms, and microscopic life
forms such as bacteria.
• Where do you get the oxygen you need to survive?
• Where do living things in water get their oxygen?

Figure 1.8 This backpacker uses oxygen when hiking.

Living Things Need Suitable Living Conditions

Life can exist in harsh conditions. For example, certain kinds of
microscopic bacteria and algae thrive in hot springs that can reach
temperatures of up to 85°C. Other kinds of life exist in the
Antarctic, where temperatures can reach as low as –90°C.
However, most living things live best in a more moderate range of
temperatures. They often build shelters to provide safety
and comfort.
• What kinds of shelters do people build?
• What kinds of shelters do other animals build?

Figure 1.9 Two shelters in

very different climates

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 13

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 14

Decision
Making BURIED ALIVE
Activity The Issue
For publicity, magician David Blaine wanted to convince people of his skills as a
magician and illusionist. He was buried in a coffin for seven days with only a few
tablespoons of water every day. How long can humans survive without being able
to meet their needs?

Background Information
On April 5, 1999, at 10:00 a.m., magician David Blaine was lowered into a
1.83-m-deep hole in a clear Plexiglas coffin at a New York City construction site.
A water-filled tank was placed atop his coffin, and gravel was poured around him.
To prepare for this event, Blaine fasted for six days prior to it to clean out his
body. He also spent four days a week living in a coffin in his living room to help
him get used to living in a small space. A plastic container, funnel, and tube was
used to eliminate the urine from the three to four tablespoons of water he
consumed each day.

Figure 1.10 David Blaine,

seconds before emerging
from his coffin

Fresh air was pumped into the coffin, a tent was raised over the water tank if
the sun got too hot, around-the-clock medical personnel were on hand, as was a
crane to remove the water tank, and a panic button. When Blaine came out of the
coffin seven days later, he was quite weak, but otherwise healthy.

Support Your Opinion

Could David Blaine have survived for a longer period of time? If so, would some
needs become more important than others in the next few days? Why do you
think that? How did Blaine meet his basic needs of
• water?
• food?
• energy?
• oxygen?
• suitable living conditions?

14 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 15

MEETING YOUR BASIC NEEDS re SEARCH

An ecosystem must meet the needs of the organisms living in it.
Learning about
Think about your basic needs for survival. Illustrate with a labelled
Dinosaurs
picture how basic needs for survival are met in your own life.
Scientists often have
Identify three things in your life that you could do without and still
to learn about living
meet your basic needs. things, or
organisms, from
CHECK AND REFLECT evidence rather than
from observing the
1. Which living things probably live full time in your schoolyard? real thing. Dinosaurs
What is it about your schoolyard that makes it a good place for are an example of
these living things to live? this. Research what
scientists have
2. What other living things just visit or pass through your learned about
schoolyard? Where do you think they live? Why would they live dinosaurs.
there and not in your schoolyard?
3. Select an area near your school that has both abiotic and biotic
factors. List at least three of each. Illustrate possible interactions
between the different factors that you listed.
4. In your notebook, classify the items in the list below into one of
the following three categories: species, population, community.
flock of birds
grizzly bear
school of fish
pond
ant
pack of wolves
dragonfly
herd of elk
moose
prairies
grasshopper
5. In your own words define an ecosystem. Use your definition to
explain whether you think the following statement is true or
false: A schoolyard is an ecosystem.
6. Identify which of the following statements are false. Reword
these false statements to make them true.
a) Ecosystems can only be large.
b) Ecosystems contain both biotic and abiotic factors.
c) Only the stones and sand in a puddle are needed to make up
an ecosystem.
d) Your schoolyard is an ecosystem.
e) Ecosystems do not need water.

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 15

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 16

1.2 Interactions among Living Things

info BIT Interactions exist between living things. You probably can list many
ways that living things interact with each other. Clown fish live
Microscopic Interactions unharmed among the stinging tentacles of sea anemones, where the
fish are protected from predators. You eating a green salad is
another example! Interactions are important for the survival of most
organisms.

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
Living things sometimes interact with other living things in very
surprising ways. For example, some plants grow best in soil that
has a particular type of fungus present there. And certain species of
birds are often found on the backs of cattle and other large grazing
Interactions occur animals. The birds eat the insects off the backs of the cattle. As the
everywhere. These dust
cattle walk and stir up more insects, the birds have an easy food
mites live in your
source. Whenever different living things live closely together where
bedroom! They eat the
the relationship may benefit one or both living things, this
dust that comes from
your hair, flakes of skin, relationship is called symbiosis. There are three major types of
and clothes. symbiotic relationships: commensalism, mutualism, and
parasitism.

Commensalism
This is a relationship in which one species in the relationship
benefits while the other neither benefits nor is harmed. An example
of this relationship is that between trees and a species of flower
called an orchid. Orchids live by attaching themselves to the
branches of a tree. The tree neither benefits nor is harmed, while
the orchid benefits because it receives access to sunlight.

Figure 1.11 An orchid attached

to a tree

16 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 17

Mutualism
This is a relationship in which both species in the relationship
benefit. An example of this is the relationship between the goby
fish and snapping shrimp. The shrimp builds a sand burrow and
allows the goby fish to share the burrow. The shrimp is almost
blind, so it always has a feeler on the goby. The goby warns the
shrimp when danger is approaching by a flick of its fins, and both
retreat into their burrow.

Figure 1.12 A goby fish and a snapping shrimp helping each other

Parasitism
This is a relationship in which one species in the relationship
benefits while the other species is harmed. If you have ever been
bitten by a mosquito, then you have experienced parasitism! The
mosquito sucks blood from you so it can make its eggs. It leaves
you with an itchy lump.

Figure 1.13 A mosquito

biting a human

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 17

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 18

Inquiry ECOSYSTEM IN A JAR

Activity The Question
What types of living and non-living things can you put in a sealed jar to make a
self-sustaining mini-ecosystem?

Materials & Equipment Procedure

• glass jar with lid 1 Make sure your jar is clean and the
• gravel or rocks label is removed. Put your name and
• pond water today’s date on the lid.
• tap water 2 Look at the materials your teacher has
• pond snails made available for this activity. Make a
• aquatic plants such as
list of the ones you will use in your
duckweed or elodea
mini-ecosystem jar. Remember: You
• duct tape
want to make sure that whatever you
put in allows the snails and plants to
stay alive in the sealed jar.
3 Show your list to your teacher for
approval. After your teacher checks it,
assemble your mini-ecosystem in your
jar.
4 Predict what you think the jar will look
like in three weeks. Draw a picture to Figure 1.14 An ecosystem in a jar
record your prediction. After three
weeks, examine how your mini-ecosystem jar is working.

Collecting Data
5 Record the final number of each type of living and non-living thing that you
put into the jar.
6 Create a table that will allow you to monitor and record any changes to the
living and non-living things in your jar over the next three weeks.

Analyzing and Interpreting

7 Is your mini-ecosystem jar a totally closed system? Explain your answer.
8 Identify all the living and non-living things in your mini-ecosystem jar.
9 Suggest some possible interactions between the things in your mini-
ecosystem jar.

Forming Conclusions
10 Describe what your mini-ecosystem looked like after three weeks. Explain any
changes that happened since you first put it together.

18 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 19

ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Living things meet their needs in many different ways. Each organism
in an ecosystem has certain unique characteristics. Adaptation is how
organisms respond to their environment. Only those species that are
best suited to their environment will survive and produce offspring.
Over many generations, the offspring that inherit their parents’
successful characteristics continue to reproduce, whereas the species
that are not well suited to their environment are less likely to survive
and produce offspring. So, over time, the successful characteristics
will be more common in the population. These changes in the
behaviour and physical characteristics of species make them better
adapted to their environment.
It is important to understand that living things cannot choose how
they will change. They do not decide to develop characteristics that Figure 1.15 The great blue
heron’s sharp beak, long
will allow them to live successfully in their environment. However,
neck, and long legs are its
living things have changed in many ways to meet the challenges of adaptations for catching
their environment. fish.

CHECK AND REFLECT

re SEARCH
1. Draw a labelled diagram to demonstrate your understanding of
how humans interact with other living and non-living things in Plant Uses
their environment. Many Aboriginal
peoples have a close
2. Describe an example of a symbiotic relationship between two
relationship with the
living things, and the adaptations involved.
animals and plants in
3. Look at the examples below and decide whether the relationship is their ecosystem. They
commensalism, mutualism, or parasitism. have used plants like
bearberry for soap,
and willow as a
painkiller. Research
some other uses of
plants in the
Aboriginal culture.

Figure 1.16 The sea lamprey Figure 1.17 Barnacles, unable Figure 1.18 As the butterfly
attaches itself to other fishes to move on their own, attach feeds, pollen sticks to its body.
by suction. Some of the themselves to whales to The butterfly carries the pollen
lamprey’s victims may die, increase their chance of to the next flower it feeds
while others live but have a finding food. Whales are not from. Most flowers need this
scar where the lamprey had affected by the barnacles. pollen to produce seeds.
attached itself.

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 19

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 20

1.3 Human Impacts on Ecosystems

Ecosystems are impacted by human actions. Even if our intentions
are good, the impact may have unintended consequences as in the
case of the beaver population in Yoho National Park.

DECLINING BEAVER POPULATION

Many times, humans think that they are trying to help the
ecosystem, but their help has unintended consequences. For
example, biologists have recently been studying the dramatic
decline in the beaver population in Yoho National Park after noting
info BIT that the population is significantly lower than it was 100 years ago.
Fire management practices have changed since Yoho became a
Toad Tunnels national park. While forest fires were a relatively frequent
In England, cars occurrence in Yoho before it became a park, they are almost non-
travelling on the existent now since the development of efficient fire-monitoring and
highways have killed fire-fighting teams. The decision to put out all fires appeared to be
more than 100 000 in the best interests of wildlife, people, and the park. However,
toads each year. So, since there are no longer any fires, the trees in the park have grown
special toad tunnels larger. As a result, there is not enough light for the young aspen
have been built under trees to grow. Since this tree is the preferred food and shelter for the
the roads. The tunnels
beaver, beavers are no longer able to live in this area. So what was
can fit about 200 toads
meant to be a deliberate attempt to manage the forest fires in this
per hour.
area has had an unintended impact on the beaver population.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS
Work with a group. Think about the following situations. Explain how the
individual in each situation has an impact on his or her environment.
• a student throwing a candy wrapper on the ground
• a student riding a mountain bike on a thin trail through the forest
• a farmer plowing a field
• a person involved in a strip-mining operation
• a fisheries biologist adding trout to a lake
• a biologist cleaning oil off the wings of a duck
Can you think of one more impact an individual could make?

20 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 21

Figure 1.19 A garbage dump

containing consumer waste

DEALING WITH OUR GARBAGE

Humans have a bigger impact on ecosystems than any other living
things. No other species inhabits as many different ecosystems. We
also invent and use technology to alter the ecosystems in which we
live. And technology has affected the amount and type of waste we
produce.
As long as there have been people on the planet, they have
produced waste material. Long ago, all waste material could be
broken down to be returned to the environment. However, we now
use a lot of materials, like plastic, that cannot be broken down, or
produce so much of it that the natural cycles cannot keep up.
In the past, it was common for garbage to be poured into large
pits. These pits were called “dumps” because people just dumped
their garbage there. Dumps were smelly and looked unattractive.
Sometimes they caught fire, polluting the air with sooty, foul
smoke. Rainwater often washed dangerous chemicals and disease-
causing bacteria from the dumps into local water systems. Think
about the potential impact of waste products on the environment.
How have our needs and wants affected the types of garbage we
produce? What has been done to clean up our act?

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 21

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 22

Decision W H AT K I N D O F D R I N K C O N TA I N E R W O U L D L E S S E N
Making O U R I M PA C T O N T H E E N V I R O N M E N T ?
Activity The Issue
Think about the impact that drink containers can have on the environment. What
kind of drink container would lessen the impact on it?

Background Information
1 Brainstorm a list of all the different kinds of drink containers.

Figure 1.20
Students
assessing drink
containers

Drink Container Features

Drink Container + –
can

2 Compare the different kinds by making a plus/minus chart like the one shown
above. In the “plus” column, list the positive features of each container. In the
“minus” column, list the negative features of each one. When making your
chart, think about safety, cost, waste, energy, and recycling.
3 Review your chart. Suggest any additional scientific information about
environmental impacts that you might need to complete the chart.
4 Develop a fair test that you could perform to help you gather more
information.
5 As a group, determine which container would be best. Explain your reasons
for your choice.

Support Your Opinion

6 Present your findings to your classmates.
7 Did your findings agree with those of other groups in the class?
8 What other aspects would you want to consider when making this decision?

22 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 23

THE GARBAGE SOLUTIONS

Some of the ways we have cleaned up our act include:
recycling, composting, incinerating, household hazardous waste
operations, and sanitary landfills.
Here are examples of how some of these methods work.
Recycling handles paper products as well as clear glass
bottles, metal cans, aluminum foil containers, and some
plastics. These materials are separated, sorted, crushed,
compacted, and then bundled for transport to various
industries for reprocessing.
Sanitary landfills are similar to landfills. The wastes from
both types of landfills are spread across the ground and then
compacted by bulldozers into layers 0.5 m thick. A layer of soil
Figure 1.21 A recycling depot
is spread over the compacted wastes to reduce odours and
litter, and to discourage animal activity.
However, landfills will leak. Sanitary landfills are designed not
to leak. Once the hole for the sanitary landfill is dug, a clay liner
and system of pipes is put in place to prevent leakage.
Although both the landfill and sanitary landfill handle solid
wastes from municipal, residential, and industrial sources, sanitary
landfills are a more environmentally friendly way of dealing with
our garbage problem.

re SEARCH
Dealing with Waste
Find out how your
community deals with
household waste. What
happens to it? Where
does it go?

Figure 1.22 A sanitary landfill

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 23

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 24

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Draw a mind map or flowchart to show how discarding the pop
can holder in Figure 1.23 could have an impact on the
ecosystem.

Figure 1.23 Question 1

2. How does an answer to a question as simple as “What kind of

drink container will I take to school?” have both intended and
unintended consequences for the ecosystem?
3. How have humans had an impact on the Yoho National Park
ecosystem? Was the impact positive or negative? Explain your
answer.
4. What do you think can be done to lessen the “unintended
consequences” that humans create for the ecosystem? Provide a
specific example to illustrate your thoughts.
5. Create a web to demonstrate your understanding of all the things
that must be considered when making an informed decision
about an environmental issue.
6. Your school wants to start a recycling program. What kind of
information would you need to know in order to determine if
this is a good idea? Design a survey as a first step in
investigating the issue.

24 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 25

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. List three basic needs of living things and explain their
importance.
2. a) Name four abiotic factors on our planet.
b) Name four biotic factors on our planet.
c) Choose one abiotic factor and one biotic factor that interact.
d) Choose two biotic factors that interact.
e) For parts c) and d), use words, pictures, or both to explain
how they are connected to each other. Identify the type of
interaction present.
3. Draw a picture to illustrate how the following biotic and abiotic
factors together could make up one ecosystem.
a) trees
b) lake
c) birds
d) mosquitoes
e) mushrooms
f ) soil
g) campground
4. Imagine you were out for a walk along a river bank. You notice a
large pile of household garbage on the other side of the river.
What impact could this garbage have on the local ecosystem?
5. Identify an example of human impact on an ecosystem not
mentioned in this section. Was the impact positive or negative?
Were the consequences of the impact intended or unintended?
Explain your answers.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
Science and technology are designed to meet human needs and
expand human capability. Think about what you learned in this
section.
1. What are the needs of all living things?
2. How can science and technology help humans balance their
needs with the needs of the other organisms present in the
ecosystem?
3. How can science and technology be used to lessen the
unintended impacts that humans have on ecosystems? How
would this expand human capabilities?

Relationships Exist between Living Things and Their Environments 25

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 26

The flow of energy and the cycling

2.0 of matter can be traced and
interpreted in ecosystems.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• interactions and
interdependencies
• producers, consumers, and
decomposers
• nutrient cycles and energy
flow
• environmental impacts

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• identify the relationship
between producers,
consumers, and
decomposers in ecosystems
What would you say to getting rid of the biting insects that attack
• describe how energy and
nutrients are stored in plants you each spring and summer? You would probably say “yes.” But
and animals studies of ecosystems suggest that there is no easy way of
• describe how food chains eliminating certain species without harming the environment.
and food webs demonstrate At first, it would be great to have no mosquitoes, horseflies, or
the flow of energy in blackflies. In a couple of years, however, you would notice some
ecosystems important changes. Insects are a main food source for some birds
• describe how matter is and fish. Without a steady food source, what would happen to
recycled in ecosystems
those animals? How about the animals that feed on those fish and
• predict changes to any part
birds—what would happen to them? Insects also pollinate many
of a food web
• describe the cycles of matter flowers, and without them, many plants would not produce fruits
of water and carbon in and seeds. The animals that eat these fruits and seeds would
ecosystems suffer. Some insects also have an important role in the breaking
down of dead and decaying organisms.
As you can see, the elements in an ecosystem are
interdependent. It’s important to understand these relationships to
see how an ecosystem works.

26 For Web links relating to 2.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 27

info BIT
2.1 Ecosystems Have Interactions
Hyenas
among Producers, Consumers, and
Decomposers
By the time you have reached grade 7, your body mass has
probably increased 10 times since you were a baby. Your body has
gone through many changes. It needed energy to “fuel” all these
changes. And it needed matter to supply what your body needed to
increase in size and mass. The energy and matter that your body
needed came from food. Your body broke down the food into a
For a long time,
form that it could use. Choosing the right foods, then, is important,
scientists believed that
because no one food can supply your body with everything it
hyenas were
needs.
exclusively
scavengers. That's
because people saw
hyenas scavenging
during the day. Now,
scientists have a
different view.
Researchers discovered
that hyenas do hunt
for their food, but
only at night. In fact,
hyenas are skilful,
cunning hunters. But
they're always ready
and willing to
scavenge if they have
the opportunity.
Figure 2.1 Food provides you with the energy you need to survive.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

CREATING A FOOD LIST

Take a moment. Think back to the foods you’ve eaten over the past two days.
Design a chart to list them. Include the foods you ate for breakfast, lunch, and
dinner, as well as any snacks you had.

Think back to subsection 1.1. Which needs have been met by the foods that you
have consumed? Add these needs to your chart.

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 27
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:54 PM Page 28

YOU AND OTHER ANIMALS ARE FOOD CONSUMERS

Store owners and advertisers often call people consumers. That’s
because we buy and use goods and services produced by companies
or other people. This is the common-language meaning of the word
consumer. In science, the word consumer has another meaning. A
consumer is any organism that has to seek out and eat, or consume,
other living things for food. According to this definition, you are
certainly a consumer. So is a raccoon, a cat, a moose, a bear, a
hyena, a grasshopper, a seal, an elephant, and a praying mantis. In
fact, all animals are food consumers.
Scientists often find it helpful to classify consumers based on
the kinds of food they eat. Animals like cats, hyenas, seals, and
praying mantises, which consume mainly animal food, are called
carnivores. Animals like moose, elephants, and grasshoppers,
which consume mainly plants and plant-like living things, are
called herbivores. Animals like humans, bears, and raccoons,
which consume other animals as well as plants, are called
omnivores.

FOOD CONSUMERS DEPEND ON FOOD PRODUCERS

Plants and plant-like living things play a vital role in nearly all
ecosystems on Earth. That’s because plants can do something that
you and other food consumers cannot.
Animals must find food to eat to get the matter and energy they
need to survive. Green plants can nourish themselves. Such
organisms are known as producers. They can make their own food
to supply the matter and energy they need to survive.

Figure 2.2 A snake

consuming a frog

28 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:55 PM Page 29

Figures 2.3a) – c) All these

living things are producers.
Which do you think are
important for land-based
ecosystems? Which are
important for water-based
ecosystems?

Figure 2.3a) Diatom Figure 2.3b) Flowering Figure 2.3c) Apple blossom
cactus

The Process of Photosynthesis

Plants need two raw materials to make their food. Raw materials are
materials in their natural state. They have not been manufactured,
treated, or prepared. The two raw materials that plants need are
water and carbon dioxide. Water comes from the soil, and carbon
dioxide comes from the air. However, plants also need energy to
make their food. Their energy source is the sun.
Plants absorb the sun’s energy through their leaves. Inside the
leaves, this energy is used to rearrange the particles that make up
water and carbon dioxide. Two products result from this
rearrangement: food and oxygen. The food is in the form of sugars
and starches. These nutrients allow the plant to grow. The oxygen is
released back into the air. This food-making process is called
photosynthesis. Figure 2.4 shows the steps in photosynthesis.

2. The leaves take in

carbon dioxide from
the air.
3. The leaves absorb the
sun’s light energy.

food oxygen
1. The roots
take in 4. The leaves produce food for the plant
water and and give off oxygen to the air.
minerals.

Figure 2.4 The process of photosynthesis

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 29
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 3:55 PM Page 30

The Importance of Photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis can also be written as a word
equation as shown in Figure 2.5.

light + carbon + water food + oxygen

energy dioxide (sugars and starches)
Figure 2.5 Word equation for photosynthesis

This process is important to your life for two main reasons:

• Photosynthesis converts the sun’s energy into chemical energy in
plants and stores it in the form of sugars and starches. Your body
can use this stored energy when you eat plants, plant-based
products (e.g., bread), or plant-eating animals.
• Photosynthesis provides the oxygen in the air you breathe.
Photosynthesis also plays an important role in ecosystems. It is the
only process that allows other living things in an ecosystem to use
the sun’s energy. Through photosynthesis, plants produce the food
and oxygen that all food consumers need to survive. That’s why
scientists call plants and plant-like living things producers.

Oxygen Is for More Than Just Breathing

You have learned that photosynthesis is important for making food
in plants and for producing oxygen. Food is the source of matter
and energy that animals and plants need to survive. Both animals
and plants need oxygen. That’s right—plants need oxygen too.
Nearly all living things need oxygen to release the energy that is
stored in their food. Cellular respiration is the process responsible
for this release of energy. Cellular respiration is a chemical reaction
that occurs within the cells of all living things. It combines food
and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The food
is in the form of the sugar glucose. The energy and water are used
to carry out life functions. The carbon dioxide is given off (in
plants) and exhaled during breathing (in animals). Figure 2.6 shows
the word equation for cellular respiration.

30 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:00 PM Page 31

food + oxygen carbon + water + energy that can be

(glucose) dioxide used by living things
Figure 2.6 Word equation for cellular respiration

A Vital Interaction
You may have noticed a vital interaction that occurs between
photosynthesis and cellular respiration. In photosynthesis, plants
take in carbon dioxide and water, and produce food and oxygen. In
cellular respiration, plants and animals use food and oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water. The products of one chemical re SEARCH
reaction are used by the other. For example, we exhale carbon
dioxide when we breathe. We also give off water when we exhale A Carnivorous Plant!
and when we perspire. Plants use this carbon dioxide and water to The pitcher plant eats
produce oxygen that we breathe and food that we eat. insects such as
grasshoppers and
A SPECIAL GROUP OF CONSUMERS: SCAVENGERS AND DECOMPOSERS snails. Find out where
it lives and how it
All living things eventually die. As well, all consumers generate
“eats” its prey.
waste materials from the food they eat. Our planet would be littered
with dead bodies and waste materials if not for a special group of
consumers. These consumers get the matter and energy they need
from wastes and dead plants and animals. Some of these consumers
are scavengers. Others are decomposers.
Scavengers are consumers that don’t usually kill for their own
food. Instead, they feed off the remains of living things that are
killed by other consumers. Crows, ravens, and housefly larvae
(maggots) are examples of scavengers. Can you name two more?
Decomposers are consumers that break down (decompose) dead
plants and animals. They also break down animal waste materials.
Fungi such as mushrooms and the mould you see growing on
bread, fruits, and vegetables are decomposers. So are many kinds of
bacteria.

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 31
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:00 PM Page 32

DECOMPOSERS CAN BE HELPFUL OR HARMFUL

Helpful or harmful? Baker’s yeast—
single-celled decomposers. They
feed on sugars that are naturally
present in foods such as grains and
fruits. The carbon dioxide that they
emit, or give off, is a by-product that
bakers count on to make breads and
pastries rise. Figure 2.7a) Baker’s yeast

Helpful or harmful? E. coli (short for Escherichia coli—

bacteria found in your large intestine. They break down
nutrients in the food you eat for their own food. In the
process, they manufacture several vitamins that your body
needs to stay healthy.
Figure 2.7b) E. coli
Helpful or harmful? Candida
albicans—a kind of yeast found in the
moist mucus or mucus-producing
areas of your body, such as your
throat and mouth. When the body’s
immune system is weak, these
decomposers can grow and reproduce
rapidly. This results in a disease
called thrush. It is characterized by
raised white spots, usually on the Figure 2.7c) Candida albicans
tongue or inner cheeks of the mouth.

Helpful or harmful? E. coli bacteria 0157:H7—a form of E.

coli sometimes found in common food products such as
ground beef, milk, and apple juice. When these decomposers
break down food, they produce highly toxic chemicals that
can cause food poisoning.

Figure 2.7d) E. coli

bacteria 0157:H7 Helpful or harmful? Nitrogen-fixing
nodules—round swellings on the roots of
some plants that are home to millions of
bacteria. The bacteria make nitrogen
available to the plant, and in return, the
bacteria get their nutrients from the plant.

Figure 2.7e) Nitrogen-fixing nodules

32 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:00 PM Page 33

DECOMPOSERS ARE ESSENTIAL TO ALL ECOSYSTEMS

Decomposers keep us and other living things from being buried in
dead bodies, dead plant parts, feces, and urine. It’s funny to think
about it that way, but it’s true! However, decomposers are more
than just nature’s “clean-up crew.” Their actions mean that plants
always have a supply of nutrients available to them. In fact,
decomposers act like a bridge that connects the biotic factors of
ecosystems to the abiotic factors.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Compare the role of producers and consumers in ecosystems.
How are they related? How are they different?
2. Plants can make their own food through photosynthesis to
supply the matter and energy they need to survive.
a) What are the raw materials for photosynthesis?
b) What are the products of photosynthesis?
c) Name a process in plants that uses oxygen. Compare the raw
materials and products of this process with those of
photosynthesis.
3. Write a poem or descriptive paragraph describing producers or
what producers do in ecosystems.
4. Create a Venn diagram to show helpful and harmful
decomposers.

helpful harmful

Figure 2.8 A Venn diagram

List the decomposers in the appropriate parts of your diagram.

Decomposers that are both helpful and harmful should go
in the overlapping section of the circles.

Continued on next page ➞

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 33
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:00 PM Page 34

CHECK AND REFLECT

5. Which of the organisms shown below are scavengers and which
are decomposers? Explain your choice for each organism.

Figure 2.9a) Millipede Figure 2.9b) Russula rosacea mushroom

Figure 2.9c) Turkey vulture Figure 2.9d) Wolverine

Figure 2.9e) Earthworm Figure 2.9f) Cinnabar red polypore fungus

6. What similarities do you notice about the word equations for

photosynthesis and cellular respiration? What are the
differences? Make a table comparing the two.

34 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 35

2.2 Food Chains Demonstrate the Flow

of Energy in Ecosystems
In general, food and energy in an ecosystem flow from the
producers to the consumers. A food chain is a convenient way to
show how energy moves among living things in an ecosystem. Here
are a few examples of food chains.

a)
Figures 2.10a)–c)
Three food chains

apple human

b)

seeds mouse fox

c)

algae water flea damselfly nymph

A food chain starts with the original food source: a producer.

Then an arrow points to a consumer that eats that producer. In
many cases, a primary consumer may, in turn, point to other
secondary consumers. An example of a primary consumer is a
herbivore, and an example of a secondary consumer is a carnivore
that feeds on a herbivore, but not another carnivore. Notice that
some food chains can be quite short, while others are longer.
In Figure 2.10a)–c) above, which is the primary consumer? Which
is the secondary consumer?

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 35
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 36

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

WHERE DID THAT FOOD COME FROM?

Think of something you ate in the past day. Write it down near the right edge of
a sheet of paper. Draw an arrow pointing to this food.

Decide what living thing was used to make or feed the food you ate. For
example, if you had a piece of cheese, the source of the cheese might have been
milk from a cow. Write this food source to the left of the arrow, as shown here.

➞ cow ➞ cheese
Draw another arrow pointing to this source. In this example, you could put grass
to show that the cow ate grass to produce the milk. Keep adding arrows until
you are not sure what the next step in the flowchart might be.

Repeat this process for five other food items.

When you have finished, review your flowcharts and look for similarities or
patterns. Using this information, answer this question: What food sources do I
seem to depend on for all the foods I eat?

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

Most ecosystems on Earth get their energy from the sun. Through
photosynthesis, plants provide a way for other organisms in an
ecosystem to use the sun’s energy. This makes plants essential to
almost all ecosystems. Plants play such an important role as
producers that there are usually many more plants in an ecosystem
than there are consumers. Within the consumers, there are usually
more herbivores than carnivores in an ecosystem.
Figure 2.11 is an example of what happens to energy in an
ecosystem. Light energy from the sun is used by plants in
photosynthesis to make food. The food contains chemical energy
that plants use for their life functions. A plant uses as much as 90%
of the energy it gets from its food to support its life functions. The
rest—or only about 10%—is stored as nutrients in the plant’s roots,
leaves, and other parts. So only about 10% of the plant’s energy is
available to the herbivore that eats the plant. The herbivore then
uses as much as 90% of the energy from its food to support its life
functions. A large part of this energy is given off as body heat. This
leaves 10% as stored energy for a carnivore to eat.

36 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 37

Figure 2.11a) Plants use sunlight to Figure 2.11b) A rabbit eats the plants Figure 2.11c) The predator eats the
make food to store and use for their and stores the food in its body. The rabbit and uses the energy gained to
life functions. rabbit’s body changes some of the carry out its life functions.
food into energy for its life functions.

You can see that much of the energy doesn’t get passed from
one living thing to another. The largest percentage of energy is used
for body heat, which just escapes into the environment. Other
plants and animals cannot use this energy. The energy is not “used
up”—it still exists. But it is now in a form that other plants and
animals can’t use.

info BIT
Deep-Ocean Community
Scientists once thought that all life on Earth
depended on the sun’s energy. Then, in
1977, a crew of scientists on board a deep-
sea submarine made a discovery in the
Pacific Ocean. They found an ecosystem
2.5 km below the water’s surface in cracks
along the ocean’s floor, where the sun’s
rays cannot reach. Heat energy from inside
Earth creates warm areas in the normally
frigid water. Bacteria live in these waters.
They are the producers for food chains that
include unusual aquatic herbivores and
carnivores.
Black smokers

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 37
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 38

re SEARCH Energy, therefore, is not recycled in an ecosystem. It follows a

one-way path. In each ecosystem, producers depend on a constant
Why Do Autumn supply of energy from the sun to survive. Herbivores depend on
Leaves Turn Colour? plants, and carnivores depend on herbivores for their energy.
Finally, scavengers and decomposers depend on everyone else for
the energy they need. Figure 2.12 is another way of representing the
flow of energy through an ecosystem.

energy from the sun

energy used by producers and

consumers to support life functions

unusable “waste” energy that’s

given off into the environment
What happens to the
green-coloured producer
herbivore
chlorophyll in plants carnivore
in autumn? Why
do leaves change
colour before they fall
off a tree? Research
what happens to
leaves every autumn.
Write a paragraph Figure 2.12 A plant uses much of the energy it gets from its food to support its life functions.
explaining what you The rest is stored as nutrients in its roots, leaves, and other plant parts. That leaves very little
have learned. energy available to a herbivore that eats the plant. The herbivore also uses much of the energy
from its plant food to support its life functions. What do you think that means for a carnivore
that eats the herbivore?

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What is the difference between the energy used in
photosynthesis and the energy used in cellular respiration?
2. What happens to the energy in cellular respiration not used to
support life functions?
3. In terms of the flow of energy through an ecosystem, which is
the correct order for each of the following situations?
a) rabbit, sun, rose, wolf, earthworm
b) seaweed, sea urchin, otter, sun, bacteria
4. Provide an example of how a plant or animal stores nutrients.

38 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 39

info BIT
2.3 Food Webs
Size and the Food
You have been using food chains to help you understand how all Chain
living things are connected with one another. However, food chains Larger animals are not
are simplified ways of showing these interactions. necessarily higher on
In real ecosystems, there are usually many carnivores, many the food chain. For
more herbivores, and many, many more producers—and there are example, herbivores,
countless decomposers. In real ecosystems, there can be dozens, which are primary
hundreds, or even thousands of different food chains. Each living consumers, include
thing is a part of many food chains. Many of these food chains are small animals such as
linked. If you link food chains in an ecosystem, you get a food web. grasshoppers, and
large animals such as
elephants.
FOOD WEBS AND ECOSYSTEMS
Changes in either the abiotic or biotic factors affect the members of
the food web. These changes can have a great effect on living things
in an ecosystem.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

DISAPPEARING ORGANISMS
Food webs are made up of a wide variety of living things. If you were to
count the number of organisms in a typical food web and graph the results,
this is what the graph might look like.

Number of Organisms
1 carnivore

10 omnivores

100 herbivores

1000 primary producers

Figure 2.13 A food web pyramid

Suppose that one type of living thing were to disappear from an ecosystem.
Which type do you think would have the greatest impact on the other living
things? the least impact?

Write a paragraph or create a table identifying what would happen if one of

the groups of organisms were removed.

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 39
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 40

Inquiry FOOD WEB CHAIN REACTION

Activity The Question
How do abiotic and biotic factors in the forest ecosystem affect the complete food
web of the forest?

Materials & Equipment

• 30–40-m length of strong
string or yarn, or light rope
• “forest identity” cards

Figure 2.14 The forest ecosystem

Procedure
Part 1 Modelling a Forest Ecosystem
1 In this activity, you will be creating a model of some interactions that can
occur in a forest ecosystem. Using this model, you will investigate the impact
of various situations on the ecosystem.
2 Your teacher will hand out a forest identity card to everyone in your group.
When you get your card, quietly think about your new identity and how you
fit into a forest ecosystem. Think of the role you play in the forest. Think of a
part of the forest (biotic or abiotic) that depends on you. Think of a part of
the forest that you depend on or use. One person in the group will be
assigned the task of recorder.
3 Your teacher will give someone in your group a ball of string. That person
may be you. While holding onto one end of the string, you will pass the ball
to another person who has a role in the forest that depends on or uses you.
4 As this person receives the ball, he or she explains the relationship to you.
The recorder sketches the connection between the two factors (you and the
other person).
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all members of your group are connected by the
string. Some members may be connected more than once. You now have a
model of some of the interactions that occur in a forest ecosystem.

40 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 41

Part 2 Impacts on the Forest Ecosystem

6 Once everyone is connected, find the person who is water. Pretend that
there’s a drought this year, so there’s very little water for the forest. The water
person should tug gently on the string. Do you feel the tug? Does anyone
else in the circle feel the tug?
7 Repeat the process followed in step 6 for each of the following situations:
a) Disease has killed the foxes.
b) Too many trees have been cut down.
c) The air has become heavily polluted.
8 If you wish, make up some of your own situations to test. When you’ve
finished, answer the following questions.

Analyzing and Interpreting

9 When the water person tugged on the string, how many people felt it? Did
this surprise you? Why or why not?
10 In the other situations, how many people felt the
tug? Again, did this surprise you? Why or why
not?
11 a) Make a sketch of the forest ecosystem that you pine tree
were part of in this activity. (See the partially
completed diagram, Figure 2.15.) You might water
want to use different colours for some of the
connections. If you like, add any other living
things that you want to include.
b) Label all the biotic and abiotic factors. Then
draw lines to connect all biotic parts of the
ecosystem into a food web.

Forming Conclusions Figure 2.15 A sketch of the

forest ecosystem, partially
12 Summarize this activity by answering the following: completed
a) What do you think are the most important things about food webs?
b) What did you learn about food webs that you didn’t know before?
c) What is one thing about food webs you would like to know more about?

Applying and Connecting

In late February 2000, floods devastated much of southeastern Africa.
Mozambique was one of the places hit the hardest. Floods destroyed much of the
crops and left hundreds of thousands homeless. Research what is presently
happening in Mozambique. How did the Mozambicans recover from the flood?

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 41
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 42

MEADOW FOOD WEB

Figure 2.16 A food web.

Describe two food chains
in this web. snake

mouse

frog

mushrooms
owl

grasshopper

rabbit

re SEARCH Study this food web of a meadow community. The dark-coloured

arrows show the direction in which energy and nutrients are being
Earthworms and passed in the food chain. You can find the food chains that make
Ecosystems up this food web by starting with the plants and grasses in the
Earthworms are an middle of the picture. Then, follow the dark-coloured arrows until
important part of they end. When any of the organisms in the food web die, the
many ecosystems. Use decomposers will break them down, and the cycle will start again.
print or electronic The light-coloured arrows show how energy and nutrients are being
resources to find out
passed to the decomposers.
why. What would
But what would happen if the number of grasshoppers changed?
happen if all the
If the number increased, then more grass and plants would be
earthworms in a lawn
or field disappeared? eaten. This would mean less grass and plants would be available for
Write a report, design the mice and rabbits. With the increase in the number of
a poster, or prepare a grasshoppers available, the number of frogs might increase.
multimedia However, when the number of grasshoppers decreases again, the
presentation to share frogs would not have enough food, and some would starve. As you
your discoveries. can see, each part of the food web depends on the other parts. If
one part changes, the rest of the web also changes in some way.

42 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 43

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Think of a food web in a forest that contains trees, foxes, rabbits,
mushrooms, and ferns.
a) Create a food web that would use all of the above organisms.
b) Add yourself to this web and redraw the food chains to
include you.
2. Think about a forest food web and a desert food web. List three
differences and three similarities between the food webs.
3. Compare a forest food web with a food web in any other
ecosystem of your choice. How are they different? How are they
similar?
4. a) Think of a park or other green space. Name two producers,
two herbivorous consumers, and two carnivorous consumers
that you would find in this ecosystem.
b) Explain how these living things are related to one another.
c) Would you expect to find scavengers and decomposers in a
park ecosystem? Why or why not?
5. Here are components of a Northern food web. Draw a food web
using each component.

Figure 2.17a) Mink Figure 2.17b) Sandhill crane

Figure 2.17c) Wood frog Figure 2.17d) Pike Figure 2.17e) Shiners

Figure 2.17f) Plankton Figure 2.17g) Mayfly larva Figure 2.17h) Mallard

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 43
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 44

2.4 Matter Cycles in Ecosystems

You have learned that energy flows in ecosystems, and can show
that energy flows through food chains and food webs. Both matter
and energy are abiotic factors. Both are required for ecosystems.
Together they influence all areas of the ecosystem. Now you will
investigate how water and carbon cycle through ecosystems. Study
the pictures and read the captions on this page. What does the
information presented say about what happens to matter in
ecosystems? Write a paragraph that summarizes what you think
these pictures are telling you.

Figure 2.18a) Sunlight, soil, and water from the Figure 2.18b) Plants serve as food for herbivores.
abiotic environment provide plants with what they The herbivores can sometimes serve as food for
need to grow and live their lives. other consumers.

Figure 2.18c) Plants and Figure 2.18d) Scavengers and Figure 2.18e) Skeletons are made
animals grow, reproduce, decomposers feed on the wastes up of chemicals such as calcium,
produce wastes, and in time, die. and remains. This process phosphorus, and carbon. These
breaks down once-living matter chemicals (minerals) are nutrients
into smaller, simpler particles. that other living things (such as
In time, even solid skeletons are plants) need to survive. Mineral
broken down. nutrients are non-living, so they are
part of the abiotic environment.

44 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 45

WATER AND CARBON CYCLES info BIT

You are made up of matter. So are all living things and non-living
Raindrops Keep
things. The matter that makes up all living and non-living things on
Falling on My Head
Earth has been here for several billion years. On occasion, a
Scientists, using high-
meteorite or a comet has struck our planet. When this happens,
speed cameras, have
matter from outer space is added to our planet. For the most part,
discovered that
though, all the matter that exists here today has been here for a raindrops are not
long, long time. tear-shaped. They
So where does the matter that living things need come from? actually look like the
Matter continually moves from the abiotic environment (non-living shape of a small
things) to the biotic environment (living things) and back to the hamburger bun.
abiotic environment. This over-and-over-again movement of matter
is referred to as a cycle.
There are many cycles of matter in nature. In each of these
cycles, matter is used by living things and then returned to the
abiotic environment to be used again by living things. The diagrams
below and on the next page show two important cycles of matter:
the water cycle and the carbon cycle.

precipitation

condensation

evaporation

Figure 2.19 The water cycle

Three main processes are responsible for the water cycle: evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
• According to this diagram, what sources add water vapour to the atmosphere?
• What happens to the water that falls back to Earth?
Heat from the sun causes water in bodies such as oceans, rivers, and lakes to evaporate (change from
liquid water to water vapour). Water vapour condenses into clouds. It returns to Earth in the form of
precipitation (rain, hail, and snow).
Fuel-burning factories and motor vehicles add water vapour (steam) to the atmosphere. People and other
animals drink water. They give off water vapour into the atmosphere whenever they exhale or perspire.
Plants take in water from the soil through their roots. They give off water vapour.

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 45
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 46

carbon dioxide
re SEARCH
Cycles of Matter oxygen
There are cycles of
matter for other
substances living
things need, such as
nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulphur. Choose
one of these
substances to
investigate further.
Find out why the Figure 2.20 The carbon cycle
substance is
important for living
The carbon substances may, over millions of years, change to become fuels such as coal, oil,
things and how it is and natural gas.
cycled in nature.
• According to this diagram, what sources add carbon dioxide to the air, water, and soil?
Present your findings
• What happens to the carbon dioxide?
in the form of a
Animals use oxygen in combination with food to release the energy they need to survive. (This
diagram similar to the
is called cellular respiration.) This process gives off carbon dioxide as a by-product. Animals
water cycle or carbon
on land add carbon dioxide mainly to air. Animals in bodies of water add carbon dioxide mainly
cycle diagrams. to water. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil.
Photosynthesis transforms these substances into food and oxygen. Fuel-burning factories and
motor vehicles add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Decomposers add other forms of
carbon to the soil and to water.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. The following statements have to do with the carbon cycle. Put
them in order. Hint: Begin with carbon in the form of oil being
found underground.
a) A car fuel tank is filled up with gasoline.
b) Plants die and are put in a composter.
c) Driving the car burns the fuel; this creates exhaust gases
including carbon dioxide.
d) Decomposers in a composter add carbon to the soil.
e) Oil is pumped from the ground and refined into gasoline.
f ) Plants combine carbon dioxide from the air with water to
create food and oxygen.
2. Describe the cycle water goes through, from evaporating from a
lake to returning to the lake. Your description should include
the following words: evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
clouds, plants, roots, animals, soil, and cars.

46 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 47

and
Careers Profiles

Naturalists—Our Environmental Watchdogs

Do you want to know more about

preserving and protecting the natural
environment? If so, you can become
a naturalist. These are people
interested in protecting endangered
species, preserving animal habitats,
reducing pollutants that affect Figure 2.21 Jack Miner (1865–1944) was a farmer who
ecosystems, and other environmental became one of Canada’s first naturalists. He set up bird
issues. While many naturalists have a sanctuaries and did research on bird migration.

background in science, some are just

Figure 2.22 Even though Jane Goodall (1934–) has no
concerned citizens. Here are two formal science training, she has become world famous
examples of people who didn’t start for her research on chimpanzees. She later received a
out studying science but who had a Ph.D. from Cambridge University in England without first
great influence on the environment. having earned an undergraduate degree.

Ethnobotanists

Figure 2.24 Canadian

ethnobotanist Nancy
1. Why do ethnobotanists
Turner works with
plant specialists like work with Aboriginal
Mary Thomas, a peoples? Why do you
Shuswap elder. think this is a good
Figure 2.23 The inner bark of the
red-osier dogwood shrub is used idea?
to heal sores and swellings. 2. Why is it important to
preserve and protect the
What do leukemia, high blood pressure, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and cerebral natural environment?
palsy have in common? They’ve all been treated with drugs that have originally 3. How could you start a
come from plants. In fact, about one-quarter of today’s prescription drugs have naturalist club in your
been developed from plants. school? What people
There are probably even more treatments in ecosystems just waiting to be outside the school
discovered. Unfortunately, finding them is very difficult and costly. That’s where would you like to
an ethnobotanist comes in. Ethnobotanists study Aboriginal cultures to find out contact to help you get
how their people use plants. They work closely with plant specialists and elders of started?
Aboriginal communities.

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 47
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 48

SECTION REVIEW

Assess Your Learning

1. a) Which of the arrows at right
describes the path that
energy moves in ecosystems?
b) Which describes the path that matter moves in ecosystems?
c) Give reasons to explain your answers to a) and b).
2. Figure 2.25 shows a typical food web.

Figure 2.25 Question 2

a) Name an ecosystem in which you would find a food web like

this.
b) Identify at least three food chains in this food web.
c) Why does a food web give a more realistic picture of the
interactions in an ecosystem?
d) How is energy supplied to and through this food web?
3. Describe a change in an ecosystem that would affect plants and
animals living there. What are the positive and negative effects
of this change?
4. What would happen if matter in the abiotic environment wasn’t
recycled? How do you know?
5. What would happen if an ecosystem’s supply of sunlight was
removed? How do you know?
6. Compare and contrast two similarities and two differences of
carbon and energy in ecosystems.
7. The list below shows typical producers and consumers you
would find in a pond ecosystem.
algae fish roundworm
bladderwort fox spider
bullrush frog toad
deer heron water flea
dragonfly mosquito water horsetail
duckweed reed sweet grass water lily
wolf

48 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 49

SECTION REVIEW

a) The list is in alphabetical order. Reorganize it to make two

lists: one showing all the producers and the other, all the
consumers. (If you aren’t sure what some of these living
things are, make an inference, or look them up in a reference
such as an encyclopedia.)
b) Construct as many food webs as you can using the living
things in your lists.
c) Choose two of your food webs. Explain how energy flows
through them. How is matter recycled in these food webs?
8. How do you think the number of producers in an ecosystem
usually compares with the number of herbivores? (In other
words, are there more producers than herbivores, or fewer?)
How do you think the number of carnivores compares with the
number of herbivores? Give reasons to support your answers.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
Consider how science and technology provide opportunities for
many diverse careers, hobbies, and interests, and for meeting
personal needs. Think about how this relates to the work done in
this section and your project at the end of this unit.
1. Why do you think information on energy flows in ecosystems
might convince a city to have more parks?
2. What personal needs and environmental concerns should be
considered when designing a land use plan?
3. How might understanding the cycling of water and carbon be
important in developing a land use plan?
4. What types of careers are related to the water and carbon cycles?
5. Use the following examples to demonstrate how people can
affect energy flow and the cycling of matter in an ecosystem:
a) A developer fills in a wetland to build houses.
b) A farmer plows a natural grassland to plant a crop.
c) A town changes the drainage system in an ecosystem to
reduce flooding.
d) A logging company cuts down trees over a large area.
e) A city builds roads.

The Flow of Energy and the Cycling of Matter Can Be Traced and Interpreted in Ecosystems 49
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:01 PM Page 50

3.0 Changes can be observed and

monitored in ecosystems.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• interactions and
interdependencies
• environmental monitoring
• environmental impacts
• species distribution
• succession

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• recognize the distribution
of living things in an
environment
• recognize interactions and
changes in ecosystems
• identify succession in
ecosystems

These two animals once roamed our planet. Now they’re both
gone. The last Tyrannosaurus rex died about 65 million years ago.
A dramatic, natural change in its ecosystem may have led to its
death. The last great auk died around the year 1844. Its ecosystem
changed forever with the arrival of Europeans. Overhunting by
humans led to its death. Ecosystems are always changing.
Sometimes these changes are natural. Drought or floods can cause
massive, long-term changes to ecosystems. Sometimes these
changes are the result of human activity. Building dams and
clearing forests can cause great, long-term changes to ecosystems.
What kinds of changes do you think drought, floods, dams, and
forest-clearing cause? How do these changes affect living things?
How do you think these changes can be measured and monitored?

50 For Web links relating to 3.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 51

info BIT
3.1 Investigating the Distribution of
Help with Counting
Living Things in an Environment One way that scientists
estimate the
Think about your schoolyard or a local park for a moment. Changes distribution of living
continue to happen in both these areas. They may not be as things in an area is by
dramatic as the extinction of the dinosaurs or dealing with the a technique called
after-effects of a flood or drought, but they are still changes. Have sampling. Sampling is
you noticed any changes in your schoolyard or local park? How do used when it is too
you know that changes have occurred? difficult to count each
living thing.

Figure 3.1 The distribution of living things in a park

DISTRIBUTION OF LIVING THINGS

If you look closely at your schoolyard or a local park, you are likely
to see differences even within this small area. Perhaps there are
more dandelions, grass, or daisies in one section, or perhaps there
are more ants in another section. The distribution of living things
may be different from one area to another. Think about why this is
true.

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 51

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 52

Inquiry H U M A N I M PA C T IN THE S C H O O LYA R D

Activity The Question
Has human impact affected the distribution of living things in the schoolyard
ecosystem?

Materials & Equipment The Hypothesis

• 8 metal or plastic tent pegs Restate the above question in the form of a hypothesis. (See Toolbox 2 if you
• 2 pieces of string, each need help with this.)
about 4 m long
• tape measure or
Procedure
metre-stick 1 Go into the schoolyard. Look for two places: one that appears to be affected
• thermometer by human impact, and one that appears not to have been affected by human
• anemometer impact. Areas that appear to be affected by human impact might include an
• classification key for local area on the soccer or baseball field, or in the playground. Make sure the
plants and animals places you choose are the same size and have similar abiotic conditions of
light intensity and soil type.
2 Use the metre-stick to measure an area of 1 m by 1 m in a place of little or
no human impact. Tie a length of string around the pegs to outline the
square.
Caution! 3 Draw a sketch of all the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) things inside
Do not remove the the square. Count all of the individual plants that are growing inside the
organisms or disturb square. Count the animals that you see as well. Plants that are right under the
the environment. Leave string only count if more than half of the plant is inside the square. Do any of
it as you found it. the abiotic or biotic factors cover a large area of your square? Estimate and
record the percentage of your square covered by the factor(s).
4 Use your classification key to identify anything you do not recognize.
5 Repeat the procedure in another place with similar abiotic factors, but one
where it appears that there has been human impact.

math Link
This staked-out area is known as
a quadrat. Quadrats can be
square, rectangular, or circular
in shape. Studying the area
in a quadrat is called quadrat
analysis.

52 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 53

Collecting Data
6 Use the following table to record the data that you have gathered during your
investigation.

Schoolyard Observations
Place with Little or No Human Impact Place with Human Impact
date and time
temperature
wind speed
light intensity (bright, shady)
soil condition (dry, wet)
number and type of plants observed

number and type of animals observed

Analyzing and Interpreting

7 Why did you try to choose two places that had the same abiotic factors,
except human impact?
8 What type of graph would best display the biotic factors found in each place?
Use it to graph each place.
9 What differences did you see in the biotic factors present in each place that
you identified?
10 Did human use impact the biotic factors in this investigation? Why or why not?

Forming Conclusions
11 Think about the places that are most frequently used in the schoolyard. Does
your data prove that human use has affected the number and distribution of
living things in your schoolyard? Why or why not? What information would
you gather to determine how much each place is impacted by humans?

Applying and Connecting

Ecologists use quadrat analysis to gather data about the location of plants and
animals and their living conditions. Quadrat analysis can also be used to advise
how a given area can be maintained or improved.

Extending
The ideal size of a quadrat is the smallest size that contains the same number of
species as would be contained in a larger one. Determine the area of your
schoolyard. Estimate the percentage of dandelions in your schoolyard by using
quadrat analysis. How accurate do you think this number is? Explain your answer.

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 53

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 54

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Describe two different things humans could do to have an
impact on living things in your schoolyard.
2. Why is it important to investigate the distribution of living
re SEARCH things in your schoolyard?

One, Two, Three ... 3. In many national and provincial parks, there are both wetland
Research how and dry-land areas for living things. Why do you think it is
scientists determine important to have both areas?
the populations of 4. Figure 3.2 shows wetland and dry-land areas in a park. Create a
migrating birds. chart with the headings “wetland” and “dry land” to list all the
living things you see in each place. Why do you think park
naturalists might want to know the distribution of each of these
living things in the park?

Figure 3.2 Question 4

54 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 55

3.2 Interactions and Changes Occur in

Ecosystems
In any ecosystem, living things need to interact with non-living
things. As you have learned in previous sections, if there is an
imbalance within an ecosystem, problems may occur. In some
ecosystems, human activity has caused an imbalance.
An example of this is wetland ecosystems. At one time,
wetlands were not considered to be important. In many countries,
wetlands were drained to be replaced by farmland and housing.
Others were destroyed by pollution. By destroying the wetlands,
humans destroyed many plants and animals that lived in that
ecosystem. Now, wetland ecosystems are recognized for their
importance. Many steps have been taken to protect and preserve
wetlands.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

TO CHANGE OR NOT TO CHANGE

Forest ecosystems have also undergone changes. Look at
Figure 3.3. A forest once stood here. That was before the
thunderstorm. Lightning pierced the sky, striking and igniting
one of the taller trees. The fire jumped from treetop to treetop
until the entire forest was burning. The photo shows all that’s
left.

Imagine what the forest scene in the photo looked like before
the fire. Make a sketch to show what you’re imagining. What
kinds of living things populated this scene? What abiotic and
biotic factors of the forest ecosystem supported them? Where
are the living things now? Don’t forget about human
involvement in the area.
Figure 3.3 A forest after a
How do you think this scene will look a few years from now? Will it be any
fire caused by lightning
different? What could make it different? Use a sketch to record your
impressions. Add labels to clarify your ideas. How will this scene look
20 years from now? 50 years from now? 100 years or more from now?

Do you think it ever burned before? Does the fire do any good?

Share your ideas with a group. Do they have the same ideas as you? Add
one new idea to your sketch.

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 55

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 56

info BIT ALL THINGS CHANGE

Everything changes. You may not notice it, but you are not exactly
Disappearing the same as you were one day ago. Tomorrow, you will be different
Dragonflies again. Change is always happening, everywhere inside you and
Dragonflies, which live
around you. All things change, including ecosystems. Some of the
in wetlands, are an
ways that changes can occur are through bioinvasion, competition,
early warning sign for
pollution. If the
predation, and weather.
dragonflies at a pond
disappear, then other BIOINVASION
pond plants and Many of the plants and animals that you may think are common to
animals will soon Canada actually have come from somewhere else. European settlers
follow if the pond isn’t introduced plants and animals from their home countries. Some
cleaned up.
well-meaning naturalists introduced other species, while still others
were accidentally introduced.
Scientists call this species introduction bioinvasion. Because
many of these new species were stronger than the native species or
had no natural enemies, they quickly multiplied. Their effects on
ecosystems and on other living things have been dramatic.

Figure 3.4a) In
1890, a hundred
European starlings
were released into
New York’s Central
Park. Starlings have
been very successful,
and now number over
200 million throughout
North America, causing
problems in farmers’ fields
and hazards at airports. These
birds compete with other birds
such as bluebirds, woodpeckers,
and flycatchers for nesting sites.

Figure 3.4b) The first wild plants of purple loosestrife in North America
probably escaped from people’s gardens. They originally came from Europe.
The plant has spread so fast that it has pushed native species out of the way.
This is especially true in wetland and marshy areas. Birds have a harder time
making nests among purple loosestrife than among native species.

56 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 57

Figure 3.4d) House

sparrows were also
purposely released in
New York’s Central Park
over 100 years ago. They
Figure 3.4c) Zebra mussels were first noticed in the compete for food and
Great Lakes in 1988. They probably travelled over nesting sites with many
here on a ship from Europe. By 1994, there were as native birds.
many as 50 000 mussels/m2 in some rivers near the
Great Lakes.

Figure 3.4e) More than one-

quarter of Canada’s plant
species are not native.

COMPETITION
Changes also occur in the population of species in ecosystems due
to their interaction with other biotic and abiotic factors. One of
these interactions is competition.
You probably have been involved in some type of competition.
Whether it is running a race or designing a school logo, for humans,
a competition involves more than one person trying to reach the
same goal. All living things compete with all other living things in
their community, but they compete for resources like food, water,
and space to live. Because there is only so much of each resource,
all living things are always trying to get enough of these resources
to meet their needs.

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 57

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 58

Inquiry S U RV I VA L IN THE FIELD

Activity The Question
How does competition between two species affect their numbers and
health?

Materials & Equipment

(for a group of 10 students)
• 4 plastic spoons
• 4 forks with centre tines
removed
• 100 g sesame seeds
• 10 small Styrofoam balls
• 10 10-cm pieces of string
• 10 toothpicks
• a timing device

Figure 3.5 Lions chasing vultures off the lions’ kill

The Hypothesis
Restate the above question in the form of a hypothesis. (See Toolbox 2 if you
need help with this.)

Procedure
1 You are about to be part of a simulation of species competing for the same
resource: food. There are two species, the forks and the spoons. In your
group, assign four people to be spoons, four to be forks, and one person to
be the recorder for each species.
2 The recorders randomly spread out the materials in an area 10 m by 10 m.
This is the community.
3 The task for the members of the two species is to collect one food item from
the community within 20 s. Members who cannot collect a food item and
return to the recorder in this time period are considered to have died from
starvation. Only members who collect one food item can go on to the next
round. A food item is one pile of sesame seeds, one ball, one string, or one
toothpick.
4 Begin Round 1 by having all the forks and spoons line up on one edge of the
community. When your teacher tells you to start, go into the community and
collect one food item. When you get your food item, come back to your
recorder to have your item recorded. Any fork or spoon who is unable to
collect food or who has collected too much cannot continue into the next
round.
5 Repeat step 4 until no forks or spoons are left. Make sure each food item you
collected is recorded at the end of each round.

58 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 59

Collecting Data
6 To record what each fork and spoon collected in each round, draw the
following table on a clean sheet of paper.

Species Round Round Round Round Round

1 2 3 4 5
Fork 1
Fork 2
Fork 3
Fork 4
Spoon 1
Spoon 2
Spoon 3
Spoon 4

Analyzing and Interpreting

7 Create a line graph that shows how many spoons and how many forks
competed against each other in each round.
8 Using the graph, can you describe a trend that shows which species was
more successful in the competition for food? What information can you use
to support your conclusion?
9 Create a bar graph for forks and spoons that shows what type and how much
food each species collected in each round.
10 Was there a preferred food at any time for each of the species?
11 Was there a food that you thought limited the survival of a species? Was
there a food that only one species could use to survive?

Forming Conclusions
12 Use the data you collected from this activity. Describe how you think
competition for food might affect the number and health of the forks and
spoons in this activity.

Applying and Connecting

Look at the photo on the previous page of lions and vultures competing for
resources. Work with a partner. Find examples of species in your community that
compete for resources.

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 59

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 60

re SEARCH PREDATION
Competition for resources is not the only factor that can affect a
Non-native Species
species’ survival. Predation occurs when an animal hunts other
Research three
animals for food. Organisms that are being hunted are the prey. An
common plants and
animals that are not example of this is the lynx hunting snowshoe hares. The interactions
native to Canada. of predators and their prey can affect an ecosystem. If there are too
Choose ones not many predators, the prey population will decrease. This may
mentioned in this increase competition for food among predator populations, so that
subsection. one or more will either die out or move to a new location. If there
Why are some of are too few predators, then the prey population may increase. This
these alien species so would increase the competition for food among prey species, so
successful in North that one or more will either die out or move to a new location.
America? Why are
some a threat to our Typical Cycle of Lynx/Snowshoe Hare Populations
10 500
ecosystems? 9 450
8 400

Number of Hares
Number of Lynx

7 350
6 300
5 250
4 200
3 150
2 100
1 50 Lynx
0 0 Hares
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Year
Figure 3.6 Typical cycle of Lynx/snowshoe hare populations over an eight-year period

WEATHER
Weather can also affect ecosystems. Many days of the right
temperature and amount of rain can help plants grow. If the
weather conditions are poor, the growth of plant populations may
slow or stop. Natural disasters can also change ecosystems. Bad
storms can damage plants. Floods can kill some plants and animals.
Lightning can cause fires that destroy plants and kill animals.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. How may the introduction of a non-native plant or animal
species affect an ecosystem?
2. How do you think the following factors can affect populations
and communities in ecosystems?
a) the introduction of a new species
b) the availability of food
3. Why do the populations shown in Figure 3.6 peak and crash at
different times?

60 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 61

Experiment COMPETITION BETWEEN THREE OR

ON YOUR OWN
MORE SPECIES

Before You Start ...

There may be hundreds or even thousands of
populations in an ecosystem. In the experiment below,
you will work with just a few populations to observe
what happens when several species compete in an
ecosystem.

The Question
How does competition affect the number of plant
populations in an ecosystem?

Design and Conduct Your Experiment

You may wish to use Toolbox 2: The Inquiry Process
of Science to help you plan your experiment.
Figure 3.7
1 Make a hypothesis to test how the populations of
three or more species of plants will be affected
c) Is the test I’m designing fair? How do I know?
when they compete with each other in a small
area. (A hypothesis is a possible answer to a d) How will I record my results? For example, will
question or a possible explanation of a situation.) I need a data chart? a graph? both? neither?
2 Decide what materials you’ll need to test your e) How long will I run my experiment?
hypothesis. For example, you might consider the f) How long do I have to complete my
following questions: experiment?
a) How many populations will you experiment 4 Write up your procedure. Be sure to show it to
with? your teacher before going any further.
b) Will you grow the plants from seeds or work 5 Carry out your experiment.
with seedlings? 6 Compare your results with your hypothesis. Did
c) How many containers will you need? your results support it? If not, what possible
d) How much soil will you need? reasons might there be?
3 Plan your procedure. Ask yourself questions such 7 Share and compare your experimental plan and
as findings with your classmates. Did anyone plan an
experiment exactly like yours? similar to yours?
a) What evidence am I looking for to support my
completely different from yours? How do your
hypothesis?
results compare with theirs?
b) What steps will I follow to collect the data I
need?

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 61

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 62

3.3 Succession: How Ecosystems Change

over Time
info BIT Have you ever noticed how bare patches on the ground don’t often
stay that way? Sooner or later, you will see new plants growing
Taking Over where there used to be just soil. Scientists call the first species that
The pioneers of arrive pioneer species. Even though the abiotic conditions may be
succession on bare rock harsh, these pioneers find a way to live there. They also “pave the
are lichen. Lichen are way” for populations of other species to enter the community and
actually two organisms establish themselves. As time goes on, many of the pioneer species
(an alga and a fungus) may get replaced by the new arrivals. These, in turn, may be
living together in replaced by other, newer arrivals.
mutualism. This process of change can take a long time. It may take
decades, centuries, even thousands of years. Scientists have been
observing enough of these changes to notice a pattern. They can
usually tell which species came first and which came later just by
looking at an ecosystem.
This predictable pattern of change in ecosystems is called
succession.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

CAN YOU IDENTIFY THE PIONEER SPECIES?

Pioneer species are the first to arrive in an area. Look at Figures 3.8a)–c). Try to
decide which one(s) are pioneer species. Explain your reasoning.

Figure 3.8a) Figure 3.8b) Figure 3.8c)

62 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 63

WHAT IS SUCCESSION?
There are two types of succession to consider when observing
communities.
Primary succession occurs in areas where no life exists due to
an absence of soil. Common areas of primary succession include
volcanic islands, lava flows, and rock left behind by retreating
glaciers. In succession on rock or lava, usually one of the pioneer
species to arrive is lichen. Each change that occurs helps prepare
the way for another set of changes. Lichens are suited to grow in
Figure 3.9a) Lichen
barren, rocky areas. Over time, they help to break down the rocks
into soil. As the soil becomes more fertile, mosses, fungi, grasses,
and herbs begin to appear. Grassy areas are replaced by trees with
shallow roots. As more soil builds up, larger trees become
established. Succession on sand dunes usually begins with grasses,
followed by shrubs, and then trees.
In the process of succession, communities will grow and replace
one another until a climax community forms. A climax community
is a stable community of a diverse number of species that is not
easily replaced by other communities. Unless disturbed by natural Figure 3.9b) Growing grass
or human forces, a climax community can exist for many years.
Even though a climax community may be fairly stable for a long
time, change is a continuous process, and very little will stay
exactly the same.
Secondary succession occurs when a community has been
destroyed or disturbed by natural occurrences or human activities.
Secondary succession is different from primary succession, because
in secondary succession, these habitats previously supported life. A
farmer’s field, a vacant lot in the city, a newly forested area, even a Figure 3.9c) Young forest
strip mine, are examples of where this type of succession occurs.
When a corn field is left alone, weeds are the first to grow.
Work with a group. Think about areas in your local community
that have any of these stages of succession. Create a poster of the
area. Make sure your poster includes pictures as well as a written
description of the area.

re SEARCH Figure 3.9d) Climax forest

Surtsey
Surtsey, one of Earth’s newest islands, is situated off the coast of Iceland.
Research what pioneer species first inhabited Surtsey. What type of succession
is present on Surtsey?

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 63

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 64

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Which living things seem to be the pioneer species in all
ecosystems? Suggest a reason to explain this.
2. Describe the key stages to the development of a climax
community.
3. What is the difference between primary and secondary succession?
4. Give an example each of a pioneer species and a species of a
climax community.
5. Over many years, the following plants and animals appeared in
an area where a forest fire occurred. In what order do you think
they appeared?
• fireweed • birch tree • mouse • bear • grass
6. What examples of succession can you find in this scene of
farmland that is no longer used for farming? Can you find a
similar example in your community?

Year 1

Figure 3.10a)

Year 2

Figure 3.10b)

Year 10

Figure 3.10c)

Year 20

Figure 3.10d)

64 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:02 PM Page 65

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. a) Whether they’re started naturally or by people, forest fires
change the ecosystem of a forest. Name at least three other
natural changes that can affect ecosystems.
b) Choose one of the above natural changes. Describe how it
might affect an ecosystem.
2. Use words, pictures, or both to describe how primary succession
takes place.
3. Describe how population fluctuations can change an ecosystem.
4. What interactions between living things can cause change in an
ecosystem?
5. Give an example of an ecosystem where secondary succession
can occur.
6. Imagine if all the bears (both grizzly and black) in Jasper
National Park were removed from the park. Make a plan to
investigate the changes that would take place in the ecosystem.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
In this section, you looked at changes that occur in ecosystems and
the way that they can be assessed and monitored. Changes and
interactions can have both intended and unintended consequences
for humans and the environment. As you continue to gather
information and ideas that will help you to design and develop
your project, consider:
1. What types of changes and interactions need to be monitored?
2. What technology will need to be used to assist with the
monitoring?
3. When should the monitoring be done?
4. How much importance should be given to impacts on the
ecosystem compared with the needs of humans?

Changes Can Be Observed and Monitored in Ecosystems 65

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:03 PM Page 66

Maintaining sustainable environments

4.0 requires knowledge, decisions,
and actions.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• endangered species
• environmental monitoring
• environmental impacts
• extinction
• environmental management

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• identify how some pollutants
become concentrated in
organisms
• identify intended and
unintended consequences of
human activities within
ecosystems
• describe how information
from scientific investigations
can assist environmental
decision-making
• describe examples of
limitations of scientific and Before a decision can be made, the situation must be studied, and
technological knowledge the consequences of the actions must be analyzed. Some decisions
when making decisions may have the best intentions, as you saw in the case of Yoho
about environments
National Park, with unfortunate results. In this section, you will
• use evidence from many
look at the consequences of human activities within ecosystems,
sources to help analyze a
local environmental problem and how science investigations can help inform environmental
decision-making. But science and technology are not always able
to provide help with environmental issues, as you will learn. You
will get the chance to analyze a local environmental problem and
identify possible actions and consequences.

66 For Web links relating to 4.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:03 PM Page 67

info BIT
4.1 There Are Intended and Unintended
Rabbits Everywhere
Consequences of Human Activities In the summer of 1999,

within Ecosystems there was a population

explosion of domestic
rabbits living on the
The human population on Earth is very large, and continues to lawns of the Royal
grow. This means we need more space to live, and more land to Victoria Hospital in
grow and raise living things for food. We need more energy sources Victoria, British
such as coal and oil to fuel our technologies, and more raw Columbia. Hundreds of
materials such as wood, rocks, and minerals to build our homes, rabbits were seen every
our industries, and our vehicles. Each human “need” has an impact day feeding on the
on ecosystems and the living things that populate them—including lawns. It is believed
ourselves. that these rabbits were
released pets.

Figure 4.1 A
human activity
having a major
impact on an
ecosystem

HUMAN IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEMS: CHEMICAL USE

Here’s what can happen when humans interfere with an ecosystem
they don’t understand. In the early 1950s, malaria-carrying
mosquitoes infected the Dyak people of Borneo. The World Health
Organization was called to help. Their solution was to use a
chemical pesticide called DDT to spray on the mosquitoes. As a
result, the mosquitoes died off and the malaria diminished.
Unfortunately, there were problems. The DDT also killed a
species of parasitic wasp. The wasps were helpful because they ate
a species of caterpillar. This population of caterpillars ate the
materials that the roofs of houses were made of. Now roofs were

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 67

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:03 PM Page 68

falling on peoples’ heads. The DDT also affected many species of

small bugs that were eaten by geckos. The geckos began to suffer
nerve damage and started moving more slowly. Cats, who normally
ate rats, switched to the slow-moving geckos. The cats started dying
from DDT poisoning. Not only had DDT worked its way up the food
chain, but it had increased in concentration at each successive level
of the food chain. When the cats died, the rats multiplied quickly.
Fleas, piggybacking on the rats, carry a bacteria that causes typhus
and sylvatic plague, which were much worse than the original
malaria. The World Health Organization was called in again. This
time their solution was to parachute live cats into Borneo. But this
led to other problems. What do you think happened to the cats?
While DDT has now been banned in North America, there are
other pesticides that threaten species. Migrating birds are very
vulnerable because they visit so many localities. A recent example
is the case of the Swainson’s hawks. Many of these birds of prey
summer in Saskatchewan and Alberta. They winter in Argentina
and Brazil.

How DDT Affected the Bald Eagle Populations

Figure 4.2 Look at how DDT became more concentrated as it moved up the food chain. By the
time it reached the bald eagles, the DDT concentration was 10 million times the original
concentration in water. DDT affected the eggshells of the bald eagles. Most eggs broke and
therefore did not hatch. This resulted in a decline of the bald eagle populations.

Mysteriously, in just a few short years, between five and ten

percent of the world’s population of Swainson’s hawks died. That
translated into thousands of deaths to the 100 000 birds that
summer in Canada. The reason is that Argentinian farmers used a
pesticide to kill grasshoppers. What farmers didn’t realize was that
the hawks eat grasshoppers.
Now, thanks to environmentalists in North America and
Argentina, and other concerned people, alternatives to using
pesticides are being explored.

68 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:03 PM Page 69

HUMAN IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEMS: TOO LITTLE TOO LATE? re SEARCH

Many species of plants and animals are in danger of being
Grizzly Bears
eliminated from the planet completely. Many others are already
Right now, there are
extinct. Extinction occurs when a species no longer exists
about 20 000 grizzly
anywhere on Earth. Extinction is a natural part of the planet’s bears in North
history. But in the past three hundred years or so, human activities America. Before the
such as hunting, bioinvasion, farming, building cities, and cutting 1800s, there were more
down forests have greatly increased the rate of extinction. Human than 100 000. Research
activities increase the rate of extinction because the environment is to find out what, if
changed too quickly for organisms to adapt. anything, is being
When their environment changes too quickly for them to adapt, done to protect the
organisms become rarer and rarer. Organisms that are so rare that grizzly. Do you think it
they are in serious danger of becoming extinct, are considered will be extinct in
endangered. Threatened species are species whose numbers are Canada someday?
declining.
The chart outlines some of the 85 plants and animals in Canada
that are extinct, endangered, or threatened.

Figure 4.3a) Beluga whale

Extinct, Endangered, or Threatened Plants and Animals in Canada

Extinct Endangered Threatened

• Dawson’s caribou • eastern cougar • wood bison

• sea mink • Oregon spotted frog • pine martin
• sea otter • burrowing owl
• great auk
• beluga whale • eastern massasauga
• Labrador duck
• whooping crane rattlesnake
• passenger pigeon • eastern prickly pear cactus • ginseng
• Arcadian whitefish

Figure 4.3c) Figure 4.3d) Ginseng

Whooping crane

Figure 4.3b) Labrador duck

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 69

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:03 PM Page 70

Decision
Making CROSSING THE BORDER
Activity The Issue
If you take a trip outside Canada, when you return, you must fill out a Canadian
customs form declaring what you are bringing back to Canada. There is a list of
things that are not allowed to be brought into the country. Why do you think this
is?

Figure 4.4 A Canadian

customs form Background Information
Look at the form shown here. Look at the list of things that must be declared.
Often people try to sneak exotic animals into the country by hiding them on their
person or in their luggage. According to Canada Customs, long trench coats lined
with pockets are used to hide exotic birds such as parrots. In luggage, such
things as poisonous snakes, baby alligators, and rare turtles have been found.
One of the most dangerous animals found in luggage was the green Mambo
snake from Guam. It is one of the most poisonous snakes in the world! Foods
such as bacon and sausage, soft cheeses, flour, vegetables, and plants for the
garden will be confiscated because they may carry disease. If these and other
illegal items are brought into the country, how would they affect our ecosystems?
Why do you think it matters if you are visiting a farm in Canada within 14 days of
returning from your trip?

Support Your Opinion

Write a paragraph summarizing your viewpoint on this topic. Make sure you
support your viewpoint with facts from the unit or other resources.

70 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 71

FAMOUS POTATOES
In a small town called Pemberton, north of Whistler, in British
Columbia, exists the home of world-famous potatoes. These
potatoes are respected internationally by almost every potato farmer
in Canada and the United States. Why? Since 1949, the area has
been quarantined. Isolated, Pemberton is situated in a valley,
surrounded by mountains on all sides. Only locally cultured
and laboratory-inspected potato seeds are allowed to be grown.
This makes the Pemberton potatoes virtually free of virus
and disease. Most of the potatoes are shipped to other
growers who use them as seed. In fact, Idaho potatoes
are grown from Pemberton seed potatoes.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Describe three ways humans can impact or change an
ecosystem.
2. Identify one example of human impact on an ecosystem that
you could help to lessen. Describe what you could do to lessen
this impact.
3. Why may introducing a chemical to kill an insect population
have an impact on humans?
4. Predict what would happen if you tried to remove a species
from your local ecosystem—be specific.
5. Create a poster or picture that illustrates the present state of
endangered or threatened species in Canada.
6. In what ways do the following human activities affect
ecosystems?
a) clearing farmland to build a new housing development
b) cutting down trees to make paper and building materials
c) transporting crude oil across the ocean
d) burning logs in a fireplace
e) growing an apple orchard to sell the apples
f ) harvesting rare plants to make new medicines from
chemicals they contain

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 71

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 72

T his at Hom A C T I V I T Y

T RY e
IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Humans regularly pollute the air, water, and soil on which all life depends.
These pictures show a few examples of ways we have changed or polluted
our own planet.

Before

After

Figure 4.5b) This hydro-

electric project is located on
the La Grande river which flows
into James Bay in northern Québec.
Figure 4.5a) Each year people throw away
The top picture shows the river before the dam was built for
great amounts of garbage. Potato chip bags,
the plant, and the bottom picture shows the site seven years
fruit pits and peels, bottles, and paper and
later. The dam is nearly 3 km long and now contains the
plastic of all kinds make up the majority of
reservoir which extends over 2835 km2. In what ways do you
this litter. Who do you think pays to have the
think the environment was changed to build the electricity-
garbage collected? How would living things
generating plant? What effects would these changes have had
be affected if we left the garbage where it lay?
on living things?

Figure 4.5c) Some industries

produce pollution. Emissions by
these industries must be
monitored to ensure that they are
within safe limits. Scientific
research helps us determine what
these safe limits are. How does
this pollution affect living things
in the air and on land?

Each of these examples of pollution is a technological response to meet a

human need. How could this need still be met without creating as much
pollution and minimizing the damage to the environment? What could you
do at home to help minimize the damage?

72 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 73

info BIT
4.2 Information from Scientific
A Pesty Career
Investigations Can Assist Agricultural

Environmental Decision-Making researchers study

insect life cycles to
determine how to
When scientists want to understand why changes happen in an control these pests
ecosystem, they plan an investigation to study it. When scientists without using
want to add or take something away from an ecosystem, they study dangerous pesticides
how this could affect the abiotic and biotic factors that are living in that can harm the
it. This information can help us to make a responsible decision environment.
about the environment.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

INVESTIGATING THE ELK POPULATION

Ecologists are scientists who study the relationships among living things and
their environment. For example, ecologists study the birth and death rates of elk
so they can predict the future of the population.

Imagine that the size of the elk population in a small town located in the Rocky
Mountains suddenly decreased. How could you find out what happened to the
elk? What scientific data would you look at? Would you look at the population
over the past few years? Have any new predators been introduced to the region?
How could your data help you make an informed decision about the elk
population? How could you determine which information is correct?

Compare your ideas with those of your classmates. Did you have similar ideas?
Discuss any answers you are unsure of. Modify your answers if necessary.

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 73

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 74

THE SAVING OF THE PEREGRINE FALCON

Science and technology can be used to observe, monitor, and assess
the status of endangered wildlife. In Canada, an organization called
Canadian Wildlife Service’s Committee on the Status of Endangered
Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) monitors species at risk of
extinction in Canada. COSEWIC is a committee of representatives
from federal, provincial, territorial, and non-governmental
environmental agencies as well as independent experts. The goal of
this committee is to increase the numbers of all at-risk species to
levels that are no longer considered endangered.
The peregrine falcon is an example of a species that was placed
on the endangered species list. The major cause of the drop in
the peregrine falcon populations was agricultural
pesticides that were present in the environment.
These pesticides caused thinning of the eggshell,
which led to eggs breaking. This meant there were
fewer eggs that hatched, which in turn reduced
the number of birds that were born. This is no
longer a major problem because the use of these
pesticides has been banned in North America.

Figure 4.6 A peregrine falcon

chick that has been tagged so
its progress in the wild can be
monitored

74 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 75

The peregrine falcon was monitored from 1970 to 1995, where

status surveys were conducted in most regions of Canada. The data
collected from these surveys helped assess the peregrine’s situation.
Once the numbers of these populations became dangerously low, a
recovery plan was developed to help the survival rate of this bird.
Captive breeding programs across the country were used. Captive re SEARCH
breeding involves breeding the birds in a protected environment
where they cannot be harmed. The Marmot
Many positive results came of the efforts to help the peregrine. Research the
In 1994, at the captive breeding facility in Wainwright, Alberta, a Vancouver Island
record-breaking 115 young birds were raised. Also, the National marmot, an
Department of Defense agreed to modify its low-level aerial training endangered species.
flights in Labrador, Newfoundland, to reduce the effects on nesting What type of scientific
peregrines. Once the birds are able to live on their own, they enter a investigations are
release program. This program helps the peregrines return to the being conducted to
help save it?
wild. The birds are tagged so that they can continue to be
monitored to assess if their entry to the wild was successful.
The captive breeding programs were very successful, and so
the peregrine falcon was down-listed from endangered
to threatened.
Peregrine falcons released in Toronto, Edmonton,
and Calgary build nests on ledges of tall buildings.
Scientists think the peregrines are mistaking these
buildings for cliffs. Cliffs are natural nesting sites
for peregrines.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. How does scientific data assist with environmental decision-
making?
2. Is scientific data the only thing that should be considered when
making an environmental decision? What else needs to be
considered?
3. Design an action plan to help solve an environmental issue in
your community. How would you collect your data? Explain
your answers.

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 75

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 76

4.3 There Are Limitations to Scientific

and Technological Knowledge
info BIT When people are trying to decide what to do about a specific
environmental issue, they often involve scientists to plan
Ultraviolet Radiation investigations or conduct research so that an informed decision can
Ultraviolet radiation is be made. Unfortunately, not all issues can be addressed by science
produced by high- and technology. Sometimes there is no answer, due to lack of
temperature surfaces, evidence, or studies, about an issue.
such as the sun. Most
of the ultraviolet
radiation in sunlight is
absorbed by oxygen in
Earth’s atmosphere,
which forms the ozone
layer. When the ozone
layer becomes thin,
more ultraviolet
radiation reaches
Earth’s surface and
may have hazardous
effects on organisms.

Figure 4.7 The golden toad

Such is the case with the golden toad of Monteverde, Costa

Rica. This amphibian has been missing since 1988, and researchers
have no idea what happened. In fact, it is not the only frog to have
puzzled biologists. Around the globe, in such locations as
Australia, North America, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, and Brazil, there
are many unexplained amphibian die-offs, and a high rate of
deformities have occurred in a large number of the amphibians that
remain. Where a habitat has been destroyed or contaminated, the
cause is obvious. Yet more often than not, this is not the reason. No
one can pinpoint the cause, but most scientists think the
environment is somehow to blame. The four top theories are
climate change, pollution, disease, and increased ultraviolet
radiation due to the thinning of the ozone layer. However,
researchers are not sure just how many of the world’s amphibian
species are in trouble because in many parts of the world, including
most of Asia and Africa, they haven’t been studied.

76 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 77

THE WALK THAT NO WOLF WOULD TAKE re SEARCH

In 1996, Parks Canada completed a project designed to allow
Limited Knowledge
animals to cross the Trans-Canada Highway safely. Large sections of
Research two more
the road were fenced off, and two overpasses and 10 underpasses
environments for
were designed specifically to encourage wildlife to use them and which decisions are
not the highway. Monitoring devices have spotted elk, deer, limited by scientific
coyotes, and other mammals using the overpasses and underpasses. and technological
The Bow Valley wolf pack is using the underpasses, but no wolf knowledge. Explain
has used either of the two overpasses yet. the issues present.

Figure 4.8 An aerial photograph of Redearth Overpass in Banff National Park

No one is sure why the wolves are not using the overpasses.
Opinions are divided. Some experts think that there should be
sections of highway elevated or put through underground tunnels
to protect the wolves. Other experts think that the wolves need
time to get used to the overpasses, and will eventually find and use
them.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Why do scientific limitations make it difficult to make a
decision about an environment? Explain your answer.
2. What types of resources are needed to make an informed
decision?

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 77

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 78

4.4 Using Evidence from Many Sources

Can Help Analyze a Local
Environmental Problem
As you have worked through this unit, you have had opportunities
to learn about ecosystems, abiotic and biotic factors, and the impact
of human actions on them. You are also aware of the intended and
unintended consequences of human activity on a variety of
ecosystems. This leads to the need for responsible decision-making
and action to help reduce human impact on these ecosystems.
Is there a way that you can become involved within your
community that can make a difference to your local ecosystem and,
on a larger scale, to the global ecosystem of Earth? The answer is
yes, thanks to some innovative thinking by two researchers at the
University of British Columbia.
Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees of the University of
British Columbia wanted to find a way to measure the environmental
impact of human activities on the planet. At the same time, they
were looking for a method to report their results. They wanted the
results to be easy to understand and to provide suggestions for how
people could reduce their impact on ecosystems.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
What Wackernagel and Rees developed was an idea called the
ecological footprint. Think about the footprint your foot makes.
Every time you place your foot on the ground, you affect the biotic
and abiotic factors under your foot. When you
lift your foot up, you can see the exact
area that you’ve affected. The
ecological footprint helps us
understand the effect that our way
of life has on Earth. It shows us
the imprint that our lifestyle
makes on Earth’s ecology.
To determine an ecological
footprint, Wackernagel and Rees
looked at the food, housing,
transportation, consumer goods,
and all the services we use every
day. For each item, they calculated

78 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 79

how much energy, materials, and land we need. They also included info BIT
the land needed to dispose of the waste produced by the way we
live. They converted this information into an estimate of the total A City’s Footprint
amount of land required to support each one of us. This amount of The City of Edmonton
land is called the ecological footprint. has a population of
The average Canadian has an ecological footprint of 7.7 ha about 656 000. If each
(hectares, 1 ha = 10 000 m2). That means it takes about 7.7 ha of resident has an
land for each one of us to have food, travel in cars, heat our homes, ecological footprint of
shop at the mall, throw out garbage, etc. This number tells us how 7.7 ha, the whole city
much of the world’s ecological resources an individual Canadian has an ecological
like you uses. But is that a lot or a little? footprint of about
5 051 200 ha. But the
actual area of the City
COMPARING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS
of Edmonton is only
Wackernagel and Rees used their technique to calculate how much about 67 000 ha. So
land is actually available to support each person on Earth. This the people of
number is only 1.7 ha per person! When they looked at most of the Edmonton require
countries in the world, they found that the average ecological 75 times more land
footprint per person worldwide was 2.2 ha. This means that overall, to support their
people on Earth are using more of Earth’s resources than they lifestyle than they
actually live on.
should if they want to protect the environment. And in Canada and
other similar countries, we are using a great deal more than we
should. In fact, if everyone on Earth had the same ecological
footprint as the average Canadian, we would need four Earths to
support us!
Now for the good news. There are ways to reduce your
ecological footprint. Some of these changes can be immediate,
while some will take a long time. These changes include reducing
the amount of water, energy, and materials we consume and
recycling the waste we produce.

Figure 4.9 Busy lives

such as these use a
great amount of
materials and energy.

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 79

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 80

Decision W H AT C A N Y O U D O TO REDUCE YOUR ECOLOGICAL

Making I M PA C T ?
Activity The Issue
Part of reducing your ecological footprint is to understand how your actions have
an impact on the environment. For example, do you bring a drink for lunch each
day? Do you use a reuseable container or do you throw away your container each
day? Using a reuseable container helps to reduce your ecological impact. In this
activity, you will be examining activities that may have an ecological impact. You
will also be identifying strategies that you can use to reduce this impact. Using
these strategies will help you work toward reducing your ecological footprint.

Background Information
Below are three activities that you can do to help you find ways of reducing your
ecological impact. You will work either alone or in a group to complete each
activity. For each activity, you will need to construct a table to record your
information.

Activity 1—Water
1 Over the next 24 h, you will need to record how much water you use and
what you use it for. While this will be only an estimate of your water usage, it
will give you an idea of the amount of water you use.
2 To help you estimate your water usage, you will need to check with a variety
of sources. Look in your math textbook or ask a math expert about how to
calculate your water use, or check the Internet for statistics on water
consumption. Or, you can use the chart shown here.

Activity Typical Water Use

toilet flushing 15 L
shower 20 L/min
bath 150 L
teeth brushing 10 L
dish washing (for 3 meals) 40 L
washing clothes 225 L
washing car 400 L
Figure 4.10a) Try to
watering lawn 35 L/min
conserve water as much as
you can.
3 Determine how much water you use in a 24-h period.

80 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 81

Activity 2—Waste and Pollution

4 There are four categories of waste to consider: organic (will decompose),
inorganic (will not easily decompose), items to be reused or recycled, and
miscellaneous. In this activity, you will determine how much waste you
generate in a day.
5 Use the garbage can in class to determine what categories of waste can be
found. If a balance is available, determine the mass of each category. How
could you determine how much waste per student was generated today?
Wash your hands after you have touched the garbage.
6 When you go home today, observe and record what materials are put in the Figure 4.10b) This garbage
garbage. What materials could have been recycled or reused? should be sorted for
recycling.
Activity 3—Materials and Goods
7 Make a list of everything you purchased in the last week. This includes any
food.
8 Using catalogues and newspaper flyers, determine the approximate cost of
these items.
9 Calculate the total cost for the week.
10 Review your list and identify which materials could be classified as not
essential.
11 Recalculate your total cost for the week, but have two totals: one for essential
materials and the other for non-essential materials.

Support Your Opinion

12 Make a plan that describes what you could do to reduce your ecological
impact. Consider the following when creating your plan.
• Who in your class had the lowest totals in each activity?
• What did the person with the lowest totals in each activity do differently
than you?
• What is one good idea you learned from your classmates that you could
do to reduce your ecological impact?

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 81

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 82

re SEARCH FACTORS THAT REDUCE YOUR ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT

Factors that can help reduce your ecological footprint include
A Sustainable
reducing the amount of water, energy, and materials you use and
Lifestyle
recycling waste. When considering the amount of water you use,
The idea of the
think of all the different ways you consume water. For some of the
ecological footprint
was developed to activities that involve water, it may be possible to reduce your
help people water usage.
understand why they
need to find a
sustainable lifestyle.
Find out what is
meant by a
sustainable lifestyle.

Figure 4.11
Four ways
to reduce
consumption

Reusing and recycling materials is another way to help reduce

your ecological footprint. For example, if you reduced your
household garbage by 20 kg and recycled another 10 kg, your
ecological footprint could be reduced by 4%. This may not seem
like a lot, but it does help to reduce your impact on your local
ecosystems, and consequently, the global ecosystems.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Why did Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees invent the
concept of the ecological footprint?
2. How does the ecological footprint of an average Canadian
compare to the world average? Why do you think there is a
difference?
3. What steps can you take to reduce your ecological footprint?
4. In this section, the term lifestyle was used. What types of
lifestyle activities or actions do Canadians have that could be
considered to have a negative impact on a local ecosystem? a
positive impact?

82 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 83

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Rising beaver populations are an issue in many communities in
Alberta. List three ways how this could be dealt with. Discuss
the intended and unintended consequences of each choice.
2. A community in Calgary is trying to decide whether their local
ravine should be made into an off-leash area for dogs.
a) What might you predict would happen in this ecosystem if
the designation is changed from a leashed area to an off-leash
area?
b) Is it enough just to ask the residents what they want? Why?
c) What else needs to be considered before a decision like this
is made?
d) How might you use science and technology to help you to
make an informed decision about this issue?
3. What is an ecological footprint? What is its significance to the
ecosystems in your area?
4. Describe two things you could do to reduce your ecological
footprint.
5. Do you think species that are endangered or threatened should
be saved? Write a paragraph explaining your view on this
question. Consider why others may have a different point of
view.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
Decisions regarding scientific and technological development
involve a variety of considerations. In this last section, you studied
how maintaining sustainable environments requires knowledge,
decisions, and actions. As you begin to work on your project, think
about the following:
1. What environmental issues did you consider in this section?
How will that help with your project?
2. a) Where could you find reliable information about reducing
human impact on ecosystems?
b) Explain whether you agree or disagree with the statement:
Human impact on ecosystems is necessary to meet our needs,
but we must consider both the social and economic costs.

Maintaining Sustainable Environments Requires Knowledge, Decisions, and Actions 83

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 84

S C I E N C E W O R L D

y
a
se d
S t u

Forest Harvesting
The Issue
What methods can be used to harvest Canada’s
forests? What factors need to be considered when
deciding how to harvest trees?
The most common method of harvesting trees in
Canada’s forests is called clear-cutting. With clear-
cutting, all the trees in an area are cut down. After the
area is harvested, seedling trees are planted. These
new trees are protected from pests and weeds as
they grow. Later they are thinned to ensure that the
remaining trees have enough space to grow.
Another method of harvesting trees is called
selective cutting. This method of logging involves
cutting down only those tree species that are suitable
for use in making forest products. These trees are
then replanted in among the other tree species still
standing.
Many factors affect how forest harvesting is done Go Further
in a specific area. For example: Now it’s your turn. Look into the following resources
• the size and location of the areas to be cut to research information.
• the distribution of wildlife in the area • Look on the Web: Check the Internet for
• the wildlife’s need for specific habitat information on forest harvesting methods.
• the need to maintain ground cover • Ask the Experts: Try to find an expert on forestry.
• the safety of forest workers Experts can be found in many places: universities,
• the cost forest companies, environmental organizations, and
• recreational or other uses of the area government agencies.
• Look It Up in Newspapers and Magazines: Look for
For each forested area, a detailed plan must be
articles about harvesting forests.
developed that identifies what will work best in that
• Check Out Scientific Studies: Look for scientific
location. For example, a 1-km square block where all
studies about harvesting forests.
the land is similar would be harvested in a certain
way. A 1-ha area that is not square and includes hills Organize the information you have gathered and
and valleys might be harvested in a different way. determine what you will use to answer the questions
Research is important in understanding forest at the beginning of this case study. Decide how you
harvesting. You have an opportunity to be a will present your findings—as a display, a multimedia
researcher by gathering and presenting information presentation, or some other method. Use your
about forest harvesting methods. chosen presentation method to describe what your
findings show.

84 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 85

U N I T S U M M A RY : I N T E R A C T I O N S AND ECOSYSTEMS

Key Concepts Section Summaries

1.0 1.0 Relationships exist between living things and their environments.
• interactions and • Ecosystems are places on Earth where biotic factors interact with abiotic factors and
interdependencies other biotic factors.
• environmental monitoring • There are three major types of symbiotic relationships: commensalism, mutualism, and
• environmental impacts parasitism.
• environmental management • The basic needs of all organisms are water, energy, food, oxygen, and sustainable
living conditions such as space and a place for waste to go.
• There is a need for responsible decision-making and actions using scientific
information, and that involves consideration of environmental impacts.

2.0 2.0 The flow of energy and the cycling of matter can be traced and interpreted in
ecosystems.
• interactions and
• Ecosystems are composed of food webs that energy flows through. This energy is
interdependencies
supplied by the sun.
• producers, consumers,
and decomposers • Matter continually moves from the non-living things to the living things and back to the
• nutrient cycles and energy non-living things. Two important cycles of matter are the water cycle and the carbon
flow cycle.
• environmental impacts • If any part of a food web changes, it will have an effect on all living things in that
ecosystem.

3.0 3.0 Changes can be observed and monitored in ecosystems.

• Ecosystems provide living things with all their needs.
• interactions and
interdependencies • Some of the ways that changes can occur in ecosystems include human activity,
• environmental monitoring bioinvasion, resources competition, predation, and weather.
• environmental impacts • There are two types of succession: primary succession and secondary succession.
• species distribution
• succession

4.0 4.0 Maintaining sustainable environments requires knowledge, decisions, and

actions.
• endangered species
• Pesticides, such as DDT, can enter and move through an environment with deadly
• environmental monitoring
effects.
• environmental impacts
• extinction • The consequences of human actions may have an impact on both the local and global
• environmental management environments.
• The information that scientists collect can help them make informed decisions, but
unfortunately, not everything that happens in ecosystems can be explained by science
and technology.
• When looking at a local environmental problem, it helps to analyze information from
many sources to get a complete picture to make an informed decision.

Unit Summary 85
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 86

PROJECT
DESIGN A LAND-USE PLAN

Getting Started
In this unit, you learned that
ecosystems develop and are
maintained by natural cycles and
succession, and are impacted by
human change. You have
investigated human impacts on
ecosystems, and you understand
that human actions have intended
and sometimes unintended
Your Goal
consequences. Environmental
Your goal is to balance the needs for human growth and development
monitoring and research are
with the needs of the biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystems.
important in the decision-making
process. Look through your notes What You Need to Know
from this unit. Think about the
The town of Forest Grove has a population of 1200 people. The
ways human actions can affect
unemployment rate has been 20% for the past several years. The
ecosystems. With a partner,
town council has decided to develop a piece of unused land. It hopes
discuss the responsibilities that
to attract businesses, industries, and people to Forest Grove. The
people have for making sure that
piece of land has an area of 2000 ha. (One hectare, or 1 ha, measures
ecosystems are healthy. List the
100 m by 100 m.) Imagine you are a member of a land-use planning
categories you think people
group. Forest Grove’s town council has hired your team to design a
should use when they make
plan to develop this land.
decisions that affect ecosystems.
Afterward, share your list with The map shown here outlines the various features of the land. Study it
other groups. In what ways are closely. Many different groups of people have ideas for developing this
they similar and different? Are land. You will have to decide which ideas to use, which to ignore, and
there any additions you would like which to change. Use the Impact Assessment Checklist to help you
to make to your list? evaluate your plans.

86 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 87

County Road 41

Dairy and beef farming

Forested area
Clear Lake
Cedar bush
Forest Grove Sideroad 8

Eastern Boundary
Mixed forest with open
meadow

Wetland/swamp

Lakes

Mixed forest hilly land

Cash crop farms

Forest Grove

Highway 6
Main road
Forest Grove
Secondary road
(Population: 1200)
1 cm to 400 m
Lake St. George

A map of Forest Grove

Steps to Success
Impact Assessment Checklist 1 Design a land-use plan that addresses the
In what ways can your plans following interests.
• allow opportunities for more growth and a) Industries: These will provide employment for
development in the area? the townspeople.
• minimize the effects of growth and • A hospitality company wants to develop a
development on the habitats of the area? camping and motel site. This complex will
include a 25-unit motel, a small restaurant,
• minimize the effects of growth and
a wooded camping area (about 5 ha), a
development on the living things of the area?
recreation centre with tennis courts, a
• deal with pollution and other negative effects
swimming pool, and a boat-launching ramp.
to the area?
• A distribution company wants to set up a
• balance the need for preserving natural
large warehouse depot for transferring goods
ecosystems with the needs of people and
to and from the surrounding communities.
their families?
They will need good roads to get to the
nearby highway.

Project 87
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 88

PROJECT

b) Housing developers: They will want to build 2 With your team, come up with a plan for the use
two new subdivisions for Forest Grove’s of this land. Some of the questions you will need
growing population. The subdivisions will to take into account include:
require roads to link them up with the existing a) How will you address the increase in garbage
town. They will need services such as water and other wastes?
and electricity. The people who move into the b) What will happen if the town council wants to
new homes will also want their garbage add to your development plans 10 years from
handled in some way. now?
c) Businesses: These will provide stores and c) How will your decisions affect the quality of the
services such as restaurants, health care, a air, water, and land?
movie theatre, and a new shopping centre.
d) How will your decisions affect the number and
Businesses will also need water, electricity, and
health of existing plant and animal
garbage handling.
populations?
d) Local farmers: There are currently seven farms
3 Design a two-dimensional or three-dimensional
located to the west of the land you will be
model of the piece of land. Use different colours
developing. All the farmers have expressed
or structures to represent the different land uses.
interest in expanding their operations. They
4 When you have completed your plan, present it to
would like some of the land set aside for them
your classmates. Be prepared to explain and, if
to lease or buy.
necessary, defend your decisions.
e) Private citizens: Many people in Forest Grove
would like the land to be used for recreational How Did It Go?
purposes, such as parkland, with trails for 5 Look back at the criteria you developed at the start
walking and biking. They would also like to of the Project. Look also at the Impact
swim and boat on the river and in the lakes. A Assessment Checklist. How well does your
small group of citizens is urging you to leave finished plan reflect all these criteria?
the land as it is to preserve the local plant and 6 In your opinion, how well did your plan balance
animal populations. They are willing to the needs of people and other living things? Be as
consider limited use of the land for camping to specific as possible in your answer.
attract people (and their money) to Forest
7 If you could redesign your land-use plan, what
Grove.
would you decide to do differently. Why?

88 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 89

UNIT REVIEW: INTERACTIONS AND ECOSYSTEMS

Unit Vocabulary 9. How is a food web different from a food
chain?
1. Create a mind map that illustrates your
understanding of the following terms. 10. Describe the difference between how
matter and energy move through a food
abiotic food web
web.
biotic ecosystem
producers succession
consumers matter 3.0
decomposers energy
food chain human impact 11. Identify three ecosystems that you have
interactions endangered species walked through in the past few days.
Explain how you know they are
ecosystems.
Check Your Knowledge 12. Identify natural factors that can alter the
living conditions in ecosystems.
1.0
13. What is succession? Give an example.
2. What is the difference between biotic 14. Describe three types of human activities
and abiotic factors in an ecosystem? that can impact an ecosystem.
3. Define mutualism and give an example 15. What is meant by the term bioinvasion?
of it. Give an example of how this can impact
4. What are the basic requirements of all an ecosystem.
living things? 16. Describe other factors that can affect
ecosystems besides bioinvasion.
2.0
4.0
5. Describe the unique role plants play in a
food chain. 17. Identify a pollutant that moves through
6. a) Give two examples of helpful an environment and causes serious
microscopic organisms. Explain why harm.
they are helpful. 18. Look around your community. What
b) Give two examples of harmful evidence do you see of environmental
microscopic organisms. Explain why problems caused by human activities?
they are harmful. What evidence is there that your
7. What are two different types of community is working to support living
consumers? things and their living spaces?
8. What are food chains and what is their 19. Why have some species become
purpose? endangered or extinct in North America?

Unit Review 89
01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 90

UNIT REVIEW: INTERACTIONS AND ECOSYSTEMS

20. Describe a situation that science and d) A government decides to build a

technology cannot answer. water-powered electricity generating
plant. To do so, it must build a dam to
stockpile water. Building the dam
Connect Your Understanding means that thousands of hectares of
21. a) Why would you expect to find each of meadows and villages will be flooded.
the following in any ecosystem? Give e) Several families move to an island
reasons to support your answer. that has lots of rare slow-moving
• producers animals and flightless birds. The
• herbivores families decide to bring their pet cats
• decomposers with them.

b) Which group (or groups) of 23. a) Examine this food web.

consumers is missing from part a)
above? Why might it be possible for bear hawk
this group (or groups) to be absent
from an ecosystem?
22. Listed below are four elements of coyote snake

ecosystems followed by five statements.

elk
Choose two of the statements. Take each
toad ground
chosen statement as a topic, and write a squirrel
mouse
paragraph using the four elements of
ecosystems.
• the role played by food webs seeds cricket
• the cycles of matter
• the flow of energy through ecosystems
• the interactions between living and
non-living things grass seeds

a) You sort your family’s wastes into

recyclables and non-recyclables. Design a chart to record the following:
b) A concerned citizen is arrested for • all the producers
blocking a road to prevent loggers • all the herbivorous consumers
from cutting trees. • all the carnivorous consumers
c) A food manufacturing company hires • all the scavengers and decomposers
local villagers in Costa Rica to remove
b) Where might this food web be
rain forest vegetation so it can set up
located?
a ranch to raise beef cattle.
c) Add eight living things to your chart,
including: two each of producers,
herbivores, carnivores, and
decomposers.

90 Unit A: Interactions and Ecosystems

01_U7A_Ecosystems 12/14/06 4:32 PM Page 91

24. A population of noisy crows has moved Self Assessment

into your neighbourhood. They’re
Think back to the work you did in this unit.
chasing away the local birds, and their
wastes are fouling the streets and 26. Do you think you will make decisions
rooftops. What action, if any, should be about the environment differently now
taken? that you have completed this unit? Why
or why not?
27. Will you be able to take different
Practise Your Skills perspectives about environmental
25. In 1944, soldiers from the U.S. Army decision-making? Provide an example to
moved a herd of 29 reindeer to a remote explain your answer.
island in the Arctic. Then the soldiers 28. In general, do humans respect the
left. The only other consumers on this environment? Use three examples from
island were arctic foxes and voles (voles the unit to support your answer.
are mouse-like animals). There were 29. What is one idea or issue covered in this
numerous producers including grasses unit that you would like to explore in
and plant-like living things called more detail? Why?
lichens, which reindeer love to eat.
In 1957, scientists visited the island.
They discovered that the number of
reindeer had increased to 1350. They Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT
also observed that there were fewer
On
producers on the island. However, there In this unit, you investigated the social and
were still plenty for the reindeer to feed environmental context related to
on. interactions and ecosystems. Consider the
In 1963, scientists visited again. The following questions.
reindeer now numbered 6000. The
30. What examples did you investigate that
producers were nearly gone. One year
demonstrated how science and
later, when scientists arrived once more,
technology are developed to meet
they discovered that most of the reindeer
human needs?
had died. Only 42 remained.
31. Describe a hobby or interest for which
a) Sketch a food web to show how you
science and technology provided an
think the biotic factors of this island
opportunity through the study of this
ecosystem were related.
unit.
b) What factors affected the population
of the reindeer? Why? 32. Reread the three questions on page 7
c) What abiotic or biotic conditions about the social and environmental
might have led to a different ending context. Use a creative way to
to this story? Explain your answer. demonstrate your understanding of one
of the questions.

Unit Review 91
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 92

UNIT

92
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 93

In this unit, you will cover the following sections:

1.0 Understanding structures and life processes of plants

helps us to interpret their needs.
1.1 The Body of Seed Plants
1.2 Plant Processes
1.3 Reproduction of Seed Plants
1.4 Plant Structures Vary to Adapt to Their Environment
1.5 Plant Needs and Growing Conditions

2.0 Plants play an essential role in the environment and in

meeting human needs.
2.1 The Role of Plants in the Environment
2.2 We Use Plants in Many Ways
2.3 Natural and Managed Resources

3.0 Soil is an important resource that human activity can

protect or degrade.
3.1 What Is Soil?
3.2 Our Practices Can Improve or Degrade Soil

4.0 The ways that plants are grown and used are related to
human needs, technology, and the environment.
4.1 Modifying Environments to Increase Yields
4.2 New Plant Varieties Are Developed by Selective Breeding
4.3 Controlling Weeds and Pests
4.4 Consequences of Environmental Management

93
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 94

Exploring

Our planet would be a very different place without plants. In this

unit, you will find out why plants are critical for all life on Earth.
You will learn about the many ways we use plants, and the
technologies we use to produce the plants we need. You will
investigate how plants have adapted to different environmental
conditions. You will take part in activities that will challenge you
to come up with real-life solutions to problems that can be caused
by the ways we grow plants. Understanding the consequences of
the changes we make in growing plants will allow you to predict
when these changes can harm the environment.

94 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 95

SURVIVING IN THE WILDERNESS

Many great stories have been written about people who have found
themselves stranded and alone in a wild place. Robinson Crusoe,
by Daniel Defoe, is one such story about a man who is shipwrecked
on a deserted island and has to survive on what he can make or
find.
Do you think you could survive in a wild place? The teenagers
in this newspaper article found out the hard way that they could
survive in the wilderness of northern Alberta!

Teens Found Alive in B

ush

Rescuers airlift survivors

to safety.

Elk Point, Alberta. –

Wild since the shoreline was
berries and boiled leave an icy
s and 300 m away.
roots kept three teens
alive The quick-thinking tee
during a 24-day ordea ns
l on a set to work searching for
remote island on Frog food
Lake, and shelter. They made a
210 km northeast of Edmo lean-to
nton. and bedding out of pine bo
The teens became strande ughs.
d after They collected edible
the paddleboat they used berries,
to get roots, and leaves. The tee
to the island drifted away ns also
from collected twigs for fir
the shoreline. The tri ewood
o was and were able to light a fir
unable to swim off the e with
island, a cigarette lighter.

Exploring 95
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 96

The teens ate rose hips and

slept on boughs.

These young people were able to survive because they used

Safety Caution! plants for food, shelter, and warmth. The photographs above show
Never eat any plant two examples of plants that they used.
that you find in the Our provincial flower, the wild rose, has many parts you can
wild unless you are eat. The hips in particular can be an important survival food, since
sure what it is. they are available throughout the fall and winter. One rose hip can
Many plants can contain as much vitamin C as an entire orange, as well as other
make you sick. important nutrients.
Balsam fir has soft needles that can provide wonderful bedding.
The resin from this tree can also be used to relieve insect bites,
sores, or rashes.
How about you? Would you know how to use plants to help you
survive? With a partner, see if you can name two plants that you
could use. At least one of them should be a plant you can eat.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

SURVIVOR!
You and your friends love to spend the weekend camping in the great outdoors.
But while you are hiking in the woods, you take a wrong turn and can’t find your
way back. You’re lost!

You might have to stay in the woods for a few days until someone finds you. All
you have is the clothes you are wearing, a pocketknife, and anything you can
find in the woods.

In a small group, discuss how you could use plants that grow in the woods in
your area to meet your basic needs of food, warmth, and shelter. How long do
you think you could survive?

96 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 97

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
As you proceed through this unit, you will be asked to organize
your thoughts around how technology can help us to grow and use
plants in a way that doesn’t harm the environment. Many human
activities are a balance between these two things. You will be asked
to think about these ideas as you perform activities and answer
questions throughout this unit.
1. How is the environment affected by the way we produce and
harvest plants?
2. What technologies can help us to produce the plants we need
and also minimize the impact we have on the environment?
3. What kind of knowledge must we have about plants and their
environment to ensure we continue to produce the plants we
need and keep our planet healthy?
The answers to these and other questions about plants will help
you understand how using plants for our needs relies on
knowledge and the use of appropriate methods. The project at the
end of the unit is a chance to apply what you have learned by
designing and building a growth chamber for vegetable seedlings.

Exploring 97
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 98

Understanding structures and life

1.0 processes of plants helps us to
interpret their needs.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• life processes and structure
of plants
• plant propagation and
reproduction

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe the parts of a seed
plant
• explain the processes that a
plant uses to stay alive
• describe the life cycle of seed
plants

Do you know what a plant needs to live?

You probably know a lot about plants. You might know that most
plants have leaves, at least one stem, and roots. And lots of plants
have flowers. But of course, not all plants are the same. Think
how different a cactus is from a pine tree! Do you believe that they
both have the same parts? It’s true!
Is there anything that you’ve ever wondered about plants?
There are so many questions we could ask. Why do they produce
flowers? How does a seed work? Let’s take a closer look at plants
and see if we can find answers to some of these questions.

98 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:44 PM Page 99

info BIT
1.1 The Body of Seed Plants
The Same, but
In this unit, we are going to look only at those plants that make Different
seeds, or seed plants. Some examples of seed plants that you might
have seen are daisies, cottonwood trees, wheat, and orchids. As you
can see, seed plants come in all shapes and sizes.
On a clean page in your notebook, sketch a seed plant. It can be
any kind of seed plant you want. Label each part, then write down
everything you know about the part in point form beside each label.
As you work through this unit, you can look back to your sketch
and your notes and add or change anything you want to as you go
along.

Although they look

very different, the
structures that make
up these plants are the
same. What are these
structures?
Figure 1.1 Seed plants are the largest group of plants in the world.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

PLANT PART CHARADES

Do you think you could describe the parts of a seed plant without speaking out
loud? Try it and see!

Your teacher will hand you a card that will have one of these plant parts written
on it: stem, leaf, root, or flower. When you get your card, read what’s on it and
think about how you might act out your word.

Pick a partner and take turns acting out your words. After you get the correct
word, discuss the function of the plant part with your partner.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 99
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 100

Problem
Solving DESIGN A MODEL OF A SEED PLANT
Activity Recognize a Need
You own a small company that makes displays for museums and science centres.
One of your clients needs a model of the structures found in a seed plant. The
model has to be simple enough for small children to understand, but it has to be
Materials accurate.
• a collection of craft
materials that could be The Problem
used to make a model, Make a three-dimensional model of a seed plant.
such as construction
paper, cardboard, tissue Criteria for Success
paper, pipe cleaners, craft For your model to be considered successful, it must
sticks, modelling clay • contain all the parts of a seed plant
• have labels on all the parts

Brainstorm Ideas
1 With a partner, make a list of all the parts that must be included on your
model.
2 Draw a sketch of how your finished model will look.
3 Make a list of the materials you might use to create your model.

Build Your Model

4 Gather your materials and construct
your model.

Test and Evaluate

5 Look over your model and check
how well it fits the criteria for
success. Make any changes to your
model that you think are needed.
6 Set your plant model up in an area
designated by your teacher. Look
over other students’ models and
compare them with your design.
Assess how well the other models
fit the criteria. Are all the models
the same or different? Suggest a
reason to explain this.

Communicate
7 With your partner, write a description of each of the plant parts that are on
your model. Your description should be in a style that would suit a science
centre display.

100 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 101

EACH PLANT STRUCTURE HAS A FUNCTION

Seed plants not only have the same kinds of structures, but these
structures do the same job in all plants.

Leaves
Flowers • produce food for the plant
• each flower usually has • take in and release oxygen
both male and female and carbon dioxide
parts for reproduction • allow water to exit the plant

Stems
• provide a pathway Cones
for movement of • there are separate male
water and food and female cones for
• support the Seeds reproduction
leaves and • contain an
reproductive embryo that
structures will form a
new plant
• contain a food
supply for the
embryo

Roots
• absorb water and
dissolved nutrients
• anchor the plant in
the soil

Figure 1.2 Structures in seed plants

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What are the main parts of a seed plant?
2. Draw a diagram of a root or a leaf. Write two or three sentences
below your diagram that describe the function of the structure
you choose.
3. Why do plants produce seeds? Name one plant structure that
can produce seeds.
4. Give three examples of seed plants that grow in your area. Do
not use any of the examples from this book.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 101
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 102

info BIT
Water Me!
1.2 Plant Processes
This tall tree has to move water up
from its roots and food down from
its leaves. How do plants transport
these substances?
You have probably broken or cut
a plant apart, so you will know that
plants don’t have a heart or a pump
to move water and nutrients around.
Discuss with a partner how a plant
More than 90% of the might move substances from one part
water a plant takes in to another. Have you seen any other
is lost through its examples of fluids moving without
leaves. No wonder they
being pumped?
need to be watered
regularly!
Figure 1.3 Do plants have a pump?

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MOVING IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION

Plants can move water from the soil up to their leaves. Animals move fluids Materials &
around their bodies by the pumping action of their hearts. This experiment Equipment
can help you understand how plants move fluids. • water
• food colouring
Put enough water in each beaker so that they are both about one-third full. • 2 400-mL beakers
Mix several drops of food colouring into the water. • 2 stalks of celery
with leaves
Remove the leaves from one stalk of celery. Prop the celery in the beaker
• small sharp knife or
so its base is in the water. Place the other stalk that still has its leaves in
razor blade
the other beaker.

Place both beakers containing the celery stalks under a bright light or in a
sunny spot for about three hours.

Remove the stalks from the water and cut cross sections from each stalk at
several places so you can see how far the food colouring moved up the
stalk.

Compare the distance the food colouring moved up in the two stalks. Why
do you think this difference occurred?

102 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 103

A PROCESS FOR MOVING WATER UP FROM THE ROOTS re SEARCH

Water moves up a plant from the roots to the leaves by a
Moving Up
combination of processes. These processes include the following:
Place a plastic bag
• The main process that draws water up from a plant’s roots is
over a plant and tie it
transpiration. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the shut. Leave it in a
surface of the plant—mainly from the leaves. Water particles sunny window for a
evaporate from the surface of the leaves, and more water particles day. Explain what
move up within the plant to take their place. This process happens using the
continues down through the plant with particles continually word “transpiration.”
moving up from the roots.
• Another process that helps water move up through a plant is
called capillary action. Water travels from the roots to the leaves
through tiny tubes in the roots and stems. You may have learned
in other lessons that water particles are attracted to one another.
This attraction causes water particles to “stick” to one another.
The water particles are also attracted to the sides of the tiny tubes.
This attraction, along with the attraction between the water
particles themselves, helps to move the water up inside the plant.
• Water from the soil enters root cells by a process called osmosis.
When the concentration of water in the soil is greater than the
concentration of water in the roots of the plant, water moves into
the root cells. You will learn more about osmosis in this
subsection.

water
particles

Figure 1.4 When tubes are very narrow, like this glass tube, the force of the attraction
of the water particles to the sides of the tube is greater than the force of gravity, so the
water moves up.

Figure 1.5 Water moves into root cells and then travels up tiny tubes to the leaves.
Water particles exit through small holes in the leaves. If there is too little water in
the soil, and the plant continues to lose water from its leaves, the plant wilts.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 103
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 104

A PROCESS TO MAKE FOOD

Plants make their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis produces a type of sugar.

energy from
the sun

water

carbon dioxide

oxygen

energy + carbon dioxide + water ➝ sugar + oxygen

Figure 1.6 Plants use the energy from the sun to make their own food.

The leaves of seed plants usually do most of the photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis takes place in structures inside the leaves called
chloroplasts. The chloroplasts capture the sun’s energy and use it
to join carbon dioxide and water together to make sugar. This
process also produces oxygen.

A PROCESS TO USE FOOD

When plants photosynthesize, they use energy to turn carbon
dioxide and water into sugar. When plants use this sugar for food,
they get energy and produce carbon dioxide and water as waste.
This process is called cellular respiration.

Figure 1.7 The word

equation for cellular
respiration.

sugar + oxygen ➝ carbon + water + energy

dioxide

104 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 105

Inquiry PLANTS AT WORK

Activity The Question
How does transpiration move fluids from the roots?

The Hypothesis
Materials & Equipment If evaporation occurs from the surface of the plant, then fluids move up from the
• 2 plant cuttings wrapped in roots into the stems and leaves.
moist towelling
Procedure
• graph paper
1 Collect two plant cuttings that are about the same size. Carefully remove all
• 2 small beakers or clear
vials the leaves but one from one cutting. Keep all the leaves on the other.
• 10-mL or 25-mL graduated 2 Determine the volume of water that will fill the beaker to about 1 cm from the
cylinder top. Measure the same volume of water and fill each of two beakers.
• water 3 Stretch a sheet of plastic wrap tightly over the top of each beaker. Using a
• plastic wrap pencil, punch a hole in the plastic.
• scissors
4 Cut about 0.5 cm off the bottom of each plant cutting. Place the stem of the
• a sunny window
cutting in each beaker of water through the hole in the plastic.
5 Put your cuttings in a sunny window and leave them overnight.
6 The next day, remove each cutting from its container. Be careful not to lose
any of the water. Using the graduated cylinder, measure the amount of water
that is left in each of the beakers. Record your findings.

Collecting Data
7 Remove the leaves from one cutting. Carefully trace the outline of each leaf
on a piece of graph paper.
8 Estimate the area of each leaf by counting the number of squares it fills.
Count any square that is at least half inside the outline.
9 Estimate the area of all the leaves and record your findings. You may want to
make a table or use a spreadsheet program.

Analyzing and Interpreting

10 Make a bar graph showing the amount of water that was in the two beakers
on the second day. Make a second bar graph that shows the total leaf area of
the two cuttings.

Forming Conclusions
Figure 1.8 Step 7 11 Which of the cuttings lost more water? Compare the leaf area of this cutting
with the other.
12 Water evaporates from pores on leaves. What do you think happens to the
rate of evaporation if there are fewer leaves on a plant?

Applying and Connecting

Have you ever forgotten to water your house plants, and found that they wilted?
Suggest a reason why this happens.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 105
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 106

PROCESSES TO MOVE SUBSTANCES IN AND OUT OF PLANT CELLS

After a plant has made sugar in its leaves by photosynthesis, it must
transport this food throughout its body. It also has to move the
water out of the stem into the rest of its cells.

chloroplast nucleus

membrane
cell wall

Figure 1.9 Under the cell wall in the plant cell is a cell membrane that has tiny openings. The
size of these openings controls what particles can pass through. Particles of water and certain
other substances can get in and out of the cell.

math Link As shown in Figure 1.9, the plant cell is surrounded by a membrane
that has pores, or tiny openings. Particles of some substances are
If you stirred 3 g of able to move in and out of a cell through these pores. The cell
sugar into 9.3 mL of membrane acts as a filter, keeping some substances inside the cell
water, how many
and allowing some substances to move in and out of the cell. Many
grams of sugar would
processes take place to move substances in and out of plant cells.
be in each millilitre of
One of these processes is diffusion. Diffusion takes place when
water?
there is a difference between the concentration of a substance
inside and outside a cell. Another process that does not require a
difference in substance concentration is called active transport.
Active transport uses energy to move substances in and out of plant
cells.

Diffusion
When you put a drop of food dye in a glass of water, you get one
small area with a lot of dye particles and a large area with none. In
other words, there is a higher concentration of dye particles in the
drop of food dye. Concentration is the number of particles of one
substance in a certain volume of another substance. Diffusion is the
movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration, until there is an equal number of particles
Figure 1.10 The food dye
everywhere. Particles that are small enough to fit through the
slowly mixes with the water membrane pores in a plant cell move in and out of the cell by
due to diffusion. diffusion.

106 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 107

Osmosis B
A water
Water is one of the substances that is vital to the survival and water particles
health of cells. The cell membrane in plant cells allows water particles and sugar
particles
particles to pass through. If the water concentration inside a cell is
lower than the water concentration outside, water particles from
outside move in through the cell membrane. If the water
concentration inside the cell is higher than outside, the cell loses
water to the outside. Osmosis is a special name given to the
movement of water particles through a membrane. Osmosis moves
water particles from a cell with a high water concentration to a cell
with a low water concentration. Water usually moves out of the Figure 1.11 This
cells in the stem to the rest of the plant cells. membrane has pores that
allow the water particles to
pass through but not the
A PROCESS TO EXCHANGE GASES
sugar particles. The
In the process of photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide gas and concentration of water
produce oxygen gas. In the process of cellular respiration, plants particles is higher in side A
than in side B, and water
use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide. Gas exchange is the
particles move from A to B
process of these gases entering and leaving the plant. through the membrane.
This movement of water is
called osmosis.

carbon
dioxide Figure 1.12 Oxygen and
carbon dioxide diffuse
through tiny openings in
the leaf.
oxygen

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What raw materials does a plant require for photosynthesis?
What are the products?
2. How are osmosis and diffusion related?
3. Describe three processes that allow water to move from roots to
leaves.
4. What do you think would happen to transpiration if a plant
were blowing in a hot, dry wind?

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 107
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 108

Experiment ON YOUR OWN

LIGHT AND PLANT GROWTH

Before You Start ... c) Is the test I’ve designed fair? How do I know?
Plants use light to photosynthesize and produce the d) How will I record my results? For example, do I
food they need to grow. Farmers will sometimes clear need a data chart? a graph? both? neither?
their fields just to make sure that their crops get as e) How long do I have to complete my
much light as possible. experiment?
In this activity, you will design an experiment to 4 Write up your procedure. Be sure to show it to
test whether plants grow faster when they get more your teacher before going further.
light. 5 Carry out your experiment.
6 Compare your results with your hypothesis. Did
The Question
your results support it? If not, what possible
Do plants grow faster when they get more light?
reasons might there be?
Design and Conduct Your Experiment 7 Share and compare your experimental plan and
You may wish to use Toolbox 2: The Inquiry Process of findings with your classmates. Did anyone plan an
Science to help you plan your experiment. experiment exactly like yours? similar to yours?
1 Make a hypothesis that will allow you to test the How do your results compare with theirs?
effect of different amounts of light on the growth
rate of plants. (A hypothesis is a possible answer
to a question or a possible explanation of a
situation.)
2 Decide what materials you’ll need to test your
hypothesis. For example:
a) What kind of plants will you use?
b) How many plants will you need?
c) Will you grow the plants from seed or buy
plants?
d) What will you use to supply the light?
3 Plan your procedure. Ask yourself questions such
as:
a) What evidence am I looking for to support my
hypothesis?
b) What steps will I follow to collect the data I
need?
Figure 1.13 How will you change the amount of light?

108 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 109

1.3 Reproduction of Seed Plants

info BIT
Packaging Palms

Figure 1.14 These wheat seeds are about to begin their life cycle. This coconut will
eventually grow into a
A farmer plants wheat seed in the spring and waits for the first tall palm tree.
shoots of the crop to appear. In a few weeks, the shoots begin to
grow tall and green, and leaves may begin to sprout. By the end of
the season, the field is covered with healthy plants that have rows
of seeds on their stems.
When the wheat is ready to harvest, the wheat plants have gone
through an entire life cycle. A life cycle is the stages that a living
thing passes through to go from one generation to the next. For seed
plants, the life cycle starts when a seed begins to grow into a plant
and ends when that plant produces seeds of its own.
Think about crops grown in your area. Have they gone through
all the stages in their life cycle when they are ready to harvest?

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

THE SECRET OF SEEDS

You are going to look inside some different types of seeds. To make them easier
to open, they have been soaked in water beforehand.
• Pick up one of each type of seed.
• Open each seed by splitting it carefully in half. Examine the inside.
• Make a diagram of the structures you see inside each seed. Label any parts
you recognize.

Were all the seeds the same inside? From what you saw, can you explain what
happens when a seed starts to sprout?

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 109
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 110

THE LIFE CYCLE OF SEED PLANTS

The stages in a life cycle are often drawn as connecting points on a
circle. Look at Figure 1.15. What are the stages in the life cycle of a
seed plant?

seed
starts to grow

pollinated
seedling

Figure 1.16 Seeds contain

enough food to start the
new plant growing.

grows and
develops
reproductive
structures

adult

Figure 1.15 Seed plants have three stages in their life cycle.

The Seed Stage

Figure 1.17 The seedling
A seed has three main parts: the embryo, stored food, and a seed
needs plenty of sunlight,
nutrients, and water to
coat. The stored food surrounds the embryo in some plant species.
grow. In other species, food is stored in part of the embryo itself. The
embryo uses this stored food to survive until it begins to
photosynthesize and produce its own food.

The Seedling Stage

Plants in the seedling stage grow very fast and produce new leaves,
roots, and stems. Seedling plants produce their own food by
photosynthesis, but they also need nutrients from the soil to build
their new parts.

The Adult Stage

Figure 1.18 This plant is an A plant is an adult when it produces reproductive structures. For
adult because it has flowers. seed plants, these structures are either a flower or a cone.

110 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 111

REPRODUCTION OF SEED PLANTS

Pollination
Plants produce flowers and cones only so
they can make seeds. To do this, the adult stigma
anther—contains
seed plant needs to undergo the process of
pollen grains
pollination. (male)
The diagram in Figure 1.19 shows the
parts of a flower. The male part of the flower
ovary—contains
that is involved in pollination is called ovule (female)
pollen. Pollen grains are small, sticky cells.
One plant produces millions of pollen grains.
The female part of the flower is called the
ovary and is usually in the centre of the
blossom. The ovary contains the ovule.
Pollination occurs after a pollen grain lands
on the stigma of the flower, above the ovary
(see Figure 1.19). The pollen grain produces a
Figure 1.19 Flowers usually have both male
pollen tube that grows down from the stigma
and female parts.
to the ovule. Through this tube, cells transfer
from the pollen grain to the ovule. The ovule
then grows into a seed.
Plants that produce cones (called conifers) usually have separate
male and female cones. The male cones produce pollen, and the
female cones contain the ovules. When the ovules are pollinated,
seeds develop on the female cones.

Pollinators
Plants need a way to get the pollen to the ovules. Some plants
release pollen in the air, where it is carried by the wind. Conifer
trees and grain crops are pollinated by wind.
Many flowering plants rely on pollinators, which are organisms
that carry pollen from one flower to another. Birds, insects, and
even bats can be pollinators. Pollinators come to a flower in search
of nectar, a sugary liquid that they eat. As the animal enters the
flower, it becomes coated in pollen. When it leaves, it takes this
pollen with it and transports it to the next flower.
Many of our crops such as grains and fruits must be pollinated.
Growers have found ways to ensure that pollination takes place.
Many plants, such as corn, are grown in rows a particular distance
apart to help them be pollinated by the wind. Fruit growers will
often keep beehives near their plants.
Figure 1.20 Many plants
are pollinated by insects.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 111
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 112

Problem
Solving G E R M I N AT I O N AND GROWTH
Activity Recognize a Need
Space is scarce in the greenhouse where you and your colleagues work as
research technicians. Improvements in the method for growing plants are
required. There are three possible ideas under consideration. Your group will have
one or more people investigate each idea. Once you are done, you can compare
your results and determine the best method for growing seedlings in the
greenhouse.

The Problem
One idea is to use plastic bags with moist inserts as a method for starting and
studying seed growth. These bags can be attached to the wall and therefore will
not require table or floor space.
The second idea is to use different packing densities for seedling growth. If you
can pack more seedlings into a smaller space, there will be more available table
and floor space.
The third idea involves determining the best treatment of seeds to prevent
moulding. Because of the space problem, the treated seeds will be germinated in
small plastic bags and tacked to the wall.

Criteria for Success

For this activity to be considered successful, you must
• decide as a group who will investigate each idea
• complete your investigation and collect appropriate data
• compare results and determine the best method for growing seedlings in the
greenhouse

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Below are the task requirements and materials needed to investigate each
idea. Read all of these so you are aware of what your partners are doing.
2 As a group discuss a plan for each idea using the materials available.
3 As a group decide how you will use the same process to measure and record
plant growth.
4 Prepare a plan for the idea you are investigating. Have your teacher approve
your plan before carrying it out.

Materials & Equipment Idea 1 – Using Plastic Bags

• bean and corn seeds Task 1
• small plastic bags
To germinate (grow) seeds in a way that allows seedlings to be easily observed
• absorbent material such as
and transplanted to soil.
paper towel, cotton batting,
coffee filters, vermiculite

112 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 113

Idea 2 – Using Different Packing Densities

Materials & Equipment
Task 2
Idea 2
To determine how many seeds can be planted in a confined space without • seeds such as corn, beans,
adversely affecting their growth. Your plan should include growing different radish, or lettuce
numbers of seeds (from 2 to 20) in the confined space of a small plastic bag or a • plastic bags or 7-cm pots
7-cm pot. • absorbent materials such as
paper towel, cotton batting,
Idea 3 – Preventing the Formation of Mould coffee filters, vermiculite,
Task 3 loam soil
To develop a process that prevents or reduces mould growing on seeds. Prepare • ruler
a plan that will enable you to determine if briefly soaking seeds in vinegar or a • thumb tacks
baking soda solution is able to prevent mould from growing on the seeds during • tack board or table
germination. Plastic bags with moistened inserts will be used to germinate the
seeds.

Test and Evaluate Materials & Equipment

5 With permission from your teacher, carry out your plan in a safe manner. Idea 3
6 Record your observations and data. • 30 corn seeds (about
10 seeds for each treatment
7 If possible, prepare a graph from your data.
and 10 untreated for
Communicate comparison)
• small plastic storage bags
8 Work as a group to produce a report. The first section should be your
• absorbent material such as
recommended solution. Use data collected in your investigation to support
paper towel, cotton batting,
your recommendation. The second section should be three individual coffee filters, filter paper
summaries describing the work done by each group. For your summary, • vinegar
include observations and a graph if you were able to make one. How does • baking soda solution
your investigation solve the problem? Discuss any changes you would make • thumbtacks
to your investigation if you were to repeat it. • tack board

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 113
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 114

Figure 1.21 These plants

can use stems to
reproduce.

Reproduction without Seeds

Seed plants don’t always reproduce from seeds. Reproduction of
plants that doesn’t involve seeds is called vegetative reproduction.
Plants produced by vegetative reproduction are genetically
identical.
Some plants reproduce from stems. Some produce runners,
which are long stems that grow along the
surface of the soil. Other plants produce new
stems that run underground called rhizomes.
Other underground stems are produced close
to the plant to make the structures we call
bulbs, tubers, and corms.
Some seed plants reproduce from their
roots. New plants that form on roots are
called suckers.
Growers often use these other ways of
reproduction to produce plants. The
horticultural industry produces many of the
plants you see in nurseries using vegetative
reproduction. For example, the millions of
spring bulbs sold each year are produced this
way. Suckers are used to produce new plants
of fruit trees and berry plants.

Figure 1.22 These plants can use roots to reproduce.

114 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 115

Technology to Reproduce Plants

Growers also produce plants from cuttings and by grafting. Cuttings
are small pieces of a plant that usually have a part of the stem and
a few leaves. Almost all plants can produce new roots from a cut
stem under the right conditions. Grafting is attaching a part of one
plant onto another plant. Usually, a small branch of one plant is
grafted. The two sections eventually grow together.

Figure 1.23 New roots

come from the stem,
making a whole new plant.

re SEARCH
A Plant Puzzle
Many of the plants
that humans grow are
Figure 1.24 The cut pieces from another tree will eventually become a part of this one. seedless, such as
seedless grapes and
oranges. How do
growers reproduce
CHECK AND REFLECT these plants?

1. Draw a diagram of the life cycle of seed plants. Label each stage.
2. What is a pollinator? What attracts pollinators to flowers?
3. Describe two ways that a seed plant can reproduce without
seeds.
4. Describe how a nursery might produce petunias to sell as
bedding plants.
5. What did you learn about conifer trees in this section that you
didn’t know before?

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 115
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 116

1.4 Plant Structures Are Adapted To

Their Environment
After a day of cross-country skiing, wouldn’t it be great to come
home and refresh yourself with an orange picked fresh off your own
tree? Of course, this could never happen. Orange trees don’t grow
outdoors in Alberta because it’s far too cold. But other trees, such as
cottonwood and white pine, are able to grow in cold climates.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

BENEATH YOUR FEET

Seed plants come in many shapes and sizes. Even though plants may look very
different, you can usually find roots, a stem, leaves, and reproductive structures.

Look at these photographs of seed plants. Identify all the plant parts you can
find for each one.

Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26 Figure 1.27 Figure 1.28 Figure 1.29 Figure 1.30

When you have identified all the plant parts you can, discuss with another
student the differences in the plants in the pictures. What is different about the
leaves? How about the stems?

Can you think of a reason why these structures are so different?

info BIT
Needles and Leaves
Pine and fir trees have leaves shaped like
needles. The leaves of raffia palm can grow
up to 20 m long and 2.4 m wide!

116 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 117

Problem
Solving C R E AT I N G A LESSON ABOUT FLOWERS
Activity Recognize a Need
You’re a teacher for a class of grade 1 students. Your students are learning the
names for the parts of plants. Some of them are having a really hard time. Every
time you show them a plant they haven’t seen before, they can’t name any of the
parts! You need to come up with a fun way of showing your students lots of
examples of the parts of plants. You’re going to work with a friend to come up
with a plan for showing them variations in flowers.

The Problem
Create a fun and interesting way to present variations in flowers.

Criteria for Success

For your lesson to be considered successful, it must
• show five different kinds of flowers with their parts labelled
• be creative and fun to watch
• take no more than 10 min to present

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Discuss with your partner what kind of flower variations you will present.
Decide which of your ideas is most interesting and unusual.
2 Write a list of things you might do to present your flowers. Be creative!
Maybe you can make a video, or write a song. You might want to create a
game for the children to play.

Prepare to Present Your Lesson

3 Find the examples of flowers you need and transfer them onto the media you
plan to use. For example, you might need to print out pictures from the
Internet, or make costumes that look like different flowers.

Test and Evaluate

4 Practise your lesson presentation. Depending on what you have decided to
do, you will have to do this in different ways. You might need to rehearse a
skit or test your game on other students.
5 Make any changes to your presentation that you want after you have finished
testing. You might want to test it again if you have time.

Communicate
6 It’s show time! Present your lesson to the rest of your class. How did it go?
Be considerate and pay attention when other students are presenting their
lesson. Take notes on what you liked most about the other presentations.
7 Write a paragraph on your experience creating a lesson. Compare your
presentation with the other presentations. What was hardest about solving
this problem?

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 117
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 118

PLANTS ARE ADAPTED TO THEIR ENVIRONMENTS

When you walk into a plant nursery or go for a nature walk, you see
all different sizes and shapes of plants. One of the reasons that
Figure 1.31 How are these
plants are different is that they grow in different environments. To
plants adapted to their
environment? survive in a specific environment, plants must be adapted to that
environment. That means that they have structures that help them
survive in that environment. Figure 1.31 describes some of the
many ways that plants are adapted to different environments.

In dry environments, plants

have to save as much water as
they can. The stems of cacti are
thick because they store water.
Cactus leaves are tiny spines
that protect the stem and its
stored water from predators.

Plants like grasses have narrow thin leaves, so they can get many individuals
in one place. This helps them to be pollinated by the wind. The depth of
grass roots helps grasses adapt to occasional drought conditions. Other
plants, like the sunflower, have large, wide leaves to catch lots of sun. Many
plants produce bright flowers and sweet nectar to attract insects like bees,
which pollinate the plants as they go from flower to flower.

118 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 119

Plants such as white spruce trees

have thin needle-like leaves with a
thick resin coating. This protects the
plant from drying out.

Some plants have fibrous roots,

which form a thick mat that gathers
water at the upper layers of the soil.
Others have long taproots. These
plants can get water deep down that
others can’t reach.

Adapted to short growing seasons, some native plants such

as wild mustard produce seeds in less than two months.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 119
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:45 PM Page 120

re SEARCH
Plants in Extreme
Environments
Even from a distance,
the slopes of the
Rocky Mountains
above the treeline
look barren and cold.
Find out what types of
plants live on or near
the tops of the
Rockies, and how they
are adapted to this
harsh environment.

Figure 1.32 The bird of paradise flower has a unique structure.

Plant Structures and Environments

In this subsection, you have looked at examples of variations in
plant structures, such as leaves, stems, and roots. The wide range of
differences in plant structures shows how plants are successfully
adapted to different environments.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Sketch a plant with fibrous roots and a plant with a taproot.
2. Describe two examples of variations in leaves that make a plant
better suited to a specific environment.
3. Why do cacti have thick stems?
4. What kind of environments do you think these plants are
adapted to?

A B C D

120 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 121

1.5 Plant Needs and Growing

Conditions
All plants need the right amount of light, water,
nutrients, and space in order to survive. Seed
plants also need to be pollinated and produce
seeds. The seeds must germinate at the right
time in a place that will supply all their needs.
The rice plants in Figure 1.33 look healthy
because they have all the things they need. Rice
plants must grow in water. Other plants, such as
wheat and corn, could not survive in these
conditions.

Figure 1.33 Rice plants

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

PLANTING A VIRTUAL GARDEN

You and your friends are planning to grow a flower garden in a community park
close to your school. The space you have been given is half in bright sunlight
and half under the shade of a big tree. The park gets lots of rain, but you have
noticed that the area under the tree stays dry for a long time.

Here are the tags from the plants that you and your friends like the most.
Choose no more than two plants that you think would grow well in your garden.

Explain why you chose each plant and where you would plant it in your garden.
Do you think you could plant your whole garden with just one of these plants?
Why or why not?

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 121
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 122

info BIT PLANTS NEED DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF LIGHT

All plants need light in order to photosynthesize and produce food.

In the Hothouse But they don’t all need the same amount of light. Some plants need
Plants grown in
lots of light and others need shade. For example, a fern needs less
greenhouses grow
light than a marigold does.
faster, bigger, and
produce more flowers
or fruit than plants PLANTS NEED DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF WATER
grown outside. You know that a plant will die if it doesn’t get enough water. But
plants can also get too much water. Plants that are adapted to grow
in very dry conditions, like cactus, are easily damaged or killed by
too much water. Others need lots of water all the time.

PLANTS NEED DIFFERENT NUTRIENTS

Plants need nutrients from the soil for healthy growth. Nutrients are
substances that provide the energy and materials that plants need to
grow. The main nutrients that plants need are:
• nitrogen
• phosphorous
• potassium
• calcium
• magnesium
If plants do not get enough of these nutrients, they will grow
slowly and will not develop properly. For example, if plants do not
get enough nitrogen, their leaves will be yellow instead of green.
Not all plants need the same amount of nutrients. For example,
plants such as beans, peas, and clover can take nitrogen from the air
instead of the soil.

PLANTS NEED DIFFERENT AMOUNTS

OF SPACE
All plants need enough space to
grow. Some types of plants need
more space than others. Small
plants like the buttercups in
Figure 1.34 require very little
space for each plant. Huge
trees like the redwoods in
Figure 1.35 require large
amounts of space to collect
the sunlight and nutrients
that they need to grow.

Figure 1.34 Buttercups Figure 1.35 Redwood trees

122 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 123

Inquiry I N V E S T I G AT I N G G R O W I N G C O N D I T I O N S
Activity
The Question
Does the amount of water a radish plant receives affect its growth?

The Hypothesis
Materials & Equipment Write a hypothesis about the effect of different amounts of water on how well a
• soil radish plant grows.
• small containers for
growing plants Procedure
• graduated cylinder or 1 In your group, develop a fair test for your hypothesis. Read Toolbox 2—The
beaker Inquiry of Process of Science if you need help in developing a fair test.
• radish seeds Remember to identify the manipulated and responding variables. You will
• ruler or measuring tape need a method for measuring the change in your responding variable. For
• water
example, if your manipulated variable is the amount of water added to the
plants, the responding variable may be the height of the plants. You will need
a device to measure the height of the plants.
2 Write out your procedure. Remember to include a table or chart that will
allow you to record your data over the next several weeks. Have your teacher
approve your procedure.
3 Determine the materials you will need for your procedure.
4 Carry out your procedure. Make sure everyone in your group understands
their roles and can carry out their part of the procedure when necessary. For
example, measurements must be taken and recorded at set times.

Collecting Data
5 Record your data in the data table you designed and your teacher approved.

Analyzing and Interpreting

6 Review the data you recorded. What volume of water created the best
growing conditions for radish seeds? What volume of water created the worst
Figure 1.36 What will “best” conditions?
mean for the growth of your 7 Was your hypothesis correct? Does it matter if your hypothesis was right or
plants?
wrong?
8 Create a graph or chart illustrating your data. Your graph or chart should
clearly show how much water was added to each plant and the results during
the investigation.

Forming Conclusions
9 Write a short report describing your test and what you found. Include your
graph or chart in your report. Describe any changes you would make to your
test if you could do it again.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 123
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 124

Figure 1.37 This plant got everything it needed to grow!

GROWING HEALTHY PLANTS REQUIRES KNOWING THE BEST GROWING

CONDITIONS
Knowing about the needs of different plants is an important tool for
growing plants. If you know exactly what a plant needs at each
stage of its life, you might be able to make sure it grows under
exactly those conditions.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Do all plants need to get the same amount of light? Explain your
answer.
2. Name two plants that need very different amounts of water.
3. You have a plant that needs lots of water and light. How will
you give this plant the best growing conditions?
4. Give an example of a job that might require knowing a lot about
the different needs of plants. Do you think you would like to do
this job?

124 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 125

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Name the parts of a seed plant. For each part, write one
sentence describing what that part does.
2. Describe the process by which plants make food. Where does
this process take place?
3. Give two examples of variations in the structure of stems.
4. Look at the pictures of the plants below. How are these plants
adapted to their environments?

Figure 1.38 Figure 1.39 Figure 1.40

5. Choose a plant you are familiar with. Draw the stages in the life
cycle of that plant.
6. Think about your backyard or a park near you. Suppose you are
going to plant some flowers there. What do you already know
about this area that would help you decide what kinds of
flowers to choose? What things would you have to find out?

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
In this section, you have studied the needs, structures, and life
processes of plants. You have also examined different ways that
plants adapt to their environments. Such scientific knowledge can
lead to the development of new technologies. These technologies
can be then used to make more scientific discoveries.
1. Describe why an understanding of the needs of plants is useful
to humans.
2. Describe an example of a plant technology that was developed
from an understanding of the needs of plants.

Understanding Structures and Life Processes of Plants Helps Us to Interpret Their Needs 125
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 126

2.0 Plants play an essential role in

the environment and in meeting
human needs.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• needs and uses of plants
• resource management

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• explain the role of plants in
the environment
• describe ways that humans
use plants
• describe natural and
managed living resources in
various areas
• identify examples of local and
global change in living
resources

We live in a world of plant life.

Plants live all around us. They grow deep under the ocean, on the
sides of mountains, under arctic snow, and in hot, dry deserts.
Plants are in almost every kind of environment on Earth.
Plants are necessary to all life on Earth, and they supply us
with many things we rely on. To be able to meet our needs in the
future, we must make sure that the things we do to grow and
harvest plants do not interfere too much with the needs of the rest
of the planet.

126 For Web links relating to 2.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 127

2.1 The Role of Plants in the

Environment
info BIT
Plants Across Canada
Vegetation (plant)
cover in Canada can
be classified into four
categories: forest,
tundra, barren, and
agriculture. The
remaining areas of the
country are either
non-vegetated areas
(without plant cover)
or water.
Figure 2.1 What lives in the environment around your school?

Many living things make your schoolyard their home. Plants are an
important part of this environment. For example, plants provide a
home and food for many different types of birds and insects. But
plants have much wider ranging effects as well. They even affect
the air you breathe.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

NATURE’S CONNECTIONS
Make two lists, one of the plants and one of the
animals in these photographs. Discuss with a
Figure 2.2 Figure 2.5
partner how each plant and animal might be
connected. Draw lines on your lists between those
you think are connected.

Share your work with another pair of students.

Explain what you think the plants provide for the Figure 2.3 Figure 2.6
animals. Do you think these animals would survive
without the plants?

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.7

Plants Play an Essential Role in the Environment and in Meeting Human Needs 127
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 128

Problem
Solving WHY IN THE WORLD DO WE NEED PLANTS?
Activity Recognize a Need
A neighbourhood committee is improving the area around your school. Most
people want to add more plants, but some committee members think it would be
easier just to pave the area.
You’ve been asked to help convince everyone on the committee that plants
are essential to the environment. They want you to find examples of plants
around your school that are used for food by other living things, create oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide from the air, provide shelter for living things, and
make or protect the soil. You will prepare a written report for the committee.

The Problem
Explain the essential role of plants in the environment using examples from the
area around your school.

Criteria for Success

For your presentation to be successful, it must
• have an example of each of the four ways that plants help the environment
• describe what would happen to the environment if plants were not present
• be creative and convincing

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Working with your group, discuss where you might find the examples you
need. Will you look in one area, or in four different areas?
2 Decide how you will record the examples you find. Consider how you will
Caution! present the information. Is it better to make sketches or prepare a table?
Be kind to the
Prepare and Evaluate
environment when
3 Find and record the examples you need. As you are working, evaluate
you make your
whether you have chosen an appropriate method to record your observations.
observations. Do not
remove anything, and If not, modify your method.
be careful not to 4 Back in class, discuss as a group what would happen if plants were not
harm the living things present in each of your examples.
you find. 5 Decide on the best way to present your work.

Communicate
6 Prepare your report. Remember that it must convince people that plants are
important to the environment.

Extending
Draw a map of your schoolyard that shows where different types of plants are
found. Use a field guide or identification key to identify any plants you are not
sure about.

128 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 129

Plants provide oxygen. Animals produce carbon

dioxide and use up oxygen when they breathe.
Plants use up carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
Plants provide food. Plants make their own food
from water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight. The plants
become food for other organisms, which are in turn
eaten by something else.

Plants provide shelter. Plants protect other

organisms from the weather and from predators.

Plants build and protect soil. Dead plant material builds soil.
Plants also prevent erosion, which is the process that moves
soil from one place to another. Plant roots hold the soil together.

All living things, or organisms, are connected by

what they eat. These chipmunks get their food
from plants; the fox eats the chipmunks.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Explain why animals need plants to survive. Figure 2.8 All organisms in
2. Pretend that half of the plants on earth suddenly disappeared. this environment depend on
plants.
What do you think might happen to the air?
3. Why are plants important for soil?

Plants Play an Essential Role in the Environment and in Meeting Human Needs 129
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 130

info BIT
Help for Headaches
2.2 We Use Plants in Many Ways
Aboriginal people in Canada used
many plants for food, fibre, and
medicines. For example,
paintbrush was used to treat
rheumatism, and its flowers could
be eaten as a sweet treat.
Plants provide us all with
food, and with fibre that we use to
make shelter, clothing, and other
The bark of the willow useful products. Plants can also
contains a chemical provide us with medicine.
that is similar to You use plants in different
acetylsalicylic acid ways every day. All day long, you
(Aspirin). Willow bark eat plants in every snack and
was one of many plants meal. When you put on a cotton
used by some First T-shirt, you’re using a plant
Nations and Inuit product. This book is made from
peoples as a source of plant fibres.
medicine.
Figure 2.9 Paintbrush grows
throughout Alberta.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

WHEN IS A TREE NOT A TREE?

You use plants every day. Maybe you eat some fruit, or play soccer on grass, or
just enjoy a potted plant in your home. But there are lots of other uses for plants
that you might not have thought about before!

Copy out the list below. For each item, write the name of at least one plant that
can be used to make that item.

• pencil • baseball bat • T-shirt

• paper • bread • rope
• perfume • table • dog food
• skin care lotion • throat lozenges • house

When you have finished, exchange your list with a partner. Did you both name
the same plants for every item? Discuss with your partner any answers you do
not agree with.

130 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 131

PLANTS FOR FOOD re SEARCH

Plants can provide us with the food we need to stay healthy. A diet
Make Good Use of It
with lots of fruits and vegetables can help protect us from some
Some of the plants in
diseases.
your area might be
used for food, fibre, or
PLANTS FOR FIBRE medicine. Use books,
Fibre from plants provides many of the materials we use for shelter the Internet, and other
and warmth. Most houses in Canada are made of wooden frames sources to find what
covered with sheets of wood. The fibres from some plants are used plants in your area are
to make cloth. For example, cotton fibre is used in shirts and jeans. used for.
Plant fibre is also used to make paper and paper products. Your
notebook and this textbook are made from plant fibre.

Figure 2.10 Plant

fibres are used to
make all these
things. How much
do you think our
lives would change
if we couldn’t get
fibre from plants?

Plants Play an Essential Role in the Environment and in Meeting Human Needs 131
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 132

PLANTS CAN BE USED IN MANY OTHER WAYS

Plants have always been an important source of medicine
worldwide. In Canada, the Aboriginal people used more than 500
different kinds of plants for medicine. In 1535, Iroquois people
cured Jacques Cartier’s expedition of scurvy with a tea made from
white spruce and hemlock. Scurvy is caused by not eating enough
vitamin C.
Figure 2.11 The kinnikinick or
There are many other uses for plants. Plants can be used to
buffalo berry plant was used by make glue and rubber. Plants are used to put the shine on glossy
First Nations, Métis, and Inuit paper, the colour in this textbook, and the odour in perfume. Plants
peoples to treat kidney problems. can even be used to clean up polluted soil!

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Name two ways that we use plants. Give an example of each.
2. Describe two ways that plant fibre is used.
3. What kind of plant is used to make paper? Are there any other
ways that this plant is used?
4. Was there any way that we use plants that surprised you?
and

Careers Profiles Syrup Producer

You’ve probably tried maple syrup that comes from Warren began to experiment after he read about a
sugar maple trees that grow in eastern Canada. Warren Yukon cook who opened a breakfast place during the
Bard of Edmonton makes syrup from birch trees. “It has a Gold Rush. This cook had no sugar, but a First Nations
totally unique flavour,” he says about his syrup. woman taught her how to tap birch trees for the sweet
syrup.
In 1998, Warren’s birch syrup was used by Culinary
Team Canada to create a dessert sauce that won a silver
medal in an international cooking contest. His syrup is
used in major hotels such as the Banff Springs Hotel and
the Hotel MacDonald in Edmonton.

1. How might developing new uses for native

plant species help the environment?
2. What people outside the school would you
contact to help you start a new business?
Figure 2.12 Warren Bard has found a way to make a business
out of the natural resources in his area.

132 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 133

info BIT
2.3 Managing Living Resources
Protecting Living
Resources

Prickly pear cactus

grows in the living
Figure 2.13 Forests are an important living resource. resource of the
Badlands in Dinosaur
Provincial Park.
Living resources are living things that can be used for human
needs. Forests, like the one in Figure 2.13, contain living things that
are part of Earth’s living resources. These include not only the trees,
but many other plants and animals found in forest environments.
When we cut timber or use the forest as a place for recreation, we
may affect these living things. Managing living resources like forests
involves maintaining healthy populations of all the living things
that make up those resources.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

USING A LIVING RESOURCE

Working on your own, put a line down the middle of a piece of unlined
paper. On one half of the paper, sketch a picture of an area that you think is
a living resource. For example, you might draw a local woodland or a prairie
grassland. Include as many different kinds of plants and animals as you can.

On the other half of the paper, sketch the area as it might look after humans
begin to use the resources as a park.

Look over your finished sketches. Note three differences and write them
down in point form below your sketches.

Plants Play an Essential Role in the Environment and in Meeting Human Needs 133
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 134

Problem C O M M U N I C AT I N G I D E A S A B O U T A MANAGED
Solving RESOURCE
Activity Recognize a Need
You are a member of a group called Students for a Healthy Environment. Your
group is preparing a pamphlet to help people understand why managing the living
resources of a forest is important. You want to explain that there are many
different forest uses, and all the living resources in a forest must be looked after.

The Problem
Design an attractive and easy-to-read pamphlet that explains how a forest region
is used. These uses include timber production, recreation, and habitat for plants
and wildlife. You may focus your pamphlet on a region of Alberta or another part
of the world. Explain why areas are set aside for particular uses. Describe ways
that people can help look after the living resources of the forest.

Criteria for Success

Figure 2.14a) Mammals such For your pamphlet to be effective, it must
as the pine marten use mature
forests to meet their basic • present accurate information about the uses and living resources of forests
needs. • include graphics that demonstrate the variety of uses
• give examples of human activities that work to restore forests as a sustainable
resource

Brainstorm Ideas
1 In a group, list the facts you need for your pamphlet. Use your textbook, the
Internet, or your school library to check any information you aren’t sure about.
2 Decide as a group which facts can be presented as a graph. Use Toolbox 7:
Graphing to help you decide.

Make a Pamphlet
3 Decide what materials you will need to make your pamphlet. Think about
what size and shape would work the best.
4 Arrange the information you will be including in your pamphlet so that it
Figure 2.14b) Humans need looks attractive. Consider adding related pictures.
forests to provide building
materials and many other basic Test and Evaluate
needs.
5 Display your completed pamphlet in your classroom.
6 Compare your pamphlet with the pamphlets that other groups prepared. Are
there any features in their pamphlets that work particularly well?
7 Evaluate your work. If you had time, is there anything you would change to
make your pamphlet more effective?

Communicate
8 Post your pamphlet, along with the other pamphlets, in your class. Spend
some time reading each of the pamphlets and taking notes. As you read each
pamphlet, provide constructive feedback and suggestions for improvement.

134 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 135

CHANGES CAUSED BY HUMAN ACTIVITY

The first people to use living resources in Alberta were the
Aboriginal peoples. They obtained the food and fibre they needed
by hunting and gathering. Plants, such as the wild rose, were used
not only as a source of food, but for medicine as well. They also
developed methods for encouraging the growth of plants they
needed by clearing some areas with fire. Aboriginal peoples
developed a close relationship with the land because of their use of
living resources.
Major changes in living resources began with the introduction of
horses and guns for hunting. These new technologies allowed
Aboriginal peoples to hunt buffalo and other animals more
efficiently. Horses also competed for grazing with animals such as
the buffalo. Both activities affected the living resources.

Figure 2.15 Siksika Nation

people in Alberta used
horses for hunting.

Figure 2.16 European

settlers used larger
amounts of living
resources in different
ways.

When European settlers came, they began to clear and farm land
to grow food for themselves and others. They logged the forests to
supply wood for building and fuel. With greater use of the living
resources, the need to manage these resources became greater.

Plants Play an Essential Role in the Environment and in Meeting Human Needs 135
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 136

MANAGING LIVING RESOURCES FOR NOW AND THE FUTURE

As the world’s population keeps growing, so does the demand for
Forest natural resources. In some parts of the world, forest resources are
Nonforest
being used more quickly than they are being replaced. This kind of
use is said to be non-sustainable. This means that the amount being
used now will not be available in the future.
Over time, people have used the forests to provide wood fibre
Edmonton for things such as building materials, paper, and fuels. The practice
of managing forests has changed as our needs and demands on this
Calgary
0 150 300 km
sustainable resource change. People work to use forests in ways that
will ensure a balance between meeting our needs and the needs of
the many species that call forests home.
Agencies that manage forest resources establish methods and
regulations that foresters follow when a forest is to be harvested.
Figure 2.17 This map
shows the amount of forest
These regulations provide a framework to identify what species are
in Alberta today. to be harvested, how they are removed, and how the forest is
restored and replanted after
harvesting. This framework ensures
that foresters can obtain the species
they want for their products, and
secures the forest to remain healthy
and renewable. Human activities
such as logging and replanting
allow forests to pass through
different growth cycles over time.
Different plants and animals will
use these changing environments
Figure 2.18 People manage forests to
as the forests develop from one maintain a diversity of species and to
stage to the next. keep the forest healthy and productive.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What is a living resource? Give three examples.
2. What are the challenges associated with managing a living
resource such as a forest?
3. What did you find out about how humans affect the
environment that you didn’t know before? Is there anything in
this section you would like to learn more about?

136 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 137

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Explain why plants are essential to the environment.
2. Name four ways that humans use plants. Provide an example of
each use.
3. Think about the area where you live. Describe changes in the
natural living resources that might have resulted from the
following human activities.
a) Aboriginal peoples collected food.
b) European settlers cleared land to farm.
c) New houses are built for new people coming to Alberta.
4. Do people depend on plants as much as they did in the past?
Explain your answer.

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
Through technology, we find new ways to grow and use plants.
Think about what you learned in this section.
1. Explain two ways in which the practice of planting small trees
after an area has been logged helps the environment.
2. What are some of the ways we produce plants? Have they
changed as we have developed new technology?
3. The technology we use changes over time. Choose a tool used in
agriculture or forestry such as a corn harvester, a plow, a
chainsaw, or any other. Research using the Internet, books, and
other sources. Explain how the tool has evolved.

Plants Play an Essential Role in the Environment and in Meeting Human Needs 137
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 138

Soil is an important resource that

3.0 human activity can protect or
degrade.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• fertilizers and soil nutrients
• resource management

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• investigate and describe
characteristics of soils
• identify practices that
enhance and degrade soils

There is an important resource beneath this prairie.

Imagine you are out hiking across the prairie. All around you are
grasses and wildflowers. Birds and insects buzz and chirp. As you
walk along the trail, you think about the sun and the rain that
makes all this possible. But would you remember the soil beneath
it all?
Soil is a natural resource, like water and minerals. We depend
on it to provide a healthy place for plants to grow. Many animals
also live in the soil, from earthworms to prairie dogs. Think about
the area where you live. What is the soil like? Do people affect the
soil in any way?

138 For Web links relating to 3.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:47 PM Page 139

info BIT
3.1 What Is Soil?
Shifting Sands
When you think of soil, you probably think of brown dirt. You
know that plants get nutrients and water from soil. You may even
have noticed that soil can be very different in different places.
Think of some words that could be used to describe soil. Think
about the colour and feel of different kinds of soil. How many
words can you think of?

The Sahara is getting

larger every day. As the
desert grows, the sand
covers up fertile soil.

Figure 3.1 Soil has layers, each

with different characteristics.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

ALL SOILS ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL

Soils from different areas can have very different characteristics. Some soils are
dry and can run through your fingers. Others are very wet and feel slippery.

Use three different types of soil: clay, loam, and sand. Filter 10 mL of water
through 30 mL of soil. Collect and measure the water that comes through the
filter for each soil. Record your observations in a table and draw a bar graph
showing the results. (See Toolbox 7 if you need help with your graph.)

Which soil holds water best? Which soil is best for drainage? Which soil might
be best to use when constructing earthen dams?

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4

Soil Is an Important Resource That Human Activity Can Protect or Degrade 139
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 140

Problem
Solving DESIGNER SOIL
Activity Recognize a Need
Your family has just bought a new home. They have asked you to plant a
vegetable garden. The soil is mostly clay and your first job will be to mix the clay
with materials so that it is more like loam.

The Problem
How will you mix the materials available to you with clay soil to make it more like
loam?

Criteria for Success

To be successful, your soil must
Sandy Soil
• form a moist, loose ball when squeezed
• runs freely
• moist soil will not form a ball • show the characteristic of loam when you complete a drainage test similar to
when squeezed the one done in the Give it a Try on the previous page
• particles are mainly mineral • feel like moist cake
• does not hold water
• light brown Brainstorm Ideas
1 Look at the available list of materials.
Clay Soil
2 With a partner or on your own,
• feels sticky decide what materials you will add to
• moist soil forms a tight ball the clay. Also decide the amount of
when squeezed
• greater than 20% clay mineral
each material that you will use.
particles 3 Decide how you will record your
• holds a lot of water observations.
• colour varies
Make Your Soil
Loam Soil 4 Using the available materials, create
• feels like moist cake your new soil.
• moist soil forms a loose ball
when squeezed Test and Evaluate
• balance of organic and mineral 5 Determine if your new soil is like loam soil. Use the soil characteristics that
particles
are listed in the margin.
• holds some water
• dark brown to black 6 Test your new soil for drainage using the technique from the Give it a Try on
the previous page. If you didn't do this activity, your teacher will explain this
test.
7 If you have access to a magnifying glass, look at the new soil under
magnification and compare it with a magnified loam soil sample.

Communicate
8 Share your “recipe” for loam soil with your classmates.
9 What do the class mixtures have in common?
10 Which materials worked best to improve the drainage of clay soil?

140 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 141

SOIL CONTAINS MINERALS AND ORGANIC MATTER

Soil is not just dirt! When you look closely at soil, you see tiny
particles with spaces between them. These spaces contain either air
or water.
coarse-grained soil
mineral
grains Figure 3.5 Soil is
fine-grained soil composed of different
types and sizes of
particles.

= organic matter
pores

Soil has mineral and organic particles. The mineral particles are
made from rock that has been broken down. Mineral particles make
spaces in the soil that water can run through quickly.
The organic particles are made from plants and animals that
were once living. When organic matter is partly decomposed, it is
called humus. Humus provides plants with the nutrients they need.
Humus also absorbs water.

Characteristics of Sandy Soil

Sandy soil runs between your fingers and has very few lumps. If
you moisten sandy soil and squeeze it in your hand, the soil will
not stay together. Sandy soil is light brown.
If you look at the particles of sandy soil with a hand lens, you
will see that most of the particles are mineral particles and there is
very little humus. Sandy soil therefore doesn’t contain much food
for plants. It also gets dry quickly, because water runs through it
very fast.

Characteristics of Clay Soil

Clay soil feels slippery when it is moist and you rub it between
your fingers. If you squeeze wet clay in your hand, it will stick
together and form a tight ball. Dry clay is very hard. The colour of Figure 3.6 The ingredients
of soil
clay soil is determined by the type of mineral particles that
compose it. The colour can vary.
Clay soil has lots of mineral particles and little humus. Because
the mineral particles are very small (0.0002 mm), clay soil has a
fine texture. The pore size (spaces between the particles) is also
small. Clay soil can hold water and nutrients but air cannot easily
penetrate, especially when the pores are filled with water.

Soil Is an Important Resource That Human Activity Can Protect or Degrade 141
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 142

Characteristics of Loam Soil

Loam soil is crumbly, like a moist cake. If you squeeze wet loam in
your hand, it will form a loose ball. It is not sticky. Loam soils are
dark brown or black.
Loam soil has a balance between the amount of organic particles
and mineral particles. It will absorb enough water to stay moist for
a long time, but not so much that it will not have enough air in the
spaces between the soil particles. Loam soil also has plenty of
nutrients for plants to use. This soil is good for growing most
plants.

re SEARCH DIFFERENT PLANTS FOR DIFFERENT SOILS

Although you might think that loam soil is the best for all plants,
Vermiculite there are some plants that would not grow very well in this type of
Find out what the role soil. Remember that plants have adapted to their environment. If
of vermiculite is in
you put a plant that is adapted to clay soil in loam soil, for
potting soil, and how
example, you might find that it isn’t very healthy. Each plant will
it is made.
grow best in a different kind of soil.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What is soil made of?
2. Explain the importance of the spaces between particles in soil.
3. If you could choose the type of soil in your garden, what kind
would you choose? Why?

Y This at Hom A C T I V I T Y

R e
T

HOW DOES YOUR GARDEN GROW?

Many people change the type of soil they have in their gardens. They add
things to the soil, or simply buy new soil altogether.

Has the soil been changed where you live? You can find out by looking at the
type of soil in a flowerbed or vegetable patch, then comparing it with the soil
in an area without a garden. This could be near a driveway or just under the
lawn.

Discuss what you find with your class.

142 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 143

info BIT
3.2 Our Practices Can Improve or
The Dirty Thirties
Degrade Soil On the Canadian
Prairies during the
1930s, drought and
poor farming methods
caused the topsoil to
blow away.

Figure 3.7 The nutrients in this dead tree can be used by other organisms.

In a natural environment, nutrients are returned to the soil when

plants and animals die and decompose. But when we harvest
plants, we remove at least part of the plant and the nutrients in that
part. Over time, the soil could be left with too few nutrients for
plants to grow well.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

HUMAN ACTIVITY AND THE SOIL

Managing any living resource includes both costs and benefits to that resource.
Soil is an important resource that must be managed to keep it healthy.

Copy the list below into your notebook. Beside each item, explain how the action
described could help or harm the soil. Think about these carefully—some
actions may harm or help, depending on how you do them.
• A farmer puts manure on his fields.
• A potato farmer irrigates her crop.
• The stubble that is left when a grain crop is harvested is plowed into the soil.
When you have finished, share your list with others in your class. Did you label
all the situations the same? Discuss any situations that you did not agree on.

Soil Is an Important Resource That Human Activity Can Protect or Degrade 143
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 144

Figure 3.8 Soil helps this environment to stay healthy.

SOIL IS AN IMPORTANT NATURAL RESOURCE

We need soil to grow the plants we need for food and fibre. But soil
is also important for other reasons. It supports the growth of wild
plants that in turn feed and shelter animals. It also provides a home
for a wide variety of soil-dwelling organisms.

FERTILIZER USE
The soil nutrients that plants need can be provided by fertilizers.
These are substances that are added to the soil. Organic fertilizers
are made from sources such as animal or plant waste. Chemical
fertilizers are mixtures of types of chemicals that promote plant
growth. For example, potash is a chemical used in fertilizers to
increase the potassium content of the soil. Urea and ammonia are
both used as sources of nitrogen.
If the amount of fertilizer is not carefully measured, more
nutrients may be added than the plant can use. This may harm the
plant that the fertilizer was intended to help. Extra, unused
nutrients may dissolve in rain or irrigation water and pollute the
soil. The water in the soil can then carry them into streams, rivers,
or lakes, causing pollution there as well.

144 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 145

IRRIGATION
Irrigation is widely used to grow plants in dry areas where there is
too little rainfall overall or not enough at the right time of year.
Irrigation helps farmers ensure that plants receive the right amount
of water at the right time in their growth process. This can help to
increase crop yields.
The use of irrigation requires careful management. If too much
water is added to the soil, it will fill all the pores in the soil. With
too little air in the soil, plants will not grow well.
Irrigation can also dissolve salts in the soil. In very dry areas,
the evaporation of the water on the soil surface pulls the water and
dissolved salts up to the surface. The topsoil may become too salty
for plants to survive.

CLEARING THE LAND

Before farmers plant new crops, they have to clear their land of
plant cover. This makes it easier to plant seeds. It also reduces
competition between their crop plants and other plants. Clearing
farmland may involve removing most of the plant cover and
plowing under any that remains. Or it could involve partial
removal by leaving stubble on a field.
Foresters clear the land too. They will identify a desirable type
of tree to harvest and establish tree age and size as part of the
harvest criteria. As harvesting begins, those desirable species are
removed, while other species are left to grow. After harvesting,
foresters replant young trees to keep the forest sustainable.
If not carefully done, clearing land can expose soil to the
weather. Without plant roots to hold it
together, soil can be easily blown or
washed away. Under a pounding rain, soil
grains can squeeze together or compact,
making it difficult for new plants to put
down roots. The more plant cover that is
left when land is cleared, the less soil
erosion occurs. Plants also shade the soil,
keeping it cool and moist.

Figure 3.9 The location, size, and shape of cut

blocks can make a difference in the amount of soil
erosion after trees are cut.

Soil Is an Important Resource That Human Activity Can Protect or Degrade 145
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 146

Decision
Making FERTILIZERS AND SOIL
Activity The Issue
Why are chemical and organic fertilizers both used? Which one is favoured in
your community?

Background Information
All soil used for agriculture must have nutrients added to it, because the plants
take nutrients out of the soil that are not returned. Some growers believe that
using organic fertilizer, such as manure, is better for the soil. Other growers
believe it is much better to use chemical fertilizers and will not use any organic
fertilizers. The question of whether organic or chemical farming practices should
be used can be a sensitive issue for particular communities and families. Here is
a summary of the different ideas.

Advantages of organic fertilizers Disadvantages of organic fertilizers

• improves soil structure by adding • some types have a low nutrient
large particles of humus content
• provides a source of food for useful • each batch may have a different
Figure 3.10 What kind of soil organisms nutrient content
fertilizer should we use to
• recycles animal waste • it can contain disease organisms
keep this soil producing
healthy plants? • is unlikely to add excess nutrients to that can infect plants, livestock, or
the soil humans
• releases the nutrients slowly • it can contain weed seeds
• it is difficult to spread evenly

Advantages of chemical fertilizers Disadvantages of chemical fertilizers

• you know the exact amount of each • does not improve soil structure
nutrient you are adding • releases nutrients quickly and can be
• you can match the amount of each too concentrated
nutrient you add to what your soil • can easily add more nutrients to
needs the soil than the plants can use
• it is easy to apply evenly on the soil • can hurt useful soil organisms
• it does not bring in any disease • can contaminate the groundwater,
organisms or weed seeds lakes, and streams with too many
nutrients

Support Your Opinion

Decide for yourself if organic fertilizer is better to use than chemical fertilizer.
Write a paragraph defending your views. Include your prediction of the effect of
long-term use of both chemical and organic fertilizer.

146 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 147

PLOWING CHANGES SOIL

Plowing is the process of cutting into the soil and turning the top
layer over. Plowing breaks up the soil, creating more air spaces and
making it less compacted. Over time, plowing can damage the soil
because it makes the soil particles smaller, and so the soil can
become waterlogged and compacted more easily.
New equipment has been designed that will cause less damage.
In the 1930s, farmers recognized that “trash cover” (stubble and
other plant material) protected the soil
from wind erosion. To benefit from the
use of “trash cover,” the farmers in
southern Alberta needed a blade
cultivator that would go under the
stubble and kill the weed. In 1936,
C.S. Noble from Nobleford, Alberta,
developed a blade that replaced
traditional plows. This blade cut
below the ground while leaving the
top of the ground with its stubble
intact. Today, the Noble Blade and
Drill is used around the world.
Figure 3.11 The Noble
CROP ROTATION HELPS TO KEEP SOIL HEALTHY Blade and Drill
What do you think would happen to a soil if you grew the same
crop year after year? If you answered that the soil would run out of
the nutrients that the crop plant needs, you would be right. To keep
growing that crop, you would have to add lots of fertilizer every
year. Fertilizer is expensive, and the soil might also be polluted by
the nutrients that the plants don’t use. re SEARCH
No-Till Farming
Crop scientists have
wheat clover developed a new
method of growing
crops that doesn’t
involve plowing.
Find out about the
advantages and
disadvantages of
clover wheat
no-till farming. You
might want to start
your search on the
Year 1 Year 2
Internet.

Figure 3.12 Planting more than one kind of crop can reduce the use of fertilizer.

Soil Is an Important Resource That Human Activity Can Protect or Degrade 147
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 148

Crop rotation is the practice of planting a different crop in a

particular field every year. The kinds of plant that are rotated must
be matched according to their nutrient needs. For example, if one
plant uses a lot of phosphorus and very little nitrogen, it could be
matched with a plant that uses very little phosphorus and a lot of
nitrogen.

This plant uses and in the soil. This plant uses and in the soil.

Figure 3.13 During crop rotation, one plant uses the nutrients that the other doesn’t need.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Indicate which of the following statements are true, and which
are false. Correct each false statement to make it true.
a) Soil is only important to farmers.
b) Using lots of fertilizer to grow plants is always helpful.
c) Plants can help prevent wind erosion.
2. Describe an Albertan contribution to decreasing the impact a
plow makes on soil.
3. Write a poem, paragraph, or story expressing how you feel about
taking care of soil.

148 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 149

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Describe clay soil.
2. Give two characteristics you could use to identify loam soil.
3. Below are two examples of preparing the soil by plowing.
Explain one advantage and one disadvantage for each method.

Figure 3.14 Plowing bare soil Figure 3.15 Plowing plant material under

4. A farmer plants the same crop in the same field every year. How
will this affect the soil?

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
In this section, you found out that some of the practices we use to
help plants to grow can harm the soil. Consider the following
questions.
1. What changes have been made in technology to reduce the
damage to soil?
2. Over the past 100 years, humans have used the soil for a variety
of purposes. How does human use impact the soil now
compared with 100 years ago?

Soil Is an Important Resource That Human Activity Can Protect or Degrade 149
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:48 PM Page 150

The ways that plants are grown and

4.0 used are related to human needs,
technology, and the environment.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• plant varieties
• selective breeding
• monocultures
• resource management
• sustainability
• chemical and biological
controls

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe how plant varieties
are developed
• investigate consequences of
how we manage the
environment
• identify intended and
unintended consequences of
environmental management
• evaluate the effect of different
practices on sustainability of
resources
• describe the consequences of Have you ever played the game Jenga? In this game, you keep
using herbicides, pesticides, pulling pieces out of the bottom and putting them on the top. You
and biological controls can probably see that eventually, the whole thing will come
• identify practical problems crashing down.
and issues in producing
Some of the things we do to grow and harvest plants are like
plants in a sustainable way
pulling the pieces from the bottom of the Jenga game. If we keep
on in the same way, eventually we will make our environment
collapse. What do you think would happen if we kept logging our
forests and didn’t plant any more trees?

150 For Web links relating to 4.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 151

4.1 Modifying Environments to

Increase Yields info BIT
A Change for the
Better
Some islands in the
Pacific Ocean have soil
that contains large
amounts of salt.
People on these islands
grow their crops by
hydroponics, which
doesn’t use soil at all!

Figure 4.1 We all need products made from plants.

Our population is growing every day. All these people need more
plants to produce enough food and fibre to meet their needs.
Scientists and growers have developed technologies that increase
the yield of plants. Yield means the amount of useful plant part per
plant.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MAKING CHANGES
Growers and scientists have developed many technologies to change the
environment to suit the plants we want to produce. Each of these pictures shows
a different way of modifying the environment.

Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5

In each of these situations, what environmental condition is being changed?

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 151
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 152

Problem
Solving GROWING PLANTS WITHOUT SOIL
Activity Recognize a Need
You want to start a small company that supplies specialty vegetables to
restaurants. You know that the kinds of plants you need won’t grow well in the
outside environment. So you have decided to try to build your own indoor
hydroponic system. A hydroponic system is an artificial environment that doesn’t
use soil.

The Problem
Build a working prototype of a hydroponic system.

Criteria for Success

To be considered successful, your hydroponic system should meet the following
criteria:
• It must be constructed from materials in the classroom and from your home.
• It must use a nutrient solution in the place of soil.
• It must provide a seedling with a controlled amount of light and nutrients.
• It must operate for at least one week.

Brainstorm Ideas
1 In a small group, work together to develop ideas. Sketch out the suggestions
as you work, and review what each part in your system is supposed to do.
2 Develop a list of materials that could be used to create your hydroponic
system. Here are some things to start you off:
• clean gravel or marbles to support the roots
• aquarium air pump to keep air around the roots
• large plastic tub in which to place the nutrient solution
• liquid or soluble plant food to supply nutrients
3 Pick the idea that you think is most likely to meet the criteria for a successful
hydroponic system. Prepare a step-by-step plan of what you intend to do and
a list of everything you will need.
4 Show your plan and your list to your teacher. Be prepared to explain how
your system will work. When your teacher has approved your plan, you can
start to build your prototype.

Build a Prototype
5 Put your prototype together, following the plan that your teacher approved.
Do not put a plant in your system until you have finished building it and have
checked for leaks or other problems.

152 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 153

Caution!
Water and
electricity do not
mix! Do not plug
in any device
close to water.

Figure 4.6 A simple hydroponic system

Test and Evaluate

6 Move your completed system to the area set aside by your teacher. Put a
seedling into your system. Be careful not to damage its roots as you do this.
Turn on your system.
7 Check your system at least once a day over the next week. Make changes to
your system to correct any problems you encounter.

Communicate
8 Present your system to your classmates. Explain how your system was
supposed to work. Give an honest evaluation of how well your system did
what it was supposed to do, and whether it meets the criteria for success.
9 You might also want to share any changes you made to your system during
the week. What would you do differently if you could build another
prototype?

Extending
Your hydroponic system controls all the growing conditions for a plant. Design
and carry out an experiment to test the effects of different nutrients on plant
growth.

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 153
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 154

TECHNOLOGIES TO PRODUCE AND HARVEST PLANTS

To get the best yield possible, we have developed technologies that
help provide the best growing conditions for plants. What kind of
technologies can you find in this illustration?

154 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 155

ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENTS TO CONTROL GROWING CONDITIONS math Link

Sometimes we produce plants in artificial environments, in which A canola crop
we control all the growing conditions. Greenhouses are one yields 1120 kg of
example of an artificial environment. Plants in a greenhouse always seed per hectare
have the right temperature, light, and nutrients for their needs. when it is grown
without irrigation.
An irrigated canola
crop yields 1160 kg
per hectare. What
is the percentage
increase in yield?

re SEARCH
Modifying
Environments
Find out about other
ways to modify
Figure 4.7 Plants can be grown without any soil at all.
environments to
increase plant yields.
A hydroponic system is another type of artificial soil
environment. In hydroponic systems, plants are grown without soil.
Instead, the roots of the plants are buried in gravel or coarse sand.
Nutrient-rich water is then pumped through this material at regular
intervals.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What is yield?
2. Describe two methods to make sure plants have enough water.
3. What is an artificial environment?
4. Do you think hydroponics is a good way to grow all plants?
Why or why not?

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 155
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 156

info BIT
Varieties of Lettuce
4.2 New Plant Varieties Are Developed
by Selective Breeding
The next time you go into a grocery store, look at the wide variety
of fresh fruits and vegetables that we can buy at any time of year. In
the past, people had much more limited choices. For example, at
one time, most Canadian grocery stores sold only one kind of
lettuce. Today you can buy many different types of this leafy
vegetable.

There are at least 40

different varieties of
lettuce. Why do you
think we have so Figure 4.8 These two cobs were produced by different varieties of corn.

many?
We grow many different kinds of plants. Most of them were
developed by growers and scientists to meet specific demands. The
carrot the local farmer grows may have been developed for the
short growing season in Alberta. The carrot at the grocery store in
the winter may have been developed to stay fresh longer.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

A ROSE BY ANY OTHER NAME

The provincial flower of Alberta is the wild rose. Why do the roses that people
give on Valentine’s Day look so much different from the wild rose? People have
been growing roses for centuries. They have reproduced only the roses that they
liked the best. Over time, very special types of roses were developed.

Look at the pictures of roses.

Make a list of all the ways these roses

are different from the wild rose. Make
another list of the ways they are the
same. Which characteristics do you
think the growers chose to reproduce?
Figure 4.9 Wild rose Figure 4.10 Taboo rose Figure 4.11 Peace rose

156 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 157

Problem
Solving THE KEY TO VA R I E T Y
Activity Recognize a Need
You are a plant breeder in a company that produces new plant varieties. Your job
is to keep track of the new varieties by making a classification key. A classification
key is a diagram or list that organizes the traits of different organisms in a way
Materials & Equipment that allows someone to use it to identify a specific organism.
For each group:
The Problem
• 1 sample of each of 5
different varieties of a Create a classification key that will distinguish between five different varieties of a
plant (e.g., carnation) plant.
• chart paper or Bristol
board
Criteria for Success
• commercial classification For your classification key to be useful, it must meet the following criteria:
key for reference • It must distinguish each of the varieties by at least one unique trait.
(optional) • It must be clear and easy to use.

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Pick up the plants that your teacher has supplied. List all of the traits that are
the same and different.
2 Refer to Toolbox 9: Visual Organizers to review the different ways you can
organize and present data. You might also look at a commercial classification
key. Decide as a group how to organize your list so that it can be used to
determine each variety.

Construct a Classification Key

3 Make a classification key using the visual tool you decided upon.

Test and Evaluate

4 Test if you can separate each variety from
the other four using your key.
5 Make any changes to your key that are
needed, based on the results of your test.
Copy your completed key onto a sheet of
chart paper or Bristol board.

Communicate
6 Post your classification key in your
classroom and compare it with those of
your classmates. Did everyone use the
same traits? Was the visual tool that others
used more or less effective than yours?
7 Write a paragraph describing the process
you used to construct your classification
key.

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 157
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 158

re SEARCH WE GROW PARTICULAR VARIETIES OF PLANTS

A species is a group of organisms with similar traits that can
Helpful Hybrids
reproduce with each other. A variety is a subset of a species. A
Most of the plants
variety has specific characteristics, or traits, that distinguish it from
and seeds you buy
are hybrid varieties. other varieties.
Use your school New plant varieties are produced to provide us with plants that
library and the have traits that we need or want. We may need plants that can grow
Internet to find out in colder climates, or can tolerate salty soil. Some varieties are more
what a hybrid variety able to fight diseases or attack by insects.
is, and why plants are
sold this way. VARIETIES ARE DEVELOPED BY SELECTIVE BREEDING
Growers and scientists use selective breeding to develop new
varieties of plants. Selective breeding is the process of selecting
plants with specific traits and reproducing them.
People have been using selective breeding since we first started
farming. A farmer might notice that one plant grows taller than the
rest. She plants seeds from this plant the next year, and gets more
tall plants. If she does this every year, eventually all of her crop will
be tall.
Today scientists can also change the characteristics of plants by
genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a process in which
single genes are added to a plant’s cells. A gene is a tiny piece of
material in a cell’s nucleus. Each gene in a cell is responsible for
the inheritance of certain traits or characteristics. In genetic
engineering, the added gene can come from other plants or from
totally different living things.

Parents
Figure 4.12 The traits of
the parents are selected
first, then the offspring. pollinate
Some of the offspring of
these plants will have
flowers that are both large
and red.
Seeds
large white flowers small red flowers
plant and grow

Offspring

large white small white small red large red

flowers flowers flowers flowers

158 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 159

New Varieties Can Cause New Problems

Although new varieties have useful traits, they may also require
more fertilizer or other special treatment. For example, an increased
use of pesticides may be required if the new plant variety is more
attractive to pests. This can be expensive for the farmer. As well, it
may be harmful to the environment because the food web may be
disrupted.
In western Canada, canola (an oilseed crop) is grown. The
yellow flowers produce pods containing tiny round seeds. Each
seed contains about 40% oil which is valued because of its health
benefits. Through genetic engineering, canola plants can be
protected against insect damage and some herbicides. There is
some concern that canola plants might cross-pollinate with wild
mustard and produce a “super weed.” A super weed might not be
easily controlled.
Figure 4.13 Some varieties
are more attractive to
CHECK AND REFLECT pests.

1. What is a variety? Give an example.

2. Explain selective breeding.
3. You find a Saskatoon bush growing wild that has large, sweet
berries. What could you do to produce more bushes that have
exactly this kind of berry?
4. Why do we need to produce new varieties? Give at least two
examples in your answer.
5. Why is it hard to produce new varieties of trees?
and

Careers Profiles Plant Pathologist

Allan Kuzyk is a plant pathologist in the Department of Agriculture and

Agri-Foods at the Lethbridge Research Centre. Allan studies cereal
diseases and tries to find new ways to fight them. He passes his results
on to other scientists, agricultural workers, and the general public. Allan
also helps to develop new varieties that do not get diseases very easily.

• People who study plant diseases can work in

agriculture, horticulture, or forestry. Do you know
someone who knows about plant diseases?
Figure 4.14 To create new varieties, Allan
sometimes has to pollinate plants by hand.

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 159
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 160

4.3 Controlling Weeds and Pests

As you look at this picture of our planet taken from space, consider
how all life on Earth shares the same global environment. Within
this web of life, some living things are considered useful to
humans. Other living things are considered harmful or at least a
nuisance.
In commercial crops, plants that interfere with the growth of
Figure 4.15 Many of the these crops are called weeds. For example, crop losses can result
ways we grow and harvest from weeds such as wild oats, quack grass, green foxtail, and
plants can have global smartweed. Animals that eat or affect the growth of commercial
consequences.
crops are called pests. For example, the army cutworm larva eats
the leaves of many plants, including wheat, oats, barley, mustard,
flax, alfalfa, peas, cabbage, and grasses.
Weeds and pests do have a role in the environment, but farmers
must produce a variety of crops for human consumption. To meet
consumer demands, farmers must maximize crop yield. To do this,
they must control weeds and pests.

info BIT
Bark Beetles
Bark beetles damage many trees in Alberta.
They tunnel under the bark of trees to lay
their eggs. These tunnels allow diseases to
enter the trees and weaken or kill them.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

WHAT’S THE REAL STORY HERE?

Read the situations below. In a paragraph, write a story that links these
situations together.

• Weeds grow in a field of oats, which reduces yield.

• Insects eat some of the weeds.
• Birds eat some of the insects.

Now add another paragraph to describe what happens when a farmer sprays a
chemical to kill the weeds.

Did the farmer’s action have any consequences?

160 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 161

CONTROLLING WEEDS WITH HERBICIDES

Herbicides are chemicals that kill plants. Gardeners use herbicides
to kill weeds to produce beautiful lawns and flower beds. Farmers
use herbicides to kill weeds and selected plants. This allows
farmers to choose and grow a single crop in a field. One of the
advantages of having one single crop is that the individual plants
mature around the same time and make harvesting easier. However,
herbicides can cause problems. For example, some weeds are the
food source of other living organisms. Killing these weeds may
cause those organisms to starve. The build-up of herbicides in the
soil can make the soil less fertile for certain plants. Any herbicides
that get washed into streams and lakes may be harmful to living
things in these water environments.

Figure 4.16 Canola plants

that are herbicide-resistant
can pollinate with their wild
relatives. These weeds are
now resistant too, and are
more difficult to control.

When a herbicide is used for a long time, some weeds become

resistant to it. The next time the herbicide is used, the resistant
weeds will have fewer plants to compete with and may take over.
New herbicides must be developed to prevent this problem.

CONTROLLING INSECTS WITH PESTICIDES

Substances that kill insects are called pesticides. Farmers use
pesticides on their crops to protect them from harmful insects.
Pesticides can sometimes kill helpful insects as well, such as those
that pollinate crops. Used carefully, pesticides help farmers
increase yields. Care must be taken not to contaminate the
environment with pesticides.
When pesticides are used for a long time, some insects will
become resistant, and the pesticide becomes less useful. New
pesticides must then be developed to control the resistant insects. Figure 4.17 Pesticides
Many pesticides are still on food when we buy it from the used to control harmful
grocery store. This is why it is important to wash fruits and insects on crops are killing
many monarch butterflies
vegetables before eating them.
every year.

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 161
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 162

re SEARCH
Controlling
Mosquitoes
Some communities
spend a lot of money
trying to control
mosquitoes. Using
your school library,
the Internet, or other
resources, find out if
mosquitoes are being
controlled in your
community. In your
opinion, is your
community doing the
right thing? Explain
your answer.

Figure 4.18 Ladybugs can be used to control aphids.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Sometimes, a natural predator is used to control a pest. This
method of pest control is called biological control. Biological
control tries to copy the way that population size is controlled in
natural environments.
Biological control does not get rid of all the pests. Instead, the
predator changes the balance in the environment so that there are
fewer pests. Biological control also takes a while to work. This
method isn’t useful for large outbreaks of pests.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Explain what happens when a pesticide is used for a long time.
2. What are herbicides used for? Describe one consequence of
using herbicides in agriculture.
3. Describe biological control.
4. Explain why you agree or disagree with the statement
“Pesticides are more helpful than harmful.”

162 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 163

4.4 Consequences of Environmental

Management
Have you ever done something you thought would be a good thing,
and then found out that you actually did something harmful?
Maybe you decided to weed the flower garden for your parents and
you pulled out some new prized seedlings along with the weeds.
This is an example of an unintended consequence, or something
that you didn’t predict would result from what you did.
Unintended consequences often happen when we don’t know or
don’t think about all the factors in a situation.
Discuss with a partner any experiences you have had with
unintended consequences. When you listen to your partner, think
about possible reasons why things didn’t turn out as expected.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

INTENDED AND UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES

Sometimes when we try to be helpful, we end up doing things that just make
more trouble. These unintended consequences might not have happened if we
knew more about the situation or had taken more time to think about it.

For each of the situations in the list below, predict the consequence. Was this
consequence intended or unintended?

• A large man is leaning out on a very small tree branch trying to reach his cat.
• A girl pushes a door open for her friend, but doesn’t notice her teacher is
on the other side.
• A community group decides to clean up a stream in the spring. They walk
through the nesting area of an endangered bird as they are collecting garbage.

SOME PRACTICES HAVE UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES FOR THE

ENVIRONMENT
Environmental management is balancing the needs of humans with
the needs of the environment. It can involve many different
technologies and ways of using resources. When we use
technologies to manage an environment, we need to look at all of
the effects of the technology—not just the intended effects.

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 163
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 164

info BIT
A Pond Without Reeds
All the reeds and other
water plants have been
removed from this
pond. Now ducks have
nowhere to nest here.

Figure 4.19 Human activity in the wilderness may cause some animals to move away.

When forests are being logged, roads must be built to help bring
in people and equipment. Animals such as elk and moose also use
these roads, since they provide convenient paths from one location
to another. For the same reason, predators may also use the roads.
So, the introduction of roads often may have the unintended
consequence of making the habitat less secure for some species.
People other than foresters also use motorized vehicles like
snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles on logging roads. Although
they may be enjoying the wildness of these remote areas, their
presence may cause some animals to move away from the area to
avoid human contact. The repeated use of these areas by human
activities may make the habitat less secure for a number of species.
While humans can use these areas for various purposes, it is
important that we be sensitive to other species that share the
landscape.

Monoculture
In farm management, each planted field will often be used to
support growth of just one variety of plant. This is called
monoculture. All the plants are very similar or even identical to
each other. Growing plants by monoculture can cut down on costs
and fertilizer overuse. It can also make harvesting a crop a lot
easier. These are the intended consequences of monoculture.
Unfortunately, monoculture can also give pests a huge supply of
their favourite food. This can cause the population of pests to
explode, and result in much more pesticide being used.
Monoculture also reduces the biodiversity, that is, the number of
different species, of the environment, since only one kind of habitat
is available.

164 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 165

Problem
Solving R E D U C I N G O U R I M PA C T
Activity Recognize a Need
You are a grain producer with a large, independently operated farm. You just read
a magazine article about the loss of biodiversity, or the number of different
species, in Alberta. You’ve decided to review how you manage your barley field,
and evaluate whether anything you do has the unintended consequence of
reducing biodiversity. You then want to develop a strategy that will reduce this
effect, but won’t reduce the productivity.

The Problem
To identify one or more ways to improve habitat for wildlife without harming the
productivity of a barley field.

Criteria for Success

To be successful, the proposed changes must meet the following criteria:
• Life-supporting habitat for wild species would be recovered.
• Barley production would not be affected.
barley

roadway Brainstorm Ideas

pine trees 1 In a group, identify example species that would already occupy existing
habitat (i.e., the pine trees, pond, and rocky area). Identify others that may
rocky area; kept mown
not be present but might be supported through habitat change.
pond; kept free of weeds
and area around it kept mown 2 Generate a list of proposed strategies for habitat enhancement. Select two for
testing.
Figure 4.20 This year’s barley
field has some unused areas. 3 For each habitat development strategy, propose what wild species might be
positively affected by this habitat change.

Test and Evaluate

4 For each proposed habitat change, research and report on the needs of those
animals as a way of providing evidence that the proposed habitat change
would be effective for that species.
5 Identify particular strengths and weaknesses of this habitat for each species
named.
6 Identify one or more habitat changes that your group suggests would have
the maximum impact.

Communicate
7 Write a report that summarizes your work. Explain the reasons for all the
decisions you made. You might want to use a map in your report too!

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 165
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 166

re SEARCH SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT

Unintended consequences are often difficult to predict. The more
More or Less?
we know about the organisms in the environment and how they are
For most crops being
linked to one another, the less likely we are to accidentally cause
grown today, only a
few varieties are harm. We can then manage our plant resource in a way that can be
grown worldwide. Use continued, or sustained.
the Internet and other
resources to find out Economic and Social Effects
about biodiversity, Sustainable ways of producing plants can also have some
and what consequences other than helping the environment. Think about
consequences crop rotation. It breaks insect and disease cycles, improves soil
growing a limited structure, controls problem weeds, and improves yields by up to
number of varieties 15%. Rotating crops prevents the continued depletion of certain
could cause. nutrients in the soil which would occur if the same crops were
planted year after year. In western Canada, farmers are examining
and growing alternative crops such as canola, lentils, and peas
because of the potential benefits. Legumes (peas and beans) grown
in the rotation increase a subsequent crop grain yield and protein
content. Crop rotation makes economic sense.
Since crop rotation keeps the soil healthy, a farmer can keep
producing crops for a long time. This can help to provide steady
jobs for the people who work for the farmer. Because they can rely
on their jobs, these people can stay in the area and help to build the
community they work in. This is an example of social effects of
sustainable practices.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What do we mean when we say something is sustainable?
2. What is monoculture? Give an example.
3. A grower decides to change from using pesticides to using
biological control. Suggest one environmental, one economic,
and one social consequence that his or her decision could have.
4. Describe at least one thing that you could do in your local area
that might improve the environment. Do you think you might
actually do this? Why or why not?

166 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 167

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. What is selective breeding?
2. Give three examples of different species of plants. Give three
examples of different varieties of plants.
3. Do you think that plowing an empty field is a good practice?
Why or why not?
4. Why do we need to produce new varieties of plants? Use at least
one real-life example in your answer.
5. Give an example of an unintended consequence of human
activity in a managed forest.
6. Describe one intended consequence of monoculture.
7. Write a short paragraph of three or four sentences that describes
sustainable agriculture.
8. Growing and harvesting plants in ways that sustain agriculture
and the environment is very important for the whole planet. Do
you agree with this statement? Why or why not?

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
In this section, you were introduced to some examples in which a
technology that was intended to be helpful also had harmful
consequences. Although we can never predict all consequences,
making sure we have “done our homework” and learned as much
as we can will reduce how often this happens. Think about the
knowledge that would be needed to use a herbicide or pesticide
safely and effectively.
1. What would you need to know about the local environment?
2. What should you do to try to prevent unintended consequences
of using a herbicide or pesticide?

The Ways That Plants Are Grown and Used Are Related to Human Needs, Technology, and the Environment 167
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 168

S C I E N C E W O R L D

y
a
se d
S t u

Genetically Modified Organisms

The Issue Many countries are refusing to buy any products
Some varieties of our crops were produced by that have been genetically engineered. In fact, when a
genetic engineering. For example, some corn and company from Winnipeg accidentally shipped canola
potatoes are genetically engineered to have protection seed that contained 0.4% of genetically modified seed
against insect damage. Corn, squash, and sweet to Europe, the farmers who received it ripped up their
potatoes have been “vaccinated” so that they are entire canola crop to prevent it from flowering.
resistant to viral plant diseases. Some tomatoes have Some people argue that GMO experiments are
been treated to permit vine-ripening for better flavour not safe because scientists do not yet fully
and longer storage. Swiss researchers have produced understand the interactions between organisms and
a rice that will satisfy the daily requirement of vitamin the ecosystems. They say that herbicide-tolerant
A and provide more iron. This would help people in plants encourage more reliance on chemical weed
developing countries who have vitamin A and iron killers. This in turn puts more chemicals on our food
deficiencies. In the U.S. there are test fields of and in the groundwater. Other comments have to do
tobacco plants producing a potential AIDS drug. with the fear of altering genes in a food crop and
Genetic engineering is a process in which a piece changing the nutrient value or producing something
of DNA, or genetic material, is moved from one poisonous or allergenic.
organism into an entirely different kind of organism.
Go Further
The piece of DNA gives the new genetically modified
organism, or GMO, a new trait. Now it’s your turn. Look into the following resources
to help you form your opinion about whether Canada
should continue to allow our farmers to grow GMOs
in their fields.
A piece • Look on the Web: Check out the rules Canada has
of DNA is
removed about GMOs.
and put into • Ask the Experts: Try to find an expert on genetic
the DNA of
another organism. engineering. Experts can be found in many places:
By moving around universities, environmental and agricultural
pieces of DNA, organizations, or government agencies.
scientists can give • Look It Up in Newspapers and Magazines: Look for
plants new traits.
articles about GMOs.
• Check Out Scientific Studies: Look for scientific
studies about the safety of GMOs.

However, many people are concerned that GMOs In Your Opinion

will have unintended consequences. For example, the Summarize your findings as one of the following:
“super weed” described earlier in this unit developed • an article for your local or school newspaper
when canola plants were grown as a crop. • a speech to be presented at a forum on this issue
• a poster

168 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 169

UN I T S U M M A RY: P L A N T S FOR FOOD AND FIBRE

Key Concepts Section Summaries

1.0 1.0 Understanding structures and life processes of plants helps us to interpret
their needs.
• life processes and structure
• Seed plants have roots, stems, leaves, and either flowers or cones. Each structure
of plants
has a specific function.
• plant propagation and
reproduction • To maintain their life, plants use the processes of photosynthesis, transpiration, and
gas exchange.
• Seed plants have three different stages in their life cycle. These are the seed stage,
the seedling stage, and the adult stage.
• For adult seed plants to produce new seed, they must be pollinated. Pollination is
the joining of pollen and ovary.
• Seed plants can be reproduced in ways that don’t involve seeds.
• The structures of seed plants are adapted to the environment they come from.
These adaptations help the plant to get what it needs from the environment.
• Different types of plants require different growing conditions. We have technology
that can modify the environment to suit the plants we grow.

2.0 2.0 Plants play an essential role in the environment and in meeting human
needs.
• needs and uses of plants
• Plants supply oxygen and food to most of life on Earth.
• resource management
• Humans use plants for food, for fibre to make many of the things we need, and for
medicines and other products.
• As we use more plants, we convert natural living resources to managed living
resources. There are fewer species in managed environments.

3.0 3.0 Soil is an important resource that human activity can protect or degrade.
• fertilizers and soil nutrients • Soil is composed of particles of minerals and organic material. The amounts of
• resource management these particles determine if the soil is sandy, clay, or loam.
• The methods we use to grow and harvest plants can improve soil or degrade it.

4.0 4.0 The ways that plants are grown and used are related to human needs,
technology, and the environment.
• plant varieties
• selective breeding • New plant varieties are produced by selective breeding. New varieties have traits
• monocultures that we want, such as higher yield and pest-resistance.
• resource management • New varieties can require additional fertilizer or water, which can lead to
• sustainability environmental problems.
• chemical and biological • Using herbicides and pesticides long term can lead to the development of
controls resistance. It can also cause loss of helpful species or pollute the soil.
• Sustainable practices balance our needs with the needs of the environment. We
also must balance the social and economic consequences of changes that we
make.

Unit Summary 169

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:49 PM Page 170

PROJECT

DESIGN AND BUILD A GROWTH CHAMBER

Getting Started
In this unit, you have learned
that we need plants for food
and fibre, and that plants also
provide oxygen and food for
most of life on Earth. You
learned about the needs of
some plants and some of the
technologies that we use to
modify the environment to
grow plants.
Some of these
technologies are very
important to Albertans. Since
you live in Alberta, you know
the growing season is short.
To get a head start on your
vegetable garden, you could
design and build a growth
chamber. This chamber could
then be used to grow some
seedlings that would be
transplanted into your garden
at the appropriate time.

If growing season is short, many gardeners start their seeds indoors to get them
growing.

170 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:50 PM Page 171

Your Goal Steps to Success

Your goal is to design and build a growth chamber 1 In a group, list the needs of plants for growth.
for vegetable seedlings and then determine how well 2 As a group, develop a safe plan or design for
seeds grow in your chamber. your growth chamber.
3 Draw a side view, front view, and top view of your
What You Need to Know
plan. (See Toolbox 8 for help with drawing
There are two parts to this project.
diagrams.)
First, you must plan and design your growth
4 Choose and safely use appropriate materials,
chamber. Some materials and equipment that might
tools, and equipment when building your growth
be useful include:
chamber.
• seeds (beans, corn)
5 Once your chamber is built, plant your seeds.
• hydroponic solution
6 Record your observations of the seedling growth
• building materials such as cardboard, wood, in your chamber several times a week for three
cellophane or plastic wrap, tape, glue, hinges, weeks.
nails, screws
• building tools How Did It Go?
• plant pots and/or trays 7 Display your completed growth chamber in your
• light source such as a window, a lamp, or classroom.
fluorescent lights 8 Compare your chamber with those of your
• various soil types and additives such as perlite or classmates. Are there any features in their
vermiculite designs that work particularly well?
For your growth chamber to be effective, it must 9 If you were to build the chamber again, is there
anything you would change? If so, state what it is
• be large enough to hold at least six vegetable
and explain why you would change it.
seedlings
10 Write a report or prepare a poster that includes
• have a light source
your labelled scale drawings, the soil mixture
• provide a moist environment
used, the plant growth over a three-week period,
• provide appropriate soil and comments on the success or failure of your
Second, you must plant some seeds in your design. You may want to include a graph of plant
growth chamber and allow the seedlings to grow for growth as well as a description of any features
at least three weeks. you would change if you were to build this again.

Project 171
02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:50 PM Page 172

UNIT REVIEW: PLANTS FOR FOOD AND FIBRE

Unit Vocabulary 3.0

1. Write a short story describing the life 11. Draw and label a diagram that shows the
cycle of a plant using the following characteristics of clay soil.
terms:
12. Does plowing help or damage the soil?
soil Explain your answer.
sandy
root
leaf 4.0
flower
13. A flower is growing in a dry area of your
pollinate
garden. Describe two ways that you
pest control
could modify the environment to make
photosynthesis
sure the flower gets enough water.
14. Describe hydroponics. What is left out
Check Your Knowledge when plants are grown by hydroponics?
15. Selective breeding
1.0 a) is a process used by scientists
b) is a process used by growers in
2. Draw and label a diagram of a seed
agriculture and horticulture
plant. c) both a) and b)
3. How do plants make their food?
16. Logging provides us with many useful
4. What is transpiration? things, like paper and wood. Describe
5. What function takes place only in the one unintended consequence of logging.
adult stage of a seed plant? 17. Is using pesticide for a long time
6. Describe one way that a seed plant can sustainable? Explain your answer.
reproduce without seeds.

Connect Your Understanding

2.0
18. Last week, someone put all their paper
7. Plants make two things that the rest of in the garbage instead of recycling it.
life depends on. What are they? What effect might this have on the
amount of natural forest in Alberta?
8. Why do humans need plants?
19. When you are shopping with your
9. Why is a forest a living resource?
parents, you see some organically grown
10. What do plants need to survive? vegetables. They ask if you want to get
some. What do you tell them? Why?

172 Unit B: Plants for Food and Fibre

02_U7B_Plants_p092-173 12/14/06 3:50 PM Page 173

20. Great! There is a new variety that Self Assessment

produces giant zucchinis.
Think back to the work you did in this unit.
a) What plant structure is changed in
this variety? 23. Are new technologies always developed
b) What growing conditions do you by scientists and engineers? Provide an
predict would need to be changed to example with your answer.
get a giant zucchini? 24. Do you think that we are getting more
21. In the newspaper, you read that careful or less careful about affecting the
protesters are trying to stop a company environment? Why?
from logging a forest.
a) What will be the environmental
consequences if they are successful? Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
b) Will there be any economic or social On
consequences if they succeed?
Explain. In this unit, you investigated the role of
science and technology in growing and
harvesting the plants we need while
Practise Your Skills maintaining the environment. Think about
this in relation to the following questions.
22. In Canada, most farmland is in the
south, where lots of people live. You are 25. Give two examples of technology that
a genetic engineer who is considering improved the amount or quality of
putting a gene into corn from a plant plants that we grow or harvest.
that grows well in cold weather. This 26. Describe some methods of producing
would make corn that could grow in the plants that have less environmental
Arctic, where there are fewer people. impact. Are these the fastest and easiest
a) Would growing corn in the Arctic methods?
have any unintended consequences? 27. Reread the three questions on page 97
Explain your answer. about the science and technology
b) Would you eat genetically engineered context. Use a creative way to
corn? Why or why not? demonstrate your understanding of one
of the questions.

Unit Review 173

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:01 PM Page 174

UNIT

174
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:01 PM Page 175

In this unit, you will cover the following sections:

1.0 Human needs have led to technologies for obtaining and

controlling heat.
1.1 History of Heat Technologies
1.2 Heat Technologies in Everyday Life

2.0 Heat affects matter in different ways.

2.1 States of Matter and the Particle Model of Matter
2.2 Heat and Temperature
2.3 Heat Affects the Volume of Solids, Liquids,
and Gases
2.4 Heat Transfers by Conduction
2.5 Heat Transfers by Convection and Radiation

3.0 Understanding heat and temperature helps explain

natural phenomena and technological devices.
3.1 Natural Sources of Thermal Energy
3.2 Heating System Technologies
3.3 Heat Loss and Insulation

4.0 Technologies that use heat have benefits and costs to

society and to the environment.
4.1 Looking at Different Sources of Heat
4.2 Energy Consumption

175
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:01 PM Page 176

Exploring

Imagine being in outer space. Far from Earth’s surface, we don’t

have the protection of its atmosphere to filter and reflect the sun’s
energy. Orbiting our own planet, we face temperature ranges of
–118°C to 132°C. Travelling through our solar system, we find
average surface temperatures of 464°C on Venus to –229°C on Pluto.
Unprotected, we can’t survive any of these temperature extremes.
When we venture into space, we must take our environment
with us. We need to control the air, pressure, and temperature
within a safe range, so that we can live and carry out the work that
is needed. Our heat needs must be met whether we are living with
others inside the shuttle or the space station, or working all alone
outside these protective environments.
The International Space Station (ISS) is the most complex space
environment ever created and represents the work of 16 countries.
In an area the same size as a large airplane, the ISS contains six
laboratories and living space for seven humans. Solar power—
energy from the sun—is the main source of energy to run the
station 366 km above Earth.

176 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:01 PM Page 177

SURVIVAL IN A SPACE SUIT

Constructing the ISS in the harsh climate of space requires special
failure-proof protection for the astronauts working on it. More than
50 years of research have gone into developing the special space
suit known as the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU). “Extra”
means “outside of” and “vehicular” refers to the space vehicle.
Astronauts wear the EMU when they must work outside the
controlled environment of the shuttle or the space station.

The Parts of the EMU

communications extravehicular display and control module

carrier assembly visor assembly
primary
liquid
life-support
cooling
subsystem
and
ventilation
garment airlock
adaptor
plate
EMU
electrical
harness

secondary
oxygen
pack
upper
torso
insuit battery
lower drink maximum service and
torso bag absorption cooling umbilical
garment

The EMU is the astronaut’s personal controlled environment,

with temperature control being a key component. The temperature
control technology of the EMU is designed to cope with
temperatures from about –150°C to 120°C.
The outside of the EMU is a combination of a hard fibreglass
“shell” and a special fabric that stops tiny meteorites from piercing
the suit. Under this, a spandex mesh suit laced with water-cooling
tubes is worn next to the skin. This helps keep astronauts cool as
they work in the 48.5-kg suits. However, the frigid temperatures of
space are a danger to the astronauts’ hands and feet. To protect their
hands, they have heated gloves with little heaters in the fingertips
that they can activate. They also have thermal booties to go over
their toes to help keep their feet warm. If necessary, they can turn
off the cooling system in the suit.

Exploring 177
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:01 PM Page 178

CONNECTING SPACE AND EARTH

The scientists who work on space suit technology need to have a
strong understanding of heat and temperature. Such an
understanding is also important in developing and using heat
technologies responsibly down here on Earth. You may not need
gloves with heaters in every finger, but you do need warm clothes
to survive in our winter climate. And we need heating systems to
keep our homes warm.
The heat energy that we use to supply our basic heat needs is
essential to our survival. But what about the heat energy that we
use for other non-essential activities such as drying our hair and
using our dishwashers? How can we use our understanding of heat
and temperature to make sure we use our energy resources in a
sustainable way?

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

IS IT HOT? IS IT COLD?
Today’s scientists have a variety of technologies to measure and study heat
energy. The earliest researchers of heat energy had no technology that could
help them measure temperature accurately. They often relied on their bodies to
detect temperature differences. If you hold your hand near a pizza, you can tell if
it’s hot. But how reliable are your hands as temperature measuring devices? Test
them with the following experiment. You will need three buckets. Half-fill one
with cold water, one with warm water, and the third one with room temperature
water.

• Put one hand in the bucket of cold

water and the other one in the
bucket of warm water. Keep both
hands in water for one minute.
While you are waiting, predict how
you think your hands will feel when
you place them in the bucket of
room temperature water.
• Take both hands out of the buckets
of cold and warm water and place
them together in the bucket of room
temperature water. Describe to your
classmates how each hand feels.
• Was your prediction correct? Can
you explain what happened? How does the room temperature water feel?

178 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:01 PM Page 179

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
As you work through this unit, you will learn about the scientific
principles related to heat. As your understanding of the nature of
heat increases, you will be exploring its uses and effects in
everyday life. You will be able to explain the difference between
heat and temperature. As well, you will have opportunities to learn
more about how human needs for heat impact natural resources
and the environment, and to practise your decision-making skills.
Think about the following questions as you perform activities
and answer questions throughout this unit.
1. What technologies do we use to meet human needs for heat?
2. What are the scientific principles that make these technologies
work?
3. What impact do these technologies have on natural resources
and the environment?
The answers to these and other questions about heat and
temperature will guide your learning about the nature of heat and
help you to understand the role that science plays in allowing
people to meet their need for heat.
The project at the end of this unit will allow you to apply your
knowledge of how to determine the most likely sources of heat
energy loss in an old house. You will use the research, inquiry, and
decision-making skills that you practise throughout the unit.

Exploring 179
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 180

Human needs have led to

1.0 technologies for obtaining and
controlling heat.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• heat energy needs and
technologies
• energy conservation

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe technologies that
have been developed over
time to meet human needs
for heat
• trace the connections
between heat technologies
and why they were developed
• give examples of personal
choices and society’s choices
about using heat-related
technologies

Have you ever looked over the open prairie in midwinter? The
sound of the wind howling across the empty fields, the vivid
colour of the sky at sunset, and the biting cold all combine to
make a unique picture. Imagine being an early settler arriving
from Europe in the middle of an Alberta blizzard, armed mostly
with hopes of making a fortune in the fur trade. What would you
have thought as you settled into your blankets at night, trying to
keep from freezing to death in your sleep?

180 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 181

info BIT
1.1 History of Heat Technologies
Two Heating Systems
The weather report says it’s –30°C outside, and you’re sitting inside in One
in front of a window with the sun pouring in. The heat from the Fireplaces are one of
sun is so strong that you’re comfortable in a T-shirt. But when it’s our oldest heating
time to go out, you don’t just walk outside the way you are. You technologies. The
put on warm clothes. You know that at that temperature outside, Franklin stove is a
going out in a T-shirt could be dangerous. Understanding heat in dual-purpose heating
our climate can be a matter of survival. But understanding heat is system designed by
also important in everyday life—whenever you cook something, dry the American inventor
your hair, or do anything that uses or produces heat. and politician,
Benjamin Franklin
(1706–1790). With the
EARLY THEORIES OF HEAT
front opened, it served
Human beings have always had to make sure they were warm as a fireplace. With the
enough or cool enough. But through much of human history, people door closed, it served
were unsure of what heat actually was. Until about 1600, people as a cooking stove.
thought that heat was a combination of fire and air. Then, scientists
began doing experiments to find out more about heat. From their
observations, they decided that heat must be an invisible fluid
called caloric. They assumed it was a fluid because it seemed to
flow from a hotter object to a colder one. This explanation of heat
was called the caloric theory.
The caloric theory would explain what happens when you put a
spoon in a bowl of soup. If you leave your spoon sitting there, it
will eventually become warm all the way to the end of the handle.
However, some scientists soon questioned this theory. They
wondered why, in the example, the mass of the soup and the spoon
didn’t change. If caloric was a fluid like water, it should have mass.
If it flowed out of the soup and into the spoon, shouldn’t the mass
of the soup decrease and the mass of the spoon increase? But the
measured masses of the soup and the spoon were the same before
and after.

HEAT IS ENERGY
Further experimentation and study led scientists to realize that heat
is not a substance. They eventually determined that heat is a form
of energy. This energy comes from the movement of the tiny
particles that make up all matter. You will learn more about heat
energy and the particle model as you work through this unit.
The investigation of heat has led to a greater understanding of
the difference between heat and temperature. With this increased
understanding, the technology linked to how we use heat has
changed.

Human Needs Have Led to Technologies for Obtaining and Controlling Heat 181
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 182

HUMANS USING HEAT

math Link Culture is a learned way of life that is shared by a group of people.
This includes how they meet their basic needs. Food, clothing,
The official unit of shelter, family life, recreation, education, language, and values and
heat energy is the beliefs are all part of what makes up this learned way of life. The
joule (J). Power is tools and technology that the group develops to help meet these
defined in terms of needs are also part of their culture. As the technology changes, so
energy per unit of too, does the culture. As the culture shifts in response to the new
time. The official unit technology, there are often more demands for even higher levels of
of power is the watt
technology. The inventions of clothes dryers and protective clothing
(W), and 1 W = 1 J/s.
such as ski suits are examples.
There are 1000 W in
1 kW. How many
The environment in which
joules are in one people live shapes their culture.
kilowatt-hour? There In Canada, the way of life is
are 109 joules in a influenced by the climate. Heat
gigajoule. How many and the science and technology
kilowatt-hours are in linked to how we create and use
a gigajoule? Both heat to meet our needs are very
kilowatt-hours and important to us. Our homes and
gigajoules may be other buildings, clothing, food,
used on household and recreational activities give us
heating bills. daily examples of why we need to
understand the concept of heat.

Figure 1.1 These heating units help keep hockey

and figure skating fans warm.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

NO MORE HEAT
Imagine what would happen if you and your family were without heat for one full
week in the middle of January.

• What would happen if natural gas, oil, and electricity were cut off?
• What impact would it have on how you dress, what you eat, or what activities
you did?
• How would your way of life change for that one week? Think about what
changes you would make.

Write a short story about what you predict would happen in this situation.

182 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 183

HEAT AND HUMAN NEEDS

Needs are the basic, required conditions that we must meet in order
to live. It is necessary to our survival that we fulfill these needs.
Wants stem from needs and include ways in which needs could be
met. However, unlike needs, it is not vital to our survival that all of
our wants be satisfied.
In Canada, the importance of heat is linked to shelter, clothing,
food, water, and physical activity. Because human life can exist
only within a certain temperature range (just below 0°C to about
45°C), humans build shelters to keep the temperature of the
environment within these limits.

HEAT-RELATED MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES Figure 1.2 How do you

think these children are
Furnaces and air conditioners are examples of technologies that staying warm?
help to keep our shelters livable and comfortable. When we cannot
control the temperature of the environment in this way, we dress in
specific clothing. How we store and prepare food and water also
relates to heat. When the temperature is too cold, freezing occurs.
Temperatures that are too warm can cause food to spoil. Some
foods, such as chicken, need to be cooked at high temperatures in Figure 1.3 How do you
order to be safe to eat. The kinds of physical activities that people think these children are
take part in also depend on the temperature of the environment. staying cool?

Human Needs Have Led to Technologies for Obtaining and Controlling Heat 183
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 184

HEATING TECHNOLOGY THROUGH TIME

Heat-related technology has changed over time. As people evolved,
so did the technology. Look at Figure 1.4 to investigate how heat
technology was used in the past.

Early Heating Technology Timeline

7000 B.C. 100 B.C. A.D. 1200 1300s 1700s late 1700s 1800s 1906

Humans Romans Chimneys Fireplaces Cast-iron Central Forced-air Electric

create fire. develop first appear with stoves heat heating heating heaters
central in Europe. chimneys rooms reappears—
heating— are built evenly; using coal.
heat travels into the heat does
from one walls of not escape
source to buildings. up the
different chimney.
areas of a
building.

Figure 1.4

re SEARCH
Using Heat
List three heat-related objects or materials (examples may include a hair dryer,
a dishwasher, or a ski suit) that you use. Research when and why they were
invented.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. In the past, many people used wood stoves or fireplaces to heat
their homes. Today, most people use oil or gas furnaces, or
electric heating. Why do you think this change occurred?
2. a) Has our climate affected the types of houses we live in or the
clothes we wear? Explain your answer.
b) Do you think our climate has affected the way we live in
other ways? Explain your answer. (Hint: Think about
entertainment, sports, transportation.)
3. Today, many devices in your home will maintain a constant
temperature. List three such devices and give reasons why you
think this is important.

184 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 185

1.2 Heat Technologies in Everyday Life

In addition to being able to produce heat to meet human needs and
wants, it is important also to control that heat. Imagine what would
happen if your furnace came on at random times rather than when
you needed heat. What if you could not keep the temperature of
your oven stable? What if the temperature of your clothes dryer was
so high that it started a fire?

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

HOUSEHOLD TOUR
Close your eyes and take a mental tour of your home. As you travel from room
to room, think about household items that make or use heat. Brainstorm a list.

Of all of the examples of heat that you wrote about, which ones were related to
needs and which were related to wants? Put together a chart, listing your
examples under the headings Needs and Wants. Share your work with a partner.

As technologies have been developed to generate heat, people

have also invented ways to direct and manage that heat. But such
info BIT
technologies have come with a cost to the environment. This has
Fighting Cancer with
led to the need for choices.
Heat
PERSONAL AND SOCIETAL CHOICES While not a traditional
treatment for cancer,
As you learned earlier, making effective choices begins with hyperthermia—the use
separating what you need from what you want. This is true whether of heat to kill cancer
you are making a decision as an individual, or as a group or society. cells—may be an
North Americans have a fairly high standard of living. This is a option to help some
measure of how well we live, including the level of technology that people in their battle
we use in daily life. Because of this, against cancer.
there are many tools that we take for
granted and have come to think of as
being necessary for living.
Microwave ovens, for example,
make cooking easier and faster.
However, we could survive without
them, and many people do.
Figure 1.5 A microwave oven

Human Needs Have Led to Technologies for Obtaining and Controlling Heat 185
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 186

Problem
Solving DISSECTING AN ELECTRICAL DEVICE
Activity Recognize a Need
Every day, you use devices that require the use of heat. You dry your hair with a
hair dryer, press your clothes with an iron, or use a toaster to make a toasted
Materials & Equipment
sandwich. Do you know how these devices create heat to help you perform a
• used electrical device
task?
such as hair dryer, toaster,
flashlight, or curling iron The Problem
• tools such as a
Dissect an electrical device that generates heat to determine how it functions.
screwdriver and pliers
Criteria for Success
For your dissection to be successful, you must meet the following criteria:
• Your dissection must show the components that you think are responsible for
its operation and for producing or controlling heat.
• You must complete a diagram and explanation of your dissection that identifies
the parts of the device responsible for producing and controlling heat.

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Working with a partner, describe how you think the device works.
2 Brainstorm ways to dissect your device. Begin by determining the best way to
remove any covers from it.

Dismantle the Device

3 Before beginning your dissection, make sure all cords are removed and
Figure 1.6 Try to determine
capacitors or other devices that hold an electrical charge are discharged. Do
what parts of the device are
responsible for producing or not continue until your teacher has checked that this step has been completed.
controlling heat. 4 Using appropriate tools, remove the cover of the device.
5 Draw what you see inside the device.
6 Dissect any parts that you think will help you understand how the device
operates and how it produces and controls heat.

Analyze and Evaluate

Caution!
7 Make two or more drawings of your dissected device. Each drawing should
Remove all cords and
illustrate a different part of it. Identify those parts that you think produce or
make sure all
control heat.
capacitors or other
devices are discharged Communicate
before you begin the
8 Summarize your findings by writing an illustrated description of how your
activity. Have your
device operates and how it produces and controls heat.
teacher check your
9 Share your ideas with your classmates.
device to make sure it’s
safe to dismantle before
you begin.

186 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 187

MAKING SUSTAINABLE CHOICES re SEARCH

Both the personal and societal choices we make in using heat
Heating Your House
energy are important. They are important because they affect our
Which natural
ability to live in a sustainable way. In earlier studies, you may have
resources does your
learned about sustainable use of resources. Sustainable means that family use to meet
something can be maintained or continued. When we talk about their needs for heat?
sustainable use of resources, we mean that we are trying to use our Check your family’s
resources wisely and do as little damage as possible to the heating bill for this
environment when we use them. past month for clues.
Later in this unit, you’ll learn about the different sources of our What energy units
heat energy. Some of these sources may run out in the future. does the bill use? What
Others, such as the sun, will not run out for millions of years. effect do you think
However, the sun’s energy cannot completely replace the fuels we your family’s use of
use for heat energy. A variety of sources of heat energy will be those resources has on
needed. As you learn more about heat energy in this unit, think the environment?
Which form of energy
about how our use of heat energy and heat technologies can
is cheaper? Gas or
contribute to a sustainable use of our resources.
electricity? What else
do people use for
heat? Research any
additional data and
information using
print or electronic
sources.

Figure 1.7 Energy from the sun can

be used for heating buildings and
water, and for producing electricity.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. For each heat technology listed below, explain why you think
it’s a “need” or a “want.” If the heat technology is a “want,”
what could be used if it were not available?
a) hand-held hair dryer
b) air-conditioning
c) household furnace
d) polar fleece clothing
2. a) Explain what is meant by standard of living.
b) How has most people’s standard of living changed over time?
Use examples related to heat in your answer.

Human Needs Have Led to Technologies for Obtaining and Controlling Heat 187
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 188

and
Careers Profiles Winter Sportswear Designer

Sally Neal designs sportswear for active Albertans. Layering is an

Her employer, Blue Skys, is an Edmonton-based important feature in Sally’s
company that specializes in creating clothing for designs. Many of the
skaters, skiers, and other people who enjoy winter jackets include a
activities. Some of their clients include Canadian removable lining or a vest.
Olympians and world champions. Body warmth becomes
“There is a lot of technology involved in creating trapped between the
fabrics that are lightweight, move with the person, layers of material, creating
allow them to stay dry, and also keep them warm. A a kind of insulation. If a
great deal of research is involved in creating person becomes too
human-made fabrics. You also need to know about warm, they can remove a
the structure of the human body, and how the layer. If more warmth is
Figure 1.8 Sally Neal
skeleton and muscles work in movement. Years needed, another layer can
ago, many Aboriginal people used hides and furs to be added. Many of the
keep them warm. Today, most people don’t want fabrics that she works with allow sweat to escape
that heavy bulk. Some of our customers are but at the same time block wind and rain from
Canada’s top winter athletes, and they need their penetrating the material.
sportswear to become almost a part of them, like a “People want more than to meet just their basic
second skin. That’s a big challenge!” need for warmth. They also want style and comfort.
They want to look good. Part of what I do is to
create unique looks.”
Figure 1.9 The design behind the jacket

The insulating liner layer is made of

The outer shell stops wind polyester fleece. It traps warm air
from entering the garment. within its fibres.

water vapour
from sweat 1. How does your own winter wear
rain wind compare with that of 100 years
ago?
2. What do you consider when
A membrane with billions of tiny pores choosing clothing for the
is bonded to the underside of the shell. outdoors? How does the design
industry shape your choices?
How do people influence what
designers create?
body
3. If you could design the ultimate
heat
winter wear, what would it look
like? Why?

188 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 189

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Describe two technologies that use or control heat that were
invented in the past. In your description, explain what effect
you think each technology had on people’s lives at the time it
was invented.
2. Identify two examples of heat technologies that have changed
over time. Describe how they have changed.
3. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Explain
your answer. A hot water heater is both a want and a need.
4. Think about how the Canadian climate has affected how we use
and control heat. Below is a list of other areas in the world. Do
you think people who live in each area would use and control
heat differently from the way we do? Explain your answers.
a) a rain forest at the equator
b) Canada’s far north
c) a desert
5. To help organize your learning about heat and temperature,
construct a mind map. As you come across new ideas, use the
mind map as a frame to record your notes. Compare your work
with a partner to be sure that you have captured all of the main
ideas and important details for this section. You will update
your mind map throughout the unit.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
Science and technology are developed to meet human needs. Over
time, heat-related technologies have become more advanced,
allowing people to do more in cold conditions and to live more
comfortably all year round. Think about what you learned in this
section.
1. Identify two human needs and describe how heat technologies
help to meet those needs.
2. In what ways have heat-related technologies allowed people to
be outdoors any time of the year?
3. Why is it important to consider the idea of sustainability when
using heat technologies?

Human Needs Have Led to Technologies for Obtaining and Controlling Heat 189
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 190

2.0 Heat affects matter in different

ways.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• change of state
• particle model
• thermal energy
• heat transfer
• thermal expansion
• temperature
• insulation and thermal
conductivity

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• identify technologies that
use heat energy
• compare how different
materials will conduct,
absorb, or insulate against
heat energy
• describe how the particle
model of matter works
• explain how conduction,
convection, and radiation
work Firefighters are challenged by heat every time they are called to
• use the particle model and
deal with a fire. Special gear helps to protect them from the
kinetic energy to describe the
intense heat. But they also need to know what to expect from the
relationship between heat
and temperature
fire. How will it travel? What is it likely to do next? How did it
start? What type of fire is it? They need to understand the nature
of heat.
In this section, you will learn about the science of heat: how
heat can change the state of matter, how it can affect the particles
that make up matter, and how it transfers from a hotter object to a
colder one. You will also learn the difference between heat and
temperature.

190 For Web links relating to 2.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 191

2.1 States of Matter and the Particle

Model of Matter

Figure 2.1 Three states

of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Everything in the universe is made up of matter. Matter exists in

three states: solid, liquid, and gas. One way that heat can affect
matter is by causing a change of state. This happens by adding or
taking away heat energy. Heat energy is a form of energy that
transfers from matter at higher temperatures to matter at lower
temperatures.
Think of what would happen if you were to take an ice cube
from the freezer and place it in a hot frying pan. Very quickly, you
would see the ice cube melt to a pool of water. After a few
moments, that water would begin to bubble, and steam would rise.
You would have seen matter change from a solid to a liquid, and
then to a gas.

info BIT
Floating Ice
Water, unlike other liquids on Earth, expands when it freezes.
And solid ice is less dense than liquid water. The result?
Floating ice! Think of ice cubes in a glass of water, or you
may have seen ice chunks floating in a lake or pond. What
do you think our world would be like if solid ice were more
dense than water?

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 191

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 192

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

A “COOL” HEAT CHALLENGE Materials & Equipment

Melt an ice cube as fast as you can. But wait! Before you start, here are three • ice cube
rules you must follow. • stopwatch
1. You can use only whatever is on or at your desk right now.
2. You must keep and collect as much of the melted ice as possible. Decide
how you will collect the water before the ice melts.
3. You may not put the ice cube in your mouth!

Use the stopwatch. Record your time in seconds. When you have finished,
answer these questions.
• What strategies did you use to melt the ice cube?
• How did you decide on your strategies?
• Which strategies worked better than others? Why might that be?
• If you could do this activity again, what would you do differently? Why?
• If the rules changed to allow you to use anything to melt the ice cube, what
would you use? How do you think that might change your results? Why?

WATER’S CHANGING STATE

In most of Canada, water goes through changes of state through the
four seasons. A glass of water left outside will evaporate in the
summer heat. That same glass of water will develop a thin crust of
ice as the first autumn frosts come. During the coldest days of
winter, the water will freeze to a solid. As the warming days of
spring follow, melting will occur, and the water will once again
become a liquid. Examples of this can be found in rivers, ponds,
lakes, and streams.

Fact File on Water

• Ice is water in the solid state. The freezing • Continuing to transfer heat energy to liquid
point, when water changes from a liquid to a water causes the water to boil and change to a
solid state, is 0°C. gas state. The boiling point of water is 100°C.
• Transferring heat energy to ice causes it to • Transferring heat energy from water in a gas
melt. The melting point, when water changes state causes it to change to a liquid state. This
from a solid to a liquid state, is also 0°C. cooling process is called condensation. It also
occurs at 100°C.

192 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 193

PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

Matter can change state when heat energy is added or taken away.
A solid can melt to liquid, and a liquid can boil and become a gas.
As a gas cools, it returns to its liquid state. When enough heat
energy is removed from a liquid, it will become solid again. How
does science explain these changes of state?
Scientists who have studied this have developed the particle
model of matter.

Figure 2.2 Butter

changing state

A ll matter is made up of They are much too small to see

extremely tiny particles. except with powerful, magnifying
instruments, called electron
microscopes.

The tiny particles of

matter are always moving.

This movement involves a form of energy known Adding heat to matter

as kinetic energy. Each particle of matter has makes the particles move
kinetic energy—energy of movement. around faster.

Faster-moving things have

The particles have more kinetic energy. So adding
heat increases the kinetic
space between them.
energy of the particles.
Different states of matter have different
amounts of space between the particles.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 193

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:02 PM Page 194

HEAT AND THE PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

Imagine being shrunk to one billionth of your size. Your classmates
would need a microscope to find you! But you would be able to see
the particles that make up all matter and how they move. These
particles are moving because they have kinetic energy. Kinetic
energy is the energy of movement.

Solid State
Solid According to the particle model, matter in its solid state has
particles that are attached to each other in all directions. This
results in the solid having a definite shape and volume. Volume is
the amount of space that matter occupies. Because they are attached
in all directions, particles in a solid are very limited in their
movement. They move back and forth only around a fixed position.
This means that the particles in a solid have less kinetic energy
Figure 2.3a)
than the particles in a liquid or a gas.

Liquid State
The particles in the liquid state are only loosely attached to each
Liquid other and they can easily slip past each other. Because of this, a
liquid takes the shape of its container. However, a liquid does have
a definite volume. Empty spaces between particles in a liquid are
usually larger than those in a solid. This allows for a greater range
of movement so the particles in a liquid have more kinetic energy
Figure 2.3b) than the particles in a solid.

Gas State
The particles of matter in a gas state are not connected to one
Gas another. This allows a gas to fill the empty space of a container. A
gas has no set shape. The spaces between particles in a gas state are
much larger than those in either a solid or a liquid. This means that
the particles in a gas have the greatest freedom of movement and
the highest levels of kinetic energy.

Figure 2.3c) THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON PARTICLES

Heat changes the speed of moving particles of matter. Transferring
heat to a substance increases the movement or kinetic energy of the
particles in that substance. Transferring heat from a substance slows
down the movement of the particles in that substance. That is, the
kinetic energy of the particles decreases.

194 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 195

Inquiry ACTING OUT THE PA RT I C L E M O D E L

Activity The Question
How can you and your classmates move and arrange yourselves to act like the
particles that make up solids, liquids, and gases?

The Procedure
1 You will work in groups. Each group will work in a separate area. Treat each
separate area as if it is a large container.
2 With your group, develop a way to represent a solid state of matter. Decide
how to arrange yourselves and how to move to be particles of a solid.
3 Imagine that heat is being added to you. Your solid group is becoming a
liquid.
4 Now add more heat and change your positions and movements to represent
gas particles.
5 Keep working together until your group is satisfied with the way you
represent particles in the three states of matter. Then present one of these
Figure 2.4a) Solid states to the rest of the class without saying what it is. Show yourselves
changing from that state to another state.

Collecting Data
6 Draw two rectangles on a sheet of paper. The rectangles represent
“containers.” Use them to sketch the two states of matter your group
represented. Draw arrows to show your movement. Include other information
about the way and the speed that you (as particles) were moving.

Analyzing and Interpreting

7 As a class, judge each group’s presentation based on the following criteria.
Figure 2.4b) Liquid
• How easy was it to infer the state of matter being represented? What were
the best clues? How accurately did the group represent the state of matter?
• How well did the group’s actions represent the level of kinetic energy of the
particles? How accurate was this action?
• How well did the group’s actions show changes in volume?

Forming Conclusions
8 Review the scores that you gave your classmates’ presentations. Write three
paragraphs that describe the best presentation for each state of matter: solid,
Figure 2.4c) Gas
liquid, and gas.

Applying and Connecting

Sketch three diagrams that illustrate how adding heat affects the motion of
particles. Use one real-life example for each of the three states.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 195

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 196

HOW THE PARTICLE MODEL EXPLAINS CHANGES IN STATE

The following chart shows what happens to the particles in a solid
when heat is transferred to them. As the solid substance melts,
becomes a liquid, and then a gas, the activity level of the particles
and the amount of space between them changes.

1 Solid
• Solid particles are packed closely together.
• Strong attractions, or bonds, hold the particles together.
• Solids have a fixed shape.
• The particles vibrate, or shake back and forth, in a fixed position.

2 Heating a Solid
• Transferring heat to a solid makes the particles vibrate more
energetically.
• Some of the particles move farther away from one another.
• The solid expands—its volume increases.

3 Melting a Solid
• As more heat is transferred to a solid, the particles vibrate even
more.
• The particles bump against one another.
• Some of the particles break loose.
• The solid structure begins to break down—the solid melts.

4 Liquid
• The particles have more kinetic energy to move about.
• The bonds that hold the particles together are weak.
• Liquids take on the shape of their containers.

5 Heating a Liquid
• Transferring heat to a liquid makes the particles move more
vigorously.
• The particles move farther apart.
• The liquid expands—its volume increases.

6 Boiling a Liquid
• As more and more heat is transferred to a liquid, the particles bump
and bounce around even more.
• Some of the particles are “kicked” out of the liquid.
• The liquid boils—it changes to a gas.

7 Gas
• Gas particles move about very quickly in all directions.
• Bumping and bouncing keep them far apart.
• Gas particles will fill up the space of any container.
• On heating, gas particles spread out even more—the gas expands.

196 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 197

CHECK AND REFLECT

re SEARCH
1. a) Below are pictures of three pure substances; one solid, one
liquid, and one gas. Their melting and boiling points are also Chugging Along
listed. Use the data to answer the questions below each The Dorchester was the
first ever steam-
picture.
powered locomotive
Sulfur Mercury Chlorine built for travel on
• changes from the solid • changes from the solid • changes from the solid Canadian railways. Its
state to the liquid state at a state to the liquid state at a state to the liquid state at a
first trip was on July 31,
temperature of 113°C temperature of ⫺39°C temperature of ⫺101°C
• changes from the liquid • changes from the liquid • changes from the liquid
1836, along an 80-km
state to the gas state at a state to the gas state at a state to the gas state at a track in eastern
temperature of 445°C temperature of 357°C temperature of ⫺35°C Canada. It travelled at
about 23 km/h. Find
out what happened to
this locomotive and
what technology
replaced it.

Figure 2.5a) Figure 2.5b) Figure 2.5c)

Sulfur is most often found Mercury is most often found Chlorine is most often found
in the solid state. What in the liquid state. It is the in the gas state. What would
happens to the state of only metal existing in the you have to do to make
sulfur when the temperature liquid state at room chlorine gas change into a
changes from 20°C to temperature. In what state is liquid? to make solid
100°C? from 100°C to mercury at ⫺50°C? ⫺20°C? chlorine change into a
120°C? 200°C? 400°C? liquid?

b) Make a table or a graph that illustrates the melting and

boiling points of the three substances shown above.
2. Create a cartoon strip with captions that illustrates the changes
in particles from a solid state to a gas. Be sure to represent
changes to both the kinetic energy and volume.
3. Design a chart that highlights the main ideas in the particle
model. You may wish to use the one shown here, or create your
own.

State of Distance between Volume and Particle

Matter Particles Shape Movement
Solid
Liquid
Gas

Figure 2.6 Question 3

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 197

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 198

info BIT
All-Time Low
2.2 Heat and Temperature
In theory, the lowest Temperature is a term we’re all familiar with. When you get up in
possible temperature is the morning, you might listen for the temperature on the radio so
“absolute zero” or you know whether you have to wear a sweatshirt or a warm jacket
⫺273.15Δ˚C. Scientists to school. When you want to heat up some leftovers in the oven,
have come close to you have to set the temperature so you don’t burn them.
reaching “absolute Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold matter is. Recall
zero” in a lab, but it that heat energy transfers from hotter substances to colder ones. If
has never actually been you put a pot of soup on a hot stove burner, the soup will slowly
achieved. heat up. Heat is transferring from the burner to the soup. Suppose
you measured the temperature of the soup before you heated it and
then again after it had been on the burner for a while. What do you
think you would find?
If your soup came out of a can stored in the cupboard, it was
probably at room temperature, about 20°C. After a few minutes of
heating, its temperature would be several degrees higher. Heat
energy has transferred from the burner to the soup. The soup now
has more heat energy, and its temperature went up. Does that mean
that heat energy and temperature are the same?

TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY

So far in this unit, we have been using the term heat energy to
describe the kinetic energy of particles in matter. However, to
understand better how matter changes temperature and what this
change means, we should use the scientific meanings of the terms
thermal energy, heat, and temperature.
The thermal energy of a substance is the total kinetic energy of
all the particles the substance contains. If you measured the
thermal energy of a cup of water, for example, you would be
measuring the total amount of kinetic energy of all the water
particles in the cup.
Think about your soup example again. You heat the soup in a
pot, and then pour a small amount of it into a cup. The temperature
of the soup is the same in the pot and in the cup. But the soup in
the pot has more thermal energy than the soup in the cup. This is
because the amount of soup in the pot is greater than the amount of
Figure 2.7 The soup in the
soup in the cup. A larger amount of soup contains more particles. If
pot has more thermal
energy than the soup in the you added up the kinetic energy of all soup particles in the pot,
cup. But both are the same you would find that it was greater than the total kinetic energy of
temperature. the soup particles in the cup.

198 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 199

ENERGY TRANSFERS
Scientists use the word heat to mean the energy that transfers from
one substance to another because of differences in kinetic energy.
So, in our soup example, the soup became hot because kinetic
energy transferred from the particles in the hot stove burner to the
cooler soup. A scientist would say that heat transfer had occurred.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Earlier in this unit, you learned how the particle model explains
changes in state. The particle model also explains changes in
temperature. Look at Figure 2.8. The kinetic energy of the water
particles in the spoon increases as energy transfers from the flame
to the water. The temperature of the water increases. Then, the
spoon is placed in the freezer. Heat energy transfers from areas
where particles have greater kinetic energy to areas where particles
have less kinetic energy. In this case, kinetic energy transfers from
the water particles in the spoon to the particles of the cold air in
the freezer. The kinetic energy of the water particles in the spoon
has decreased, and so the temperature has gone down.

Particles have higher kinetic energy and a higher temperature.

Particles have lower Figure 2.8 The temperature

Heat transfers kinetic energy and a of the water in the spoon
from the lower temperature. changes when heat
candle flame transfers to it or from it.
to the spoon
and the water.
Heat transfers
from the water
to the cold air.

Earlier, we said that temperature is a measure of how hot or

cold a substance is. From the particle model, you know that the
coldness or “hotness” of an object represents the kinetic energy of
the particles it contains. Temperature then is more than simply a
measure of how hot or how cold a substance is. It is a measure of
the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 199

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 200

UNDERSTANDING THE DIFFERENCE

So thermal energy, heat, and temperature are different.
• Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of all the particles in a
substance.
• Heat is the energy that transfers from a substance whose particles
have a higher kinetic energy to one whose particles have lower
kinetic energy.
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in the substance.

Figure 2.9 John Locke

performing experiment

MEASURING TEMPERATURE WITH THERMOMETERS

math Link More than 300 years ago, an English scientist, John Locke, did an
experiment to try to prove that our sense of touch was not a very
In Canada, we report accurate way to measure temperature. He filled three pans with
temperatures in
water: one with water that was as hot as he could stand to touch,
degrees Celsius. In the
one with very cold water, and one with lukewarm water. He placed
United States,
temperature is
his left hand in the hot water, and his right hand in the cold water
reported in degrees for one full minute. He then set both hands into the lukewarm
Fahrenheit. The water. To his left hand, the lukewarm water felt cool. To his right
conversion equation hand, the same lukewarm water felt warm. This proved to Locke
is: ˚C = 5/9(˚F⫺32). If that we needed a more reliable way to measure temperature. Such
you were watching an thinking led to the invention of the modern-day thermometer.
American weather
forecast, and the Thermometer Scales
temperature was 75˚F, Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, invented the first device for
what would the measuring temperature in the 1590s. But it was not until the early
temperature be in 1700s that an accurate way to measure temperature was developed
degrees Celsius? How by a German physicist, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. The scale that he
would you convert
created became known as degrees Fahrenheit, and this is still used
30˚C to degrees
in many countries today—including the United States.
Fahrenheit?
In 1742, Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius came up with a
different scale for measuring temperature. This is the one that we
now use in Canada, measuring temperature in degrees Celsius.

200 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 201

Inquiry I N V E S T I G AT I N G T E M P E R AT U R E M E A S U R E M E N T
Activity The Question
How can you make a thermometer to measure temperature?

Procedure
Materials & Equipment 1 Fill the beaker with ice and water. Place the unmarked alcohol thermometer
• 400-mL beaker into the ice and water. Use a stirring rod to stir the mixture. Mark the level of
• ice the alcohol on the thermometer with a felt pen. Remove the thermometer
• water from the beaker.
• unmarked alcohol 2 Place the water on a hot plate and bring it to a boil. Carefully place the
thermometer
thermometer in the water. Once the level of the alcohol stops changing, mark
• stirring rod
the stable level on the thermometer. Remove the thermometer from the water.
• felt pen
Turn off the hot plate and use the oven mitts to remove the beaker.
• hot plate
• oven mitts 3 Using the ruler, measure the distance between the two farthest marks on the
• ruler thermometer. Divide this distance into 10 equal sections and mark these
divisions on the thermometer. Mark another point in the middle of each
division.
4 Your teacher will give you a “mystery” liquid at an unknown temperature.
Place your thermometer into the solution and record the level.

Caution!
Use oven mitts to remove
the beaker from the hot
plate. Be careful not to
splash any hot water.

Figure 2.10 Step 1 and step 2

Collecting Data
5 Make a table or chart in your notebook to record the temperatures that you
measure for the water and for the unknown liquid.

Analyzing and Interpreting

6 Knowing that water freezes at about 0°C and boils at 100°C, determine how
many degrees each division on your thermometer represents.
7 How close was your measurement of the temperature of the unknown liquid
to the reading that your teacher had recorded? If there was a difference, why
do you think this occurred?

Forming Conclusions
8 Describe how you constructed a thermometer and how it can be used to
measure a range of temperatures. Explain any limitations to this device.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 201

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 202

History of the Thermometer

200 B.C. A device, now generally known as a thermoscope, was used to show the expansion of
air with an increase of temperature. Although the device did not have a scale, it is the
oldest form of thermometer known.
1590s Air thermometers, which used trapped air to measure temperature, were invented. These
were, in fact, a form of thermoscope. One such thermometer, Galileo’s thermoscope, is
shown at left.
1630s Use of water expansion thermometers was recorded.
1650s The first sealed liquid thermometer was perfected. It was more accurate than the
thermoscope.
1714 Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit developed the first widely used measuring scale for
temperature. He also perfected the use of mercury in liquid thermometers.
Galileo’s 1742 Anders Celsius developed the centigrade scale. It was later renamed the Celsius scale.
thermoscope 1852 The modern form of the mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer was patented.
1861 The electrical-resistance thermometer was invented in Germany. It uses an
electrical current to measure temperature.
1970s The digital thermometer was introduced to consumers for home use. This
instrument works in the same way as the electrical-resistance thermometer
but has a digital scale.
1990s The infrared thermometer was introduced to consumers for home use. It
uses an infrared sensor to measure temperature. A small tip at one end of
the thermometer inserted into a human ear measures the body temperature
Digital within seconds; this instrument is particularly useful with infants. Infrared
thermometer thermometer

CHECK AND REFLECT

0
12
1. Use Figure 2.11 to help
25

0
10

0
12
you explain the
80

70
re SEARCH
0
10
60

difference between heat

80
40

60
20

and temperature.
40
0

Canadian ea t
0

20
-2

2. According to its
h
0
-4

Contributions
0

definition, temperature is
-2

How have Canadians

0
-4

off

added to our a measurement of the on

understanding of average kinetic energy of off

on

heat and the particles in a

substance. Figure 2.11 Question 1
temperature? What
inventions or ideas a) Explain “average kinetic
have Canadians energy” in your own words.
thought of to share b) Why is the word “average” important?
with the rest of the
3. Describe three major changes to thermometers during the
world?
history of their development.

202 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 203

info BIT
2.3 Heat Affects the Volume of
Balloon Brothers
Solids, Liquids, and Gases Thermal energy can be
converted into flight. In
When heat transfers from one object to another, the volume of each 1783, Joseph and Jacques
object is affected. If only a small amount of heat is transferred, you Montgolfier lit a fire under
may not notice the difference. But if the difference is great enough, a large balloon made of
it can affect everyday life. This change in volume caused by heat paper and silk. The fire
transfer is an example of the particle model at work. heated the air inside the
balloon, causing it to
expand. Since the heated
OBSERVING THE EFFECT OF HEAT air was less dense than the
Think about the following examples. Work with a partner to surrounding air, the
develop a scientific explanation for what happened in each balloon was able to rise
situation. into the sky.

1. A large area of concrete is poured as a single

slab to create a new outdoor basketball court
for your school. The work is done in August
before the new school year starts. A very cold
winter follows. When spring comes and you
and your friends want to use the court, you
notice several large cracks in the concrete. It
looks like the concrete will need replacing.

Figure 2.12 The concrete cracks after a cold winter.

2. You are working on your bike on a hot summer
afternoon. You need to replace a metal bolt,
and you find that it fits inside a metal nut.
Leaving most of your tools and the bike sitting
in the sun, you take a break for an hour. When
you come back, you pick up the bolt and find
that it’s hot to the touch. You grab the right
size of metal nut that has been sitting in the
shade. It doesn’t fit. You use an identical nut
that had been sitting in the sun, and it fits! Figure 2.13 Fitting the nut to the bolt

3. After getting caught in a summer thunderstorm,

you decide to make yourself a mug of hot
chocolate. The biggest mugs are in your
kitchen freezer, chilled and ready for
lemonade on the next hot day. You take one,
noticing that the thick glass is covered with a
light layer of frost. As you pour the boiling
water into the mug, you hear and see it crack.
Figure 2.14 Boiling water cracks the chilled mug.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 203

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 204

Inquiry H E AT I N G AND COOLING A COPPER WIRE

Activity The Question
What will happen to copper wire when it is heated and cooled?

The Hypothesis
Materials & Equipment Caution!
Form a hypothesis based on the question. (See Always use caution
• 2 retort stands
Toolbox 2 if you need help with this.) around an open flame.
• about 130 cm of thin
copper wire Procedure
• metre-stick
1 Wind and tie the copper wire around the two retort stands. Set the stands
• aluminum foil
about 1 m apart so that the copper wire is taut.
• paper clip
• steel nut (not galvanized) or 2 Place a sheet of aluminum foil on a tabletop so that it is under the wire.
any mass of 20–25 g 3 Carefully bend part of the paper clip into a hook shape. Hang the hook from
• candle the middle of the copper wire. Hang the nut on the open end of the paper
• candleholder clip.
• matches 4 Measure the distance from the bottom of the nut to the aluminum foil on the
table. Record this distance.
5 Place the candle in the candleholder, and place the candle and candleholder
on the aluminum foil below the wire. Carefully light the candle.
6 Write your prediction of what will happen when you heat part of the wire with
the candle. Let the lighted candle heat part of the wire for about 2 min.
7 After 2 min of heating, carefully blow out the candle. Measure and record the
distance from the bottom of the nut to the aluminum foil. Let the wire cool.
Do not touch it as it will be very hot.
8 After about 10 min, measure and record the distance again from the nut to
the aluminum foil.
Figure 2.15 Step 3. Adjusting
the paper clip and nut Collecting Data
9 Make a chart like the one shown below to record your data.

Distance of Nut from Tabletop (mm)

Step 4 Step 7 Step 8

Analyzing and Interpreting

10 How did the distance from the nut to the aluminum foil change as heat
transferred to the wire? How did it change as heat transferred from the wire?
Figure 2.16 Step 7. Heating the
copper wire Forming Conclusions
11 Use the particle model to explain what happens to a copper wire when it is
heated and cooled. Include a diagram to help make your explanation clear.

204 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 205

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF SOLIDS

The particle model of matter tells us that when the thermal energy
of a solid increases, so does its volume. We say that the solid
expands. This occurs when heat transfers to a solid. When the
thermal energy of a solid decreases, its volume decreases, and the
solid contracts. This occurs when heat transfers from the warmer
solid to cooler matter.
This is critical information for people who work in a variety of
professions. Engineers designing bridges and buildings need to
consider this information in their plans. Steel beams will bend or
even break if the plans do not allow for expansion and contraction.
This process of expansion of a substance caused by an increase in
thermal energy is called thermal expansion. Expansion joints were
invented to deal with this and are used on bridges, highways, and
between railroad tracks.

Figure 2.17a) When temperatures are low the space between metal joints is large.
When temperatures rise the space between the metal joints closes up.

People who lay pipes for the gas pipelines, construction

workers, and steelworkers are only a few examples of people
who use the science of expansion and contraction in their
jobs.
Figure 2.17b) Workers installing
HEAT AFFECTS THE VOLUME OF LIQUIDS AND GASES a gas pipeline

Like solids, matter in the liquid and gas states will also expand
when their thermal energy increases. That is, when heat transfers to
them from warmer matter. And they will contract when their
thermal energy decreases. That is, when heat transfers from them to
cooler matter. Liquids usually expand more than solids do, but not
as much as gases do.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 205

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 206

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN LIQUIDS AND GASES

We can see a simple example of expansion and contraction of a
liquid in the thermometer. Liquid, usually alcohol, is placed in a
narrow glass tube. As the liquid becomes warmer, it expands and
rises in the glass tube. As it cools, contraction takes place and the
liquid drops down.
Similar principles are at work when there is a change in the heat
energy of a gas. Imagine that you are invited to a party in the month
of January. At the end of the celebration, you take home a cluster of
helium balloons tied to ribbons. It is a very cold night, and you
walk quickly. The farther you go, the more the balloons seem to be
“wilting.” They no longer pull at the ribbons, but now bob near
your shoulders. By the time you reach home, the balloons are
noticeably smaller and look a bit wrinkled. However, after they have
been in your bedroom for an hour, the balloons are in the same
condition as when you left the party. Both contraction and
expansion have been at work!

Figure 2.18 Why are the balloons wilting?

re SEARCH
Full Steam Ahead!
Steam-powered automobiles were popular in the late 1800s. Some cars
could go very fast. In 1906, one car was clocked at 205 km/h! However,
by the 1930s, because the internal combustion engine had become
popular, steam cars had all but disappeared. How did the steam car
work? What was the science behind this invention?

206 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 207

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. You and your family give your grandmother a ring for her
birthday. Unfortunately, it is too small to fit her finger. How can
the concepts of heat and temperature help make the ring her
proper size?
2. Write a hypothesis to explain how the particle model of matter
explains expansion and contraction. Write your ideas in a
paragraph and include a diagram to illustrate your explanation.
3. Use Figures 2.19a)–d) and your understanding of thermal
energy, heat, and thermal expansion to answer each question.

Figure 2.19a) Train tracks span great Figure 2.19b) Workers set up these
distances. Spaced many metres apart are electrical cables during the summer. You’ll
small gaps between the rails. What’s the notice that the cables are not stretched
purpose of these gaps? What might happen tightly. They sag. What is the advantage of
if the gaps weren’t there? leaving some slack when installing electrical
cables like these? What might happen if the
cables were installed tightly with no slack?

Figure 2.19c) Did you ever notice that Figure 2.19d) Pop and juice bottles are
sidewalks are made of slabs with gaps never filled all the way to the top. What is
between them? What is the advantage of the advantage of leaving some space in
leaving these gaps? What might happen if these bottles? What might happen if the
the slabs were placed right up against each bottles were filled completely?
other?

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 207

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 208

Y This at Hom A C T I V I T Y

T R e

HOMEMADE HOT-AIR BALLOON Materials & Equipment

Have you ever watched a hot-air balloon drift across the • large plastic garbage bag
horizon on a warm evening? You can create your own • paper clips
balloon with a friend or family member by following these • hair dryer (blow dryer)
steps.

• Find a plastic bag, such as a large garbage bag.

• Check for and seal any holes in the bag.
• Using paper clips, gather parts of the open edge of the bag
to make the opening smaller, about 10 cm in diameter.
Spread the paper clips evenly around the opening.
• Ask your friend to hold the hair dryer so that the hot-air
nozzle is pointed upward. Make sure that the air intake vent
of the hair dryer is not blocked. This will prevent the hair
dryer from overheating.
• Turn the hair dryer on to its highest heat setting. Be very
careful when handling the hair dryer to avoid a burn.
• Gently bring the open end of your bag over the hair dryer,
keeping it at least 10 cm away from the nozzle. Hold the
bag in place until it appears to be full of hot air. Turn off the
hair dryer. Release the bag and watch what happens!
Figure 2.20 A hot-air balloon

Caution!
Be careful when using plastic bags, especially around
younger children.

Things to Think About

• Did your balloon go straight up or did it have a crooked flight?
• What could you add to your balloon to give you more control over its
flight?
• Would using different types of bags make any difference to the results?
Why or why not?
• Could you use more than one hair dryer?
• Would using different heat settings on the hair dryer make a difference to
the flight of your balloon?
• How could you redesign your hot-air balloon so that it could carry an
object like a pen or small toy into the air?

208 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 209

info BIT
2.4 Heat Transfers by Conduction
Space Insulation
If you have ever had the experience of roasting hot dogs or A special thermal
marshmallows over a fire using a wire coat hanger, you have protection system
probably noticed that the metal will heat up very quickly and burn prevents space
your hand if you are not careful. When taking a metal tray from the shuttles from burning
oven, you need to use oven mitts to avoid a burn. In each of these up on re-entering
cases, heat has transferred from the source to another substance. Earth’s atmosphere.
The shuttle’s high
speed compresses the
air, which creates
intense heat. NASA
designers developed a
special ceramic tile
that can withstand
temperatures of nearly
1400˚C. Approximately
33 000 of these special
tiles are attached to
the underside of a
shuttle.
Figure 2.21 Oven mitts help prevent this person’s hands from getting burned.

CONDUCTION
One way that heat transfers through matter is by conduction.
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy between substances that
are in contact with each other. Here’s how it works. Figure 2.22
shows a metal spoon in a cup of hot chocolate. The particles in the
hot chocolate are moving rapidly, and they bombard the particles in
the parts of the spoon that are in the hot liquid. The spoon’s
particles that are being pushed around start to move faster, vibrating
back and forth. The faster they move, the greater the thermal energy
in that part of the spoon. The spoon begins to warm up.
The parts of the spoon that are not in the hot chocolate become
warm because of the movement of other particles within the spoon.
The fast moving particles in the part of the spoon that had been
warmed by the hot chocolate now bump into their neighbours in Figure 2.22 A metal spoon
the spoon’s handle. These particles speed up and bump into those in a mug of hot chocolate.
next to them. And so on, until all the particles in the spoon are Heat is transferred from the
moving faster. Think of it as a chain reaction. None of the particles hot liquid to the spoon. The
particles in the spoon speed
move from one end of the spoon to the other. The particles stay in up and the spoon becomes
the same part of the spoon. They simply transfer the energy by hot.
bumping into each other.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 209

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 210

Problem
Solving THE BUTTER TEST
Activity Recognize a Need
You are doing research for a company that makes electrical appliances. These
appliances generate a lot of heat, so designers want to use materials that will
enable the heat to be removed. At the same time, they have to consider the cost
Materials & Equipment of the materials. You have been asked to recommend the best conductor based
• beaker or other suitable on performance and cost. You will make your recommendation using data from
container for hot water the “butter test” and the cost information provided. The butter test involves
• butter or margarine placing a small amount of butter at one end of a piece of each material. You then
• assorted materials for place the other end of the material in hot water. The faster the butter melts, the
testing better conductor the material is.
• paper towels
The Problem
What material will be best to use in the appliances based on cost and conducting
ability?

Criteria for Success

For your recommendation to succeed, you must meet the following criteria:
• You must design a butter test for the materials provided to determine which
material will melt the butter the fastest.
• You must base your recommendation on the butter test and the information
you are given about the cost of each material.
• You must communicate your results using diagrams, charts, or graphs.

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Your teacher will tell you what materials are available and the cost of each.
2 Working with your group, determine which variable is the manipulated
Figure 2.23 variable and which one is the responding variable in your test. What variables
will you be controlling (or keeping constant)? Record your ideas.
3 Determine how you will set up your butter test to ensure your variables are all
controlled.
4 Create a plan and have it approved by your teacher before continuing.

Test and Evaluate

5 Perform your test based on your plan.
6 Record your results.

Communicate
7 Based on cost, what is the cheapest material to use for the appliances?
8 Based on conducting ability, what is the best material?
9 Based on a combination of cost and conducting ability, what is the best
material to use?
10 Illustrate your results using diagrams, charts, or graphs.

210 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 211

CONDUCTORS
One of the key characteristics of conduction is that heat transfers in
only one direction—from areas of greater kinetic energy to areas of
less kinetic energy. That is, heat transfers from areas having more
thermal energy to areas having less thermal energy. One example is
placing a hot water bottle next to cold skin. The hot water bottle
contains more thermal energy than the skin does. So heat transfers
from the hot water bottle to the skin. Although the temperature of
Figure 2.24 An iron
the skin rises as conduction takes place, none of the matter from the
hot water bottle moves to the skin. The skin becomes warm because
of energy transfer between particles.
Conduction is most common in solids. It is less common in
liquids, and it is rare in gases. Materials that allow easy transfer of
heat are called conductors. Metals are examples of good conductors
of energy.
Figure 2.25 A metal pot and lid
INSULATORS Figure 2.22 A metal spoon
Insulators are materials that do not allow easy transfer of heat. in a mug of hot chocolate
They reduce the amount of heat that can transfer from a hotter
object to a colder one. Plastic, cork, and wood are good insulators.
This means that they are poor conductors of heat.
In household products that use heat, we often combine
Figure 2.26 A curling iron
insulators with conductors to create safe tools. Look at Figures 2.24
to 2.26. Identify which parts of each device are conductors and
which parts are insulators.

CHECK AND REFLECT re SEARCH

1. What are the three types of changes that may happen when heat
A Good Idea?
transfers into or out of matter?
Use print or electronic
2. Explain the difference between a conductor and an insulator, resources to research
and give at least three examples of each. what material is the
3. The sun heats a wooden door and a metal knob on the outside best conductor, and
of the door. What happens to the metal knob on the other side of list two of its uses.
Prepare a diagram
the door? Write a paragraph using the words heat energy, kinetic
showing how it works
energy, conduction, and insulation to explain the situation.
in each situation, and
a written summary of
your results.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 211

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 212

2.5 Heat Transfers by Convection and

Radiation
info BIT
Burning Hot!
The average surface
temperature of the
sun is 5500˚C. The
temperature at the
centre of the sun is
thought to be
15 000 000˚C. Less
than one billionth of
the sun’s total energy
output reaches Earth.
Caution!
Use care with an
open flame.
Ensure there are
no flammable
materials close to
the flame.
Figure 2.27 Sitting around a campfire

If you have ever sat by a campfire on an evening when there was

little wind, you may have noticed that the sparks from the fire did
not simply go straight up into the air. Rather, they seemed to swirl
and travel in an almost circular motion. If you added paper to the
fire, you would have seen a similar motion as the embers (pieces of
paper that are still glowing with fire) moved above the fire.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

CANDLE MAGIC
Work with a partner. Predict what the smoke will look like when you blow out a
candle. Then, light a candle and let it burn for about 15 s. Gently blow out the
flame. Notice what happens to the thin ribbon of smoke as it moves above the
candle. Was your prediction correct?

212 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 213

UNDERSTANDING CONVECTION
Another way that heat transfers through matter is by convection. In
convection, heat is transferred when liquid or gas particles move
from one area to another. Recall that in conduction, the particles do
not move—only the heat does. In convection, the particles
themselves move. For this reason, convection occurs only in liquids
and gases.

Convection Currents
Heat transfer by convection occurs when the particles in a liquid or
gas move in circular patterns called convection currents.
Convection currents form when heat transfers to liquids or gases.
Figure 2.28 shows how convection currents form in a pot of water
on the stove.
Heat first transfers to the bottom of the pot
from the hot burner by conduction. In turn, heat
transfers from the heated bottom of the pot to the
water that is in direct contact with it. The kinetic
energy of the water particles increases. They move
faster and spread farther apart. In other words, the
water at the bottom of the pot expands.
As the water expands, it becomes less dense
and rises up to the surface. The particles in the
rising warm water push the cooler particles at the
Figure 2.28a) Heat from Figure 2.28b) The heated
top aside. This cooler water sinks toward the water expands and
the hot element reaches
bottom of the pot to fill the space left by the rising the water particles at the becomes less dense. Hot
warm water. When the cooler water reaches the bottom of the pot by particles begin to rise,
conduction. pushing the cooler
bottom, it too heats up and expands. It rises, particles at the top to
leaving space for more water from the top to sink the sides.
downward.
As the water moves away from the heat
source, it cools down slightly. When it reaches the
top of the pot, it comes in contact with the air.
Energy from the water transfers to the air, and the
water cools down even more. This cooler water is
pushed to the sides by the warmer water rising
underneath it. The cooler water drops down along
the sides of the pot. Here, too, energy is lost
through heat transfer from the water to the pot
Figure 2.28c) The Figure 2.28d) As the
and the air outside. cooler particles sink particles reach the
This sets up a circular convection current. As from the top to take bottom, they in turn are
the place of the heated. The processes in
long as heat continues to transfer from the hot rising particles. Figures 2.28a)–c) repeat
burner, this pattern of convection currents continually to result in a
continues to transfer heat throughout the water. convection current.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 213

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 214

Inquiry I N V E S T I G AT I N G C O N V E C T I O N
Activity The Question
How does convection transfer heat in fluids?

Procedure
Materials & Equipment Part 1 Convection in a Gas (Teacher Demonstration)
Part 1 1 Set up the smoke box as shown in Figure 2.29.
• smoke box 2 Slide open the plastic front cover of
• small candle
the smoke box and light the candle.
• splint or incense stick to
produce smoke Slide the plastic cover back into place.
• fire safety equipment 3 Wait for 1 min, and then light the splint
Part 2 or incense stick.
• small jar and lid with small 4 When the smoke from the splint or
hole in it incense stick becomes visible,
• warm water carefully hold the splint or incense
• food colouring stick at the top of the chimney on the
• 70-cm string
side without the candle. Record your
• 2000-mL beaker
• cold water observations.
Figure 2.29 Set-up of smoke box

Part 2 Convection in a Liquid

5 Fill the jar to the top with warm water that has been coloured with food
colouring. Screw the lid on tightly. Tie each end of the string around the top
of the jar below the lid to create a handle.
6 Fill the beaker two-thirds full of cold water. Lower the jar into the beaker until
it is completely submerged but not touching the bottom of the beaker.
7 Record your observations when you first submerge the jar and then at 30
sec, 60 sec, and 120 sec after submerging it.

Figure 2.30 Observe what happens to the coloured water in jar.

214 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 215

Collecting Data
Part 1
8 Draw the smoke box set-up when the candle is lit.
9 On your drawing of the smoke box, draw the path of the smoke after the
splint or incense stick is lit and held above the smoke box.

Part 2
10 Record your observations in words and diagrams.

Analyzing and Interpreting

Part 1
11 What path did the smoke from the splint or incense follow? Did you see any
evidence that hot air rises? If so, what is this evidence?
12 What surprised you about the path of the smoke?
13 What effect do you think the heat from the candle is having on the air inside
the smoke box directly above the candle?
14 As the candle heats up the air above it, what do you think is happening to the
rest of the air inside the box? Outside the box?

Part 2
15 What happened to the warm water as it remained submerged in the cold
water? Why do you think this happened?
16 Are there any similarities between your observations in part 2 of this activity
and those in part 1? Provide examples to support your answer.

Forming Conclusions
17 Using your observations and discussions in class, describe how the process
of convection transfers heat in a liquid and a gas.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 215

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 216

CONVECTION CURRENTS IN AIR

As with conduction, heat transfers by convection move in only one
direction. It moves from an area of greater kinetic energy to one of
lesser kinetic energy. Think about being in a cold room that has a
heater in one corner. When the heater is first turned on, the only
part of the room that is warm is the space closest to the heater. As
the air near the heater heats up, it expands, becomes less dense,
and rises. Cooler air moves in to take its place near the heater. This
air is then heated, and it rises. Convection currents form, and
eventually the entire room becomes warm.

ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS

Heat transfer by convection from a heater or in a cooking pot
delivers heat energy where it is needed. However, convection can
also cause heat loss. This used to be a problem in windows in
houses. In the summer, people needed only one pane of glass in
their windows. But our cold winters meant two panes of glass were
needed to make houses feel more comfortable. Every fall, people
would add another window called a storm window. These helped
to keep houses warmer by reducing drafts and providing a bit of
extra insulation. The extra insulation came from the air space
between the inner and outer windows. Air is a poor conductor of
heat.
The problem with the old storm windows was that they weren’t
very efficient. They still lost a lot of heat because convection
currents would form in the air space
between the panes of glass. The
convection currents would transfer
heat from one pane of glass to the
other. Energy efficient windows are
designed to reduce heat transfer.
They do this by preventing
convection from occurring between
the panes of glass. Some windows
contain a gas such as argon or
krypton to improve their
performance in reducing heat
transfer. These gases are better
insulators than air. They do not
move as easily in convection
currents as air does.
gas-filled (argon
or krypton)
Figure 2.31 An energy efficient window

216 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 217

HEAT TRANSFERS BY RADIATION

Conduction and convection are two ways that heat transfer occurs.
Radiation is the third. Both conduction and convection rely on the
movement of particles to transfer heat energy. Radiation does not.
Think of all the energy we receive from the sun every day. It
reaches us across millions of kilometres of space where there are
very few particles. Radiation is the transfer of energy by invisible
waves that can travel great distances. Energy transferred from its
source by radiation is called radiant energy. Heat is only one type
of radiant energy. It is transferred by invisible waves called infrared
waves.
When the invisible radiant energy waves come in contact with
an object, the particles in the object increase in kinetic energy. The
particles move faster and the object becomes hotter. Every hot
object produces some radiant energy. That’s why your hand feels
warm when you hold it near a hot object without touching it. The
heat you feel is transferred to you by radiation.

Figure 2.32 Even on a cold

day, the sun’s radiation can
heat the floor.

You get into a car that has been parked in the sun on a hot,
sunny day. It is hot inside—the fabric seat feels quite warm. But try
touching the dashboard. It’s probably so hot that it can almost burn
your hand! Part of the reason for this is that the different materials
absorb the sun’s heat to different extents. Now, think about the
clothing you have worn on hot, sunny days. Do you recall how you
felt when you wore light-coloured and dark-coloured clothing? How
do you think the different colours affect the absorption of the sun’s
heat?

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 217

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 218

Inquiry H E AT I N G D I F F E R E N T C O L O U R E D S U R FA C E S
Activity The Question
How do different colours of surfaces affect the absorption of heat transferred by
radiation?

Materials & Equipment The Hypothesis

• 2 large test tubes Restate the above question in the form of a hypothesis.
• test-tube rack
• sand
• white paper
• scissors and tape
• 2 thermometers
• black paper
• 100-W light bulb (optional)
• timer

Figure 2.33a) Step 1. Filling the test tube Figure 2.33b) Step 8. Using the stopwatch to
with sand keep track of time

Procedure
1 Fill each test tube with sand to the top.
2 Tape white paper around one test tube so that it is fully covered, including the
top.
3 Cut a small hole in the top and carefully insert a thermometer about 5 cm into
the sand. Gently tap the test tube to pack the sand as you insert the
thermometer. Put the test tube back in the test-tube rack.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 with the other test tube using black paper. Make sure
that the thermometers are inserted to the same depth in the two test tubes.
Put the test tube in the same rack next to the white test tube.
5 Read the thermometers and record the temperature of the sand in the test
tubes.
6 Place the test tubes in the rack in the sun on a window sill. If there is no sun,
use a 100-watt bulb as a heat source and put the rack 20 cm in front of the
bulb.
7 Predict which test tube will heat up faster in 15 min.
8 Read and record the temperature in each test tube every 3 min for 15 min.

218 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 219

Collecting Data
9 Record your temperature readings in a data chart like the one shown here.

White Tube Black Tube

Time Temperature Time Temperature
(min) (˚C) (min) (˚C)
0 0
3 3
6 6
etc. etc.

Analyzing and Interpreting

10 Use your data to draw a graph showing how the temperature of the sand
changed over time in each test tube.
11 Based on your graphs, which test tube heated up faster?

Forming Conclusions
12 Present your results in a summary in paragraph form. Your summary should
answer the following questions:
• Which of the two test tubes absorbs more heat from the sun?
• What do you think your results would be if you had added a third and a
fourth test tube and used orange paper on one and aluminum foil on the
other to cover them? Explain your reasoning.
13 How did the results compare with your hypothesis?

Applying and Connecting

Clothing designers may use certain colours during one season but not the next.
Most people wear white or other light colours in the summer to reflect the sun’s
heat. In winter, black or dark colours are the choice for many people since they
absorb heat. Designers know this and keep it in mind when choosing fabrics.

Figure 2.34 Dressing for

the different seasons

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 219

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:03 PM Page 220

re SEARCH REFLECT OR ABSORB?

Matter can reflect or absorb radiant energy. Objects that are shiny
Planets of the Solar
and light coloured are good reflectors of radiant energy. So on a hot,
System
sunny summer day, to stay cool, you would probably choose light-
Of the planets in the
coloured clothing. Dark and dull objects are good at absorbing
solar system, Mercury
is closest to the sun. radiant energy. If you have been on a black sand beach such as
However, Venus, its those found in parts of Europe, the Caribbean, or the South Pacific,
neighbour, has a on a sunny day, then you know just how good dark colours are at
higher average absorbing radiant energy! At the hottest point in the day, the skin
surface temperature. on the soles of people’s feet will begin to burn if they run barefoot
Why? over a long stretch of sand.

Figure 2.35 A black sand beach in Spain

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Explain how convection works to make your bedroom warm.
2. Use what you have learned about convection to explain why the
floors in most homes are cold in winter.
3. Tanning studios have become popular in the past few years.
How can you get a tan in a tanning studio?
4. If more radiant energy was allowed to reach the surface of
Earth, what do you think might happen? Why?

220 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:04 PM Page 221

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Create a mini poster that shows your understanding of
conduction, convection, and radiation.
2. You try, unsuccessfully, to open a brand new jar of pickles. You
find that the lid is too tightly sealed. After running the lid under
the hot water tap for a short time, you are able to open the lid.
Explain what happened.
3. It is a hot day and your family decides to have ice cream with
dinner. You walk the 30 min to the store to get 1 L of ice cream.
Knowing that it will melt before you get back, you need to make
a plan to get the ice cream home in its solid state. What would
you do? Why?
4. Teeth are examples of solid matter. When you eat hot food or
drink cold water, your teeth will expand or contract depending
on the temperature inside of your mouth. What would a dentist
need to consider when filling a cavity?
5. Summarize your new learning on the mind map that you started
on page 189.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
Understanding the science of heat helps us to appreciate how it
affects our lives. In this section, you read about examples of how
we use heat technology to meet our needs. Think about the
information you learned and the activities you did in this section.
1. You have studied how heat moves in three different ways:
conduction, convection, and radiation. For each one, describe
an example of a technology that uses that method of heat
transfer to meet our needs.
2. Describe two examples of heat technology that you use in your
daily life. Identify if the device uses conduction, convection, or
radiation.

Heat Affects Matter in Different Ways 221

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:04 PM Page 222

Understanding heat and temperature

3.0 helps explain natural phenomena and
technological devices.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• heat energy needs and
technologies
• thermal energy
• thermal energy sources
• insulation and thermal
conductivity
• energy conservation

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe ways in which
thermal energy is produced
naturally
• describe how solar heating
works
• compare and evaluate
materials that maximize or
limit the transfer of thermal
energy
• explain how devices and
systems respond to
temperature change
• describe how household
The glowing liquid rock, the blasting hot gases, the billowing
devices allow us to generate,
ash—volcanoes are both frightening and fascinating. Imagine the
transfer, control, or remove
thermal energy
amount of thermal energy that Earth must contain to melt rock
• explain practical problems in into a flowing liquid. Volcanoes form when heat and pressure
controlling and using thermal force this hot, liquid rock up to Earth’s surface. In some
energy volcanoes, like the one shown here, rivers of liquid rock flow
from an opening in the ground. Fire and heat from such a river
consume everything in its path. A volcano is just one indicator of
Earth’s thermal energy. Other examples include hot springs and
geysers.

222 For Web links relating to 3.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 223

3.1 Natural Sources of Thermal Energy

What natural sources of thermal energy do you think exist? Look at
Figures 3.1–3.4 and read the captions.

Figure 3.1 The sun is Earth’s natural source of thermal Figure 3.2 Earth is a considerable source of thermal energy.
energy. Many people refer to the sun’s energy as solar Much of this energy remains deep inside. It is called
energy. “Solar” comes from the Latin word sol, which means geothermal energy. “Geo” means Earth, and “thermal”
sun. means heat. This geothermal energy is being used in Iceland
and parts of New Zealand to provide hot water and to grow
crops.

Figure 3.3 All fires consume some type of fuel (wood, oil, Figure 3.4 Decay is a source of thermal energy. The
coal, or natural gas). Fire converts the chemical energy breakdown of dead plants and animals releases thermal
stored inside the fuel into thermal energy, light energy, and energy. If you have ever done any composting, you have felt
often, sound energy. the thermal energy produced by the decaying process.

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 223
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 224

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL ENERGY

So far in this unit, you have discussed and investigated many uses of thermal
energy. Work with a group. Brainstorm as many of these applications of thermal
energy as you can think of. Record your ideas, in words and pictures, on a sheet
of paper that will be your “thermal energy placemat.” Share your results with
other groups. Change or add to your placemat as you work through the rest of
this unit.

FOCUS ON SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy, or energy given off by the sun, is the most important
source of thermal energy for life on Earth. This type of thermal
energy is produced by the nuclear reactions that happen inside of
the star that is our sun. Every 40 min, the level of energy that comes
to Earth is equivalent to the energy used by humans over the period
of a full year. Imagine being able to store all of that energy!

info BIT
Nanook
Question: What do you get when you combine
more than 70 students from the University of
Alberta and the Northern Alberta Institute of
Technology (NAIT) with an exciting dream for an
environmentally friendly car? Answer: Nanook,
Alberta’s first ever solar-powered race car!
Nanook is the product of 21 months of creative
work by the student design team. Its ultra-sleek
5.8-m body is almost completely covered by
560 solar cells and weighs only 500 kg, including
the driver. The solar cells capture the sun’s
energy, which becomes the race car’s power
source. Onboard batteries can store the sun’s
energy during daylight hours so that Nanook can
travel up to 90 km/h—even at night—without
burning any gasoline!

224 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 225

USING THE SUN’S ENERGY FOR SOLAR HEATING

Solar heating systems are of two types: passive or active. A passive
system is heated directly by the sun’s rays. It is designed to heat a
building without fans or pumps to help carry the heat to different
parts of the building. An active system will rely on some
mechanical device to help transfer that energy.

Figure 3.5 Windows in a

passive solar house. In
summer and at night, these
windows are covered by
special insulated shades.

PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING

The basic approach for passive solar heating is simple: reduce heat
loss and increase heat gain from the sun. On the most basic level,
this means insulating the building as much as possible and placing
most of the windows on the south side. A large overhang above the
windows shades them from the summer sun, so the building
doesn’t become too hot. In the winter, the rays of the low sun bring
radiant energy into the rooms. The warmth this produces is carried
to the other rooms in the building by convection currents.
The thermal efficiency of a building’s design can be measured
by how well it prevents heat loss. It can also be measured by how
well it maintains an even temperature throughout a 24-hour period.
Special materials can increase the thermal efficiency of a passive
solar home.
Extra panes of glass and special coatings on windows allow
windows to let radiant energy from the sun in, but prevent much of
it being reflected back out. Special materials in the house can be
used to store thermal energy. For example, a stone or brick wall
inside the room is placed where the sun shines on it most of the
day. Some of the sun’s heat transfers to the stone or brick. The stone
or brick stores it as thermal energy. Then, at night, when there is no
sun and the room begins to get cold, the stone or brick heat
transfers into the air and keeps the room a comfortable temperature.

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 225
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 226

solar energy collector

energy
from
sun
Figure 3.6 An active solar
heating system

convection
currents

heated
water

cooled water

pump

storage tank

ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING

Active solar heating systems usually have three components: a
collector, a heat storage unit, and a heat distribution system. Look at
Figure 3.6.
Water is used in the collector to trap solar energy. Copper tubing
on a black surface is placed under glass panels. As the sun’s rays
pass through the glass, the area becomes heated. Insulation helps to
keep the thermal energy from escaping. The water running through
the copper tubing becomes heated and is pumped to the heat
storage and distribution units.
In a prairie climate, a combination of passive and active solar
systems can usually meet up to 75% of a family’s heating needs. In
warmer climates, a greater percentage is possible. Landscaping can
also add to the effectiveness of a solar design. Trees can block cold
winter winds and help to provide a cooling shade in summer.
Depending on your location and the season, a backup heating
system is usually needed for both passive solar and active solar
heating systems. The backup system is used when sunlight is not
available, or when not enough heat is collected during the day to
keep a building warm during the night.

226 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 227

Decision
Making IS SOLAR ENERGY A PRACTICAL OPTION?
Activity The Issue
One option for heating our homes is with active or passive solar systems. Is solar
heating a practical option for your home?

Background Information
Solar energy is not just for new homes. New homes provide an opportunity to
design a house in the most effective way to use the sun’s energy. These designs
include the use of special materials and equipment. But it is possible to change
existing homes—including apartment buildings—to make some use of solar
energy. For example, placing solar collectors on the roof could provide some hot
water. Adding or increasing the size of the windows on the south side of a
building could provide some of the space heating. These windows would have to
be well insulated at night so they would not allow heat loss from the space.
Many companies that sell solar energy products advertise on the Internet. Do
a search for these Web sites and make a list of sources. Use these sources to find
information about the cost and efficiency of solar heating products and designs.
Make a list of solar options that could be used in your home. For each one, list its
approximate cost and its advantages and disadvantages.

Support Your Opinion

Do you think solar energy is a practical option for your home? Write a paragraph
summarizing your opinion. Make sure to support your opinion with facts from
your research.
Figure 3.7 Solar panels

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 227
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 228

re SEARCH SOLAR ENERGY AND ELECTRICITY

In addition to providing heat, solar energy can be converted into
Solar Energy Uses
electricity. Solar cells are arranged in panels which are connected
Prepare a report on
to form a solar array. A series of these solar arrays are then placed
how solar energy is
used in scientific so as to capture and store the sun’s energy in low voltage batteries.
experiments. Household appliances needing electricity can use this solar energy
during the day. Electricity can also be drawn from the batteries
when the sun has gone down. Remote weather stations are often
powered in this way because it is both difficult and expensive to
deliver regular electricity to these areas.

COSTS AND BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy has many benefits. Unlike fossil fuels, the sun’s energy
is not limited, and it is available to everyone. Solar energy does not
create pollution in the way burning fossil fuels to provide energy
does, nor does it carry the radiation risks that nuclear energy does.
However, the cost of setting up a solar system is usually more
expensive than conventional fossil fuel or electrical systems.
Generally, in Canada, solar energy cannot provide all the space or
water heating needed in a home. A backup system is needed using
Figure 3.8 This photo
conventional fuels or electricity. Solar cells for electricity are
shows a different kind of expensive and cannot provide large amounts of electricity
solar array. Here, an array of economically. Disposal of solar cells when they are no longer
hundreds of mirrors reflect operational may be an environmental concern.
solar energy onto a water- Passive solar energy use continues to be a lower cost option.
filled tower. This heats up
the water to produce steam,
Maximizing solar energy use this way can be costly—special
which is used to generate designs and special materials are needed. But as you read earlier,
electricity. Such arrays are simple changes can be made to existing buildings to increase the
set up in desert areas where use of solar energy.
there is plenty of sunshine Research and development continue into ways of improving the
and little rain.
efficiency of solar devices and decreasing their costs.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Describe four ways in which thermal energy is produced
naturally. Give an example of each way not mentioned in this
section.
2. What is a passive solar heating system?
3. Predict how important you think solar energy technology will
be 100 years from now.
4. Explain how our way of life today affects our thinking about
whether or not to use solar heating in our homes.

228 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 229

info BIT
3.2 Heating System Technologies
Frosty Fact
Think for a moment about what it is The first transatlantic
like to be cozy in your bed while shipment of frozen
there is a snowstorm happening meat left Argentina in
outside. In addition to the blankets 1877, bound for
that you have wrapped around you, France. However, all
the furnace in your home will help to was not “smooth
keep you warm—even if it is –30°C sailing” when the ship
outside. But how does the thermal collided with another
energy from the furnace that is vessel. The accident
caused a long delay
somewhere else in your home travel
and the trip took 6
to your room? How does it know
months to complete.
when to come on and when to go off?
But thanks to a special
How is it that the furnace doesn’t ammonia compression
come on at all during the summer yet system, the meat
it starts up again on chilly fall stayed frozen the
mornings? whole way!

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

THERMOSTAT: WHAT’S INSIDE?

temperature mercury wires to heating system

switch

uncoiled coiled
bimetallic strip bimetallic strip

This diagram shows the inside of a typical thermostat.

Use this diagram to infer and explain how a thermostat works. Here are three
tips if you need help.
a) Metals expand when they are heated and contract when they cool.
b) Not all metals expand and contract at the same rate.
c) An electrical conductor allows the passage of an electrical current.

Name five devices in which you would expect to find thermostats.

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 229
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 230

Thermostats
In order to live comfortably, we need to be able to control the
temperature of our indoor environment. Most people like to keep
their homes, offices, and schools at “room temperature,” or about
20°C. While this would have been a problem for people in Alberta
100 years ago, we now have heating systems that are controlled by
thermostats. “Thermo” means heat and “stat” means to maintain or
to keep the same.
Thermostats are used to control the air temperature in indoor
environments. They are also useful in adjusting the temperature of
electric appliances such as an oven or an air conditioner.
The switch in a thermostat is a bimetallic strip, which consists
of two different metals joined together. When heated, one of the
metals expands faster than the other. This causes the strip to bend.
The bending effect of the bimetallic strip is used to measure
Figure 3.9 A bimetallic temperature change. As the strip
strip bends when heated.
bends and unbends, it opens and
closes an electric circuit that °C

controls a heat-regulating device,

such as an electric blanket.

pointer
Figure 3.10 When the coil of the oven
thermometer is heated, the inner strip
expands more than the outer strip. The
coil opens. The more the coil is heated,
the wider it opens. At the end of the coil
is a pointer that moves over the scale.
inner strip outer strip

HEATING SYSTEMS
There are two types of heating systems: local heating systems and
central heating systems.
• Local heating systems provide heat for only one room or a small
part of a building. Fireplaces, wood-burning stoves, and space
heaters are common examples of local heating systems. Space
heaters are small, portable heating systems that run on fuel or
electricity.
• Central heating systems provide heat from a single, central
source such as a furnace. The heat transfers through a network of
pipes, ducts, and vents or openings in different places around
the building. You very likely have a vent in your bedroom. Most
newer homes with central heating systems use forced-air
heating. Some older buildings use hot-water heating.

230 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 231

smoke outlet expansion tank

heated air heated air

radiator
smoke
outlet register
cooled air cooled air
radiator

heated air

cooled
filter air furnace/
boiler
blower duct

furnace (heat source) pump in the boiler

Figure 3.11 Forced-Air Heating Figure 3.12 Hot-Water Heating

• Air is heated by burning fuel in a furnace. • Water is heated by burning fuel in a furnace or boiler.
• The heated air travels through ducts (pipe-like passageways) • A pump forces the heated water through a network of
to registers in different rooms. (Registers are panels or grates pipes that lead to metal radiators.
in the wall near the floor or in the floor itself.) • The hot water heats the radiators, which then warm
• A blower helps pull returning air back to the furnace. the air in the room.
• The filter helps trap dust, hairs, and other fine particles • As the water cools, it is returned to the boiler and
before the air returns to the furnace. heated up again.

Convection at Work
In each of these types of heating systems, the science of convection
is at work. Keep in mind that heat travels in only one direction—
from areas of higher kinetic energy to areas of lower kinetic energy.
The air particles that have greater kinetic energy, and therefore feel
warmer, will move faster about the room. As they come into contact
with other air particles with less kinetic energy, the particles of
cooler air will begin to move more quickly and the spaces between
the particles will expand. This means that the volume of the air
will increase. This expansion will cause further movement, and a
kind of chain reaction will follow until all of the air in the room
becomes warmed. But how does the heating system know when to
stop providing thermal energy?
When a fireplace becomes too hot, we can adjust the damper.
This device is a movable plate that controls the flow of air to the
fire. Some space heaters come with an automatic shut-off, but most
need people to turn them off when a room has become warm enough.
Most modern central heating systems are controlled by a
thermostat. A thermostat makes automatic adjustments to the air
temperature in a room by switching a heating system on or off.

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 231
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 232

re SEARCH KEEPING COOL

On a hot summer day, nothing tastes better than a slush drink from
Jobs, Jobs, Jobs
the convenience store on the corner. As you have watched the
In 1995, Canada’s
coloured drink swirling around in the machine, have you ever
natural gas
production was wondered how it keeps from melting?
valued at $6.8 billion. Did you know that thermal energy is needed to create the cold
Make a list of 10 temperatures we link with such technologies as refrigerators,
different jobs that are freezers, and air conditioners?
connected with this A motor powered by electricity or natural gas (both sources of
field and describe thermal energy) is at the heart of all of these cooling systems.
how each is Think about it like this. When you put water on your skin, it
connected to the feels cool. As the water evaporates, it absorbs heat and creates the
energy industry. cool feeling. A cooling system removes heat from a room or other
enclosed space. The basic parts of a cooling system are: a storage
tank, a compressor, a freezer unit, condenser coils, and a
freezer unit
refrigerant. The liquid, or refrigerant, used in a refrigerator
evaporates at a very low temperature. This creates freezing
temperatures inside the refrigerator.
Figure 3.13 shows how a typical refrigerator works. The
refrigerant in the storage tank is pumped to the freezer unit. As it
passes through the freezer unit, the liquid refrigerant evaporates. It
cools as it evaporates so heat transfers from the warmer air inside
compressor the refrigerator to the cooler refrigerant. The refrigerator space
becomes cooler, while the refrigerant becomes hotter. Now a
vapour, it flows through the compressor to the condenser coils.
Heat transfers out of the refrigerant, and it cools down and becomes
Figure 3.13 A refrigerator’s
a liquid. Then the cycle repeats.
cooling system

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Describe some of the possible safety risks involved in not
controlling heat and thermal energy in our homes. Include
points about household appliances and other everyday devices
that generate heat.
2. Explain how a thermostat works.
3. Describe how thermal energy is used to create cool
temperatures.
4. Compare the forced-air heating system with the
hot-water heating system. Which system would you choose for a
house you designed? Why?

232 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 233

info BIT
3.3 Heat Loss and Insulation
Natural Insulators
One of the challenges for Albertans is keeping the temperature of Fat is one of nature’s
their buildings comfortable. In the winter, that means keeping the most effective
warm air inside and the cold air outside. In summer, it is exactly insulators. In animals
the opposite. The goal is to keep the cool air inside and the warmer like polar bears and
air outside. How can this be done in a climate that has such seals, fat forms a
extreme temperature shifts? Insulation! protective layer to
help keep heat from
transferring out of an
animal’s body.

Figure 3.14
Fibreglass insulation

INSULATION
As you learned earlier, an insulator is the opposite of a conductor. It
limits the amount of heat that can be transferred by conduction. In
the case of buildings, insulation is used to limit heat loss to the
colder outside environment or to limit the amount of heat that is
able to enter a cooler building on a hot day. Because heat transfers
in only one direction (from areas of higher kinetic energy to areas of
lower kinetic energy), insulation is useful in both cases.
The materials used in the construction of a building have a
major impact on how heat can be transferred both into and out of a
structure. The thermal conductivity of a material reflects its ability
to transfer heat by conduction. When building a house, you want
materials that are good insulators, not conductors. Stone and brick
walls are good insulators. However, these can be very expensive,
and many people choose to have a layer of Styrofoam panelling
between the outer walls and the siding of their homes. Fibreglass
insulation can also be packed between inner and outer walls and in
the attics of buildings. Doors and windows are another important
part of a good insulation plan. Figure 3.15 Styrofoam
insulation

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 233
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 234

HEAT LOSS
Contractors can use infrared photography to “diagnose” the areas of
heat loss in a building. This kind of photo is called a thermogram.
The colour shows the type of heat loss. Look at the thermogram in
Figure 3.16. What recommendations would you make to the owners
of this home?
The kind of heat loss shown by Figure 3.16 is fairly typical of
most homes. Figure 3.17 illustrates this point. Notice that the roof,
Figure 3.16 windows, doors, and walls are all part of the problem of unwanted
• white/yellow: the greatest heat transfer. This means that additional heat will need to be
heat loss
produced in order to keep our homes and other buildings
• pink/purple: the next
greatest heat loss comfortable. This is where the issue of waste comes in. We are
• green/blue: the least heat wasting electricity and natural gas when the warm air within
loss buildings is transferred to the outside. More resources, particularly
the non-renewable resource of natural gas, must be consumed in
order to meet our needs and wants for heat.

Average Heat Loss in a House 25%

heat transferred
through the ceiling
and roof

10%
heat
transferred
through
windows
35%
Figure 3.17 Where does heat
wasteful heat transfer 15% transferred
heat through walls
happen in this house? Why
transferred
does it happen in these through gaps
places? How would you and poorly
reduce it? sealed areas
15%
heat transferred through the floor

Many people are involved in developing better insulators to

help us keep our indoor environments at a comfortable “room
temperature.” A lot of research has gone into inventing windows,
doors, siding, weather stripping, and insulation that are more
efficient at reducing unnecessary heat loss. A system of rating the
quality of these insulators has been developed to let consumers
know how effective different products are. Every insulator is given
a number called an R-value. The higher the R-value, the better the
product is at providing insulation.

234 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 235

Problem
Solving MARS MISSION
Activity Recognize a Need
It is expected that humans will land on the planet Mars in the first half of this
century. The first colonists on Mars will need to deal with temperatures as low as
⫺126°C. As well, they will live through windstorms of up to 300 km/h. How will
they stay warm?

The Problem
Use what you have learned so far to design a home for these future colonists. If
possible, use a computer-assisted drawing program (CAD) or other graphics
program to help give your work a professional finish. Insulation should be a
major feature in your design.

Criteria for Success

Your design should reflect what you have learned to this point in the unit. Your
ideas for insulation materials should show your understanding of conductors and
insulators. Keep in mind that the colonists will need to transport the building
materials from Earth, so weight will need to be considered. Your design will not
actually be built, but try to make it as workable as possible.

Brainstorm Ideas
Figure 3.18 Living on Mars
1 Work with a partner or in a small group. Brainstorm ideas that would fit the
criteria. All serious ideas should be considered.
2 Look for ways to blend the best of the group’s ideas.

Design a Model
3 Use the computer to draft your design. If possible, use a three-dimensional
design. Include a scale.

Test and Evaluate

4 How effectively would your design protect the colonists? How well is it
insulated? How well does it show your understanding of heat and thermal
energy? Make adjustments to improve your design.
5 How practical is your design? That is, could it really be workable on Mars?

Communicate
6 Share and compare your design with others in the class. You may wish to
use a computer and/or a projector to enlarge your work. In your explanation,
use your knowledge and the heat-related terms that you have learned to this
point in the unit.

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 235
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 236

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Describe the role of insulation in keeping the temperature of a
building comfortable.
2. Explain the difference between insulators and conductors.
3. Update your mind map. Be sure that you understand the major
ideas and the details of this section. Make a list of any questions
that you have and share them with a partner. Work together to
find the answers.
4. Your neighbour has been complaining about cold drafts coming
in under his doors in winter. He wants you to help him
minimize his heat loss. What materials do you think might
make good insulators? Make a list. Use your list to create a chart
comparing which insulator(s) would be best in this situation.
What questions would you like to ask your neighbour before
you give him your recommendation?

Experiment
ON YOUR OWN
DESIGN CHALLENGE: INSULATE IT!

Before You Start ... Design and Conduct Your Experiment

Review what you’ve 1 Work by yourself or in a small group. What ideas
learned about heat, do you have to solve the problem? Brainstorm a
conductors, and list of possibilities and then choose the best idea.
insulators. Now is an 2 Create a plan for how you will build your device.
opportunity for you to Make sure to include a detailed sketch of your
apply that knowledge device and a list of the materials and equipment
to stop or slow down you will need. Have your teacher approve your
an ice cube from melting. plan before you start to build it.
Think about the strategies you would use. 3 Build your device. Test it. Do you need to make
any changes to your device? Do so now. Retest
The Question
your device if necessary.
How can you design and build a device to prevent an
4 Compare your device with those of your
ice cube from melting?
classmates. How successful were their devices?

236 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 237

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Describe three ways in which thermal energy is found in nature.
2. In your own words, explain how solar energy works. Why do
you suppose that it is becoming a more popular choice for
consumers?
3. How does a bimetallic strip work? How does it respond to
temperature change?
4. Describe the heating system used in your home. Draw a diagram
to illustrate your explanation. Identify which natural resources
are used to make the heating system work.
5. Explain why we need to control heat and thermal energy in the
everyday devices that we use. How do these devices control that
heat and thermal energy? What are the dangers of not
controlling them ?

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
In this section, we looked at how our needs as a society help shape
the development of heat-related technology. Think back to the
activities you did and what you learned in this section.
1. How have the science of heat and heat-related technologies
contributed to our well-being?
2. At the end of this unit, you will work on a project to determine
the best options for improving the energy efficiency of an old
house. What did you learn in this section that you think could
help you with your project?

Figure 3.19 What

direction do you think
the windows most likely
face?

Understanding Heat and Temperature Helps Explain Natural Phenomena and Technological Devices 237
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 238

Technologies that use heat have

4.0 benefits and costs to society and
to the environment.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• heat energy needs and
technologies
• thermal energy sources
• energy conservation

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• identify different sources of
heat and evaluate their
possible impacts on the
environment
• compare how much energy is
used by different devices
• identify positive and negative
consequences of energy uses
• describe examples of energy
conservation
Earth Day is a day for celebrating nature and focussing attention on environmental issues.

Right now Canadians are using non-renewable resources at an

increasing rate. In fact, 72% of our energy needs are met by using
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. But what will happen
when the supply runs out? Should we continue to rely on fossil
fuels as such a major source of energy?
Deciding what heat technologies to use is a complicated
decision. There are environmental, societal, and economic costs to
consider. Achieving a balance among all three costs is not always
easy. That’s why choosing resources that are renewable is so
important. Being able to sustain our energy resources is crucial to
the future of the planet.

238 For Web links relating to 4.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 239

info BIT
4.1 Looking at Different Sources of
Nuclear Power
Heat The energy stored in
1 kg of nuclear fuel
Natural resources come from the environment and are not human- contains nearly
made. There are two types of natural resources: renewable and non- 3 000 000 times the
renewable. energy that is in 1 kg
Renewable natural resources are those that can be replaced. The of coal.
sun’s energy is an example of a renewable resource. Even though
we use it, it is constantly being replaced. Another example is wind
energy.
Non-renewable natural resources cannot be replaced. They are
limited. For example, minerals such as gold are non-renewable
resources. Once they have been used up, no more is available.
Fossil fuels—oil, natural gas, and coal—are also non-renewable
resources. We rely on them for our heat and thermal energy needs
and wants, but once they have been used, no more are available.

Figure 4.1 Burning fossil

fuels pollutes the
environment by releasing
soot and ashes and gases
such as carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrogen
oxides.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

LOST!
Imagine being lost while hiking in the woods. You have only one sandwich, two
cookies, and an apple to eat. Your only source of water is the juice in your water
bottle. Knowing that you will probably be found by this time tomorrow, you sit
down to make a plan. How will your food and water last until then? Should you
just eat it all now and hope for the best? Or should you try to ration it? Sketch a
quick cartoon to show how you would solve this problem. How do you think this
story could be linked to the way we use our natural resources? How do you
think your solution would change if you had another person lost with you who
had no food?

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 239
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 240

FOCUS ON FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived
on Earth millions of years ago. Petroleum (oil) and natural gas are
usually extracted from the ground by pumping. Coal is mined. All
three are non-renewable resources.
Fossil fuels are used all over the world because they are fairly
easy to obtain and transport. They have been available in large
quantities and can be used for a variety of purposes. Most of our
technology for transportation, heating, and electricity production is
designed to use fossil fuels. Because of their widespread availability
and technology, fossil fuels are generally cheaper to use than other
energy sources.
In 1995, almost 60% of the world’s energy needs were met by
burning oil and natural gas. Coal provided another 30%. Alberta is
rich in all three of these natural resources. Figure 4.2 shows how
Canada’s use of fossil fuels has increased over time and continues to
increase.
8
Figure 4.2 Canadian
Fossil fuel consumption in exajoules

7
Total fossil fuels
consumption of fossil fuel 6
5
Crude oil
4
3
Natural gas
2
Coal
1
0
’58 ’60 ’62 ’64 ’66 ’68 ’70 ’72 ’74 ’76 ’78 ’80 ’82 ’84 ’86 ’88 ’90 ’92 ’94 ’95

Although fossil fuels are widely available today, they are non-
renewable resources, so eventually they will be used up. As well,
there are costs associated with their use today that should be
considered when we compare them with other sources of energy.

Economic Costs
The costs in dollars of using fossil fuels are what we call the
economic costs. The most obvious economic cost for you and your
family is the cost of buying gasoline to put in your car or natural gas
to heat your home. There are other economic costs that you don’t see
when you pay for your fuel. For example, the companies developing
fossil fuel resources must pay the cost of drilling wells for oil and
natural gas or mining coal. There are the costs of processing the fuels
and transporting them to market (pipelines, trucks).
Figure 4.3 Special Some economic costs, such as anti-pollution technology in cars,
technology is needed to are associated with the environmental costs you’ll learn about below.
drill below the ocean floor Economic costs such as these are considered when the costs of
and to transport the oil and
developing and using fossil fuels are being analyzed. But there are
natural gas to shore.
other costs as well.

240 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:05 PM Page 241

Environmental Costs
The negative effects on the environment of our using these fuels are
called the environmental costs of fossil fuels. Most of these costs
are the result of burning fossil fuels—in cars, trucks, and buses; in
furnaces; and in electrical generating plants. When we burn these
fuels, chemicals form that pollute the environment and contribute
to global warming.
Air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels is a major
problem in many cities. Gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides in the air are harmful to people’s lungs. In earlier studies,
you may have learned about acid rain. Rain falling through polluted
air dissolves the sulfur dioxide in the air. Acid rain harms lakes
and vegetation, as well as stone buildings and statues.
The environmental costs of fossil fuels can be reduced by
improving technology. For example, car engines today are much
less polluting than those of 20 years ago. Environmental costs can
also be reduced by using less fossil fuel.

Societal Costs
The negative effects on people all together are the societal costs of
using fossil fuels. Most of these costs are closely linked to
environmental costs. For example, pollution in cities causes
increased breathing problems for people. The cost to our health
care system of treating these problems is a societal cost of using
fossil fuels. Similarly, the cost of treating lakes that have been
harmed by acid rain is a societal cost because we all have to pay for
it. These are societal costs that we deal with right now.
A major concern in the longer term is how we deal with the
effects of using up these non-renewable resources. Because fossil
fuels are non-renewable, it makes sense to consider other sources of
energy that can help us meet our thermal energy demands.

ALTERNATIVES FOR THERMAL ENERGY

In subsection 3.1, you learned about solar and geothermal energy.
These natural sources of thermal energy can provide some of our
thermal energy. Other technologies to provide thermal energy are
also being used or could be used.

Wind Energy
Wind energy is the energy of moving air. It can be captured by
windmills. In the past, windmills were used mainly to grind flour
and pump water. You can still see small windmills on farms being
used to pump water out of sloughs or dugouts. These simple
windmills are inexpensive and practical. But the windmills used
Figure 4.4 A windmill

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 241
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 242

for large-scale energy production are high-tech devices specially

designed to translate the wind’s energy into energy that people can
use for electricity. Figure 4.4 shows the kind of windmill used in
large “wind farms.” A wind farm consists of dozens—sometimes
hundreds—of windmills constructed in particularly windy areas to
capture the immense energy of the wind. Wind mills are not
practical in areas that are not windy.

Nuclear Energy
Most of our electrical energy in Canada is generated from fossil fuel
or hydro-electric sources. However, in central Canada, some
electricity comes from nuclear energy. Nuclear fission is a process
that uses small amounts of radioactive uranium to produce vast
amounts of heat. Uranium is a non-renewable natural resource
mined in Canada and other countries. Canadian scientists
developed the CANDU (Canada Deuterium-Uranium) reactor to
provide nuclear energy in parts of Canada and to sell to other
countries. These reactors have one of the best safety records in the
Figure 4.5 Inside a CANDU
reactor world.
Nuclear power plants can produce large quantities of electricity.
However, the fuel source requires special care in handling because
it is harmful to living things. This harmful aspect remains after the
fuel has been used. A major problem with nuclear energy is the
long-term storage of dangerous waste materials.

Hydro-Electric Power
Energy generated by water moving through a dam is called hydro-
electric power. Dams are built across rivers to create large artificial
lakes called reservoirs. The water from the reservoir flows through
the dam where it turns large devices called turbines to generate
electricity.
Hydro-electricity is very clean energy, and it’s renewable. The
Figure 4.6 A hydro-electric
dam in Quebec
reservoir is constantly being refilled by the river, which is fed by
rain and snow. Nothing is burned in hydro-electric generation, so
no air pollution is produced. Dams are not expensive to operate, but
they are expensive to build. Dams and the reservoirs they
create can upset or destroy local ecosystems and flood
agricultural land. Long-distance transmission lines must
be built from dams in remote areas to places where
people can use the electricity. These lines are
expensive to build. However, the electricity produced
is used to produce heat in ovens, toasters, room
heaters, and many other appliances.

242 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 243

Problem
Solving W H AT ’ S THE BEST CHOICE?
Activity Recognize a Need
Boiling water is an everyday activity. We do it for cooking, for making hot drinks,
and for sterilizing objects. Which heat source will boil 1 L of water the fastest?

The Problem
Materials & Equipment
• oven mitts
Design and carry out a test to compare the time it takes for different heat sources
• stopwatch to boil 1 L of water.
• large beaker or graduated
Criteria for Success
cylinder
• water For your test to be successful, you must meet the following criteria:
• heatproof container for • You must safely bring the water to a full boil.
water • You must measure the time it takes for the water to come to a boil.
• a variety of sources of
thermal energy chosen Brainstorm Ideas
by you 1 Brainstorm a list of available heat sources that could be used to boil water.
2 Brainstorm ways that you can make the experiment fair. What would be some
of the variables that you would need to control?

Test and Record

3 Measure 1 L of cold tap water.
4 Bring the water to a boil.
5 Record the time needed in minutes and Caution!
seconds. This experiment should
6 Record the heat source you used. be done with adult
supervision. Use oven
Communicate mitts and use caution
7 Share and combine your findings with around open flames and
classmates. Construct a chart that will other heat sources.
allow you to see everyone’s results and to
make comparisons.
Figure 4.7 What is the 8 If more than one person worked with a particular source (e.g., an electric
fastest way to boil water? stove), compare results. What could account for any differences?
9 Discuss the findings only in terms of the data recorded on the chart. Based
on time only, which would be the best choice?

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 243
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 244

COMPARING THE OPTIONS

In this unit, you have read about different ways of producing heat
and thermal energy. Fossil fuels are the most widely used. But
hydro-electric dams and nuclear power stations are also important
in certain parts of the country for producing electricity that we can
use to produce the heat and thermal energy we need. Solar energy
offers a clean, renewable alternative but is not yet widely used.
Other energy sources include geothermal and wind energy. Neither
of these is widely used in Canada as yet either.
Each energy source has advantages and disadvantages. Some are
non-renewable sources; some are renewable. Some can be
distributed widely, as hydro-electricity can. Others are usable direct
from the source, as solar energy is.
When you are analyzing options for selecting thermal energy
sources, remember to consider where the energy will be used. For
example, active solar heating may be an attractive option for home
heating. But if your home is on the third floor of a 10-storey
apartment building, active solar heating probably isn’t a practical
option.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. a) Make a chart summarizing the advantages and disadvantages
of fossil fuel use.
b) Why do you think people continue to use fossil fuels in spite
of their disadvantages?
2. For each of the following energy sources, explain why it’s a
renewable or a non-renewable source.
a) nuclear
b) hydro-electric
c) wind
d) natural gas
3. Do you think all the sources of energy listed in question 2 will
be in use 50 years from now? Explain your answer.

Figure 4.8 Energy in the

wind can be converted into
electricity with the help of
wind turbines.

244 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 245

4.2 Energy Consumption

Figure 4.9 Hanging clothes
on a line to dry conserves
energy by not using a
clothes dryer.

Have you ever considered how much energy you consume in a day?
Do you run the water when you brush your teeth? Do you follow
the three Rs—reduce, recycle, and reuse? Do you leave the light on
when you are the last to leave a room?

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Make a list of your everyday activities that require energy use. Compare your list
with those of your classmates. Make a bar graph of everyone’s data. What
activity is the most common? the least common? As a class, brainstorm ways
you could reduce your energy consumption.

info BIT
Hybrid Power
In the year 2000, Canadians were introduced to the “hybrid”
car—a vehicle that combines an electric motor and a small
gasoline engine with a lightweight body and special tires.
Much less gasoline is burned (3.5 L/100 km), and the level of
harmful gases given off is half that of regular cars. Japan’s new
laws about the issue of harmful emissions from cars was a
major factor in the development of hybrid cars in that country.
North American car manufacturers will be selling their own
hybrid vehicles by 2003. It is expected that, by 2010, one out of
every five cars on the road will be a hybrid.

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 245
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 246

Home
The three main energy users are home, transportation, and industry.
Energy use in the home is something that you can control. Look at
Figure 4.10. Working with a partner, identify as many ways of
conserving energy as you can.

Figure 4.10 What are some ways you can save energy in each scene?

To help people be more energy efficient in their homes, some

home renovation stores now carry a line of energy-efficient lighting
products and devices that control power consumption by
appliances. As well, some stores also stock low-flow shower heads
that conserve water.

246 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 247

Transportation
Most of us rely on cars or trucks for at least some of our
transportation needs. In many rural or remote areas, there are no
buses or other transit services, so people must use cars and trucks
to get around. However, cars and trucks are big energy users and
major contributors to air pollution.
Road, rail, air, and marine transportation together account for
about 66% of the oil used in Canada. Of that amount, more than
three-quarters is used to fuel passenger cars and trucks.
The burning of fossil fuels in car and truck engines produces a
variety of harmful chemicals that pollute the air. For example,
burning fuels causes nitrogen and oxygen in the air to form gases
called nitrogen oxides. People with lung problems have trouble
breathing air containing high concentrations of nitrogen oxides. If
you live in a city, you may have noticed a brown haze, especially at
rush hour. The brown haze is caused by nitrogen oxides in the air.

Figure 4.11 Public

transportation, such as the
LRT in Calgary (shown), uses
less energy than people
driving cars. And there are
many other alternatives to
cars that should be taken
advantage of.

Actions You Can Take

What can you do to reduce the negative effects of cars? Try walking,
riding your bike, roller-blading, or taking public transportation
whenever possible. Does a family member drive you to school? Do
other students in your neighbourhood go to your school? Maybe
you could organize a car pool. Make a list of all the errands that
you and your family have to do in a day. See if you can find an
efficient way to combine them into one trip.
The size of a car and how it is driven can make a difference to
its fuel consumption. Small cars usually consume less fuel, and
regular tune-ups can ensure that a car operates more efficiently.
Even the way people drive can save energy. Just by driving at
80 km/h instead of 100 km/h, a car owner can increase the number
of kilometres travelled per litre by 15%. Reducing the amount of
fuel we use conserves a non-renewable resource and reduces
pollution.

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 247
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 248

Industry
Industry is the biggest energy user. Think about just one industry
whose products you use: shoe manufacturing. Companies who
make shoes have offices and factories that must be lighted and
heated. They also have computers, photocopiers, and other office
machines that need energy. In their factories, they use energy for
preparing materials, such as plastic and leather, and for cutting and
shaping shoes. Then, they use fuel for the trucks to distribute their
products to stores. This is an example from just one industry. But
all industries use energy in some way, even if it’s simply for light,
heat, and office machines.
Sometimes, industry’s use of energy can harm the environment.
Industry is the major contributor of chemicals called sulfur oxides,
which turn to sulfuric acid in the air and form acid rain. Companies
must meet a wide range of environmental regulations that are
designed to reduce their effect on the environment.
For many companies, energy can be a major cost. In an effort to
Figure 4.12 Leaving lights reduce these costs, they look for ways to reduce their energy
on in empty offices consumption. An important tool that companies use is the energy
overnight wastes electricity. audit. An energy audit focusses on finding places where energy is
being wasted and identifying ways to fix the problem. For example,
a company finds that they are losing a large amount of heat from
leaving the huge doors in the loading area open all the time. By
installing an efficient opening and closing system, they can keep the
doors closed most of the time. They are only opened when a
shipment is being sent out.

Cogeneration
Some companies use such large amounts of electricity that they
have their own small generating plants. However, electricity
generation from fuel is not very efficient. Only about one-third of
the energy produced from burning fuel such as natural gas, oil, or
coal is transformed into electricity. The rest becomes heat that is
usually just released to the environment as waste energy. To
improve their energy efficiency, many large companies that produce
electricity now use a process called cogeneration.
Cogeneration is the production of two forms of energy (usually
electricity and heat) at the same time from one energy source. Not
only large companies but other large organizations use cogeneration.
The University of Alberta has its own electricity plant, so it now
uses what would have been waste heat to heat the university
buildings.

248 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 249

Decision C O N S E RV I N G E N E R G Y IN Y O U R C O M M U N I T Y:
Making C O G E N E R AT I O N
Activity The Issue
Your community is looking for a way to use energy more efficiently and reduce
pollution. You already have an electricity generating station in your area. Some
people have suggested that it could be converted to a type of energy production
called cogeneration.
Your task is to determine the costs and benefits of cogeneration so that you
can make a recommendation on whether cogeneration is a practical choice for
your community.

Background Information
Electricity generation from burning fossil fuels or other fuels, such as wood
waste, is an inefficient process. Only about one-third of the energy produced is
converted to electricity. The rest is heat, which is usually wasted by being
released into the environment. In a cogeneration system, this heat is used to heat
hot water, which is then pumped through pipes to heat buildings in the area. A
cogeneration system uses one energy source to produce two forms of usable
energy. Usually, these are electricity and heat.

Cogeneration makes sense because:

• it makes good use of heat that would otherwise be wasted
S
Supply School Pool
Return L
Library H
Hospital
• it reduces air pollution because two forms of energy are
A Arena generated at the same time
Apartment
Co-gen Plant • it reduces thermal pollution of rivers and lakes
Office
Building
H Constraints to cogeneration in communities include:
McConnell Ave.

• a large investment in equipment and in setting up the

Fifth St.
distribution systems, especially in areas that are already built up
Amelia St.

St.

S
Gloucester

• the need for cooperation among many groups: municipal

S A government, the utility that owns the electricity generating
Third St. S
S
S
plants, developers, and building owners
L
H S
• problems with municipal and provincial regulations controlling
placement of large plants and systems

Figure 4.13 The electricity Support Your Opinion

generating plant in Cornwall,
Find out how your community meets its electrical and heating needs. Research
Ontario, uses its waste heat
to heat part of the local the costs and benefits of cogeneration. Using the information from your research,
community. Hot water is explain in your own words why cogeneration would or would not make sense for
pumped through 10 km of your community. You may wish to illustrate your written work with a poster,
underground pipes. diagram, or chart. In your report, suggest one or more scientific questions that
would need to be answered before a final decision on cogeneration could be
made.

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 249
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 250

BEING A RESPONSIBLE CITIZEN

When people purchase products that promote a cleaner
environment, they are making a responsible decision. As well, they
can voice their ideas to government about supporting research that
will help to develop new environmentally friendly technologies
that use energy wisely.

re SEARCH
Recycling
Recycling is a good way to conserve energy and natural resources. Work with
a group to prepare a radio announcement encouraging people to recycle. Find
information about how much energy and money can be saved by recycling.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. List the three main energy users in Canada. Which one is the
largest user?
2. Describe two ways that you could conserve energy in your
home.
3. Should people be encouraged to use bicycles for transportation
to school or work? Explain your answer.
4. a) What is cogeneration?
b) Some countries in Europe have been using cogeneration for
heating buildings in their community for 20 years. How
would you determine if people in your community are aware
of cogeneration opportunities in your area?

250 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 251

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. a) Make a chart comparing the economic and environmental
costs of wind energy, nuclear energy, and hydro-electricity.
b) Which one do you think would be the best choice for your
part of the province? Why?
2. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Explain
your answer. We need to look at other sources besides fossil
fuels for meeting our thermal energy needs.
3. Most of British Columbia’s electrical energy needs are provided
by hydro-electricity. Most of Alberta’s are provided by
generating stations burning fossil fuels. Why do you think these
two neighbouring provinces use such different technology?
4. You have been asked to design an action plan to help conserve
energy at your school.
a) What data would you need to collect before you could
prepare your plan?
b) Make an outline for your plan.
5. Complete the mind map that you started at the beginning of this
unit.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

On
Every day we use heat-related technologies, but we may not be
aware of the effects of our using these technologies. For example,
we know that when we turn on the shower, we’ll get water the
temperature we want. But the water is hot because technology was
developed to heat that water using either electricity or fossil fuel.
The use of these energy sources can affect the environment. Think
back to the information learned and the activities you did in this
section.
1. Brainstorm a list of at least five ways that you used heat or
thermal energy in the past week. For example, you heated water
for drink or you made ice cubes. What effect do you think your
actions had on the environment?
2. Think about each action in question 1. Suggest a way that you
could have done it differently.
3. What recommendations would you make for yourself and your
family members in the future when making decisions about
using heat technologies?

Technologies That Use Heat Have Benefits and Costs to Society and to the Environment 251
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 252

S C I E N C E W O R L D

y
a
se d
S t u

The Ostrowskis: Clean, Green Living

• super-efficient wood-burning fireplace for heating
and cooking (uses one cord of wood per year—
2.4 m long by 1.2 m wide by 1.2 m high. Scrap
wood is collected from local companies rather than
cutting down trees.)
• solar cookers for cooking and baking food
Making informed and responsible choices that protect
the environment is at the heart of the Ostrowskis’
lifestyle. They read labels and carefully consider how
buying products will impact the environment. “In
Alberta, we have an overabundance of natural
resources and so we have lost our sense of
appreciation. We need to reflect for a moment, to ask
ourselves, ‘What can we give back to society, to make
The Ostrowskis’ house
the world better?’ This kind of thinking makes us
realize that what you put into the system comes back
The Issue out,” notes Jorg.
Sustainable living. How realistic is the idea? Imagine
living in an Alberta home that had no natural gas line, Go Further
no furnace, did not use city water or sewage systems, Now it’s your turn. Follow the Ostrowskis’ lead. Look
and used no city electricity. What century do you into the following resources to help you form your
think you would be living in? The past? The future? own opinion about sustainable living.
How about today? • Look on the Web: Check out sustainable living or
Meet Jorg and Helen Ostrowski, a twenty-first- sustainable development on the Internet.
century couple living in suburban Calgary. Their
• Ask the Experts: Try to find an expert on
170-m2 environmentally friendly home reflects their
sustainable living. Experts can be found in many
commitment to a way of life that focusses on a
places: environmental groups, universities,
minimal use of natural resources. In one year, they
government agencies.
save an average of:
• $1800.00 on utilities (gas, water, electricity) • Look It Up in Newspapers and Magazines: Look for
• $500.00 for space and water heating articles about sustainable living.
• 10 000 kWh of electricity
• 5000 kg of coal for generating electricity
In Your Opinion
• 238 200 L of treated drinking water
Create a 3–5-min video, write an article for your
Their home has such high-tech features as: school newspaper, or make a poster to share your
• solar power for electricity views on sustainable living. Be sure to highlight key
• system for collecting and storing rainwater information from your research so that your opinion
• non-flush toilets that compost human waste is backed by facts.

252 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 253

UN I T S U M M A RY: H E AT AND T E M P E R AT U R E

Key Concepts Section Summaries

1.0 1.0 Human needs have led to technologies for obtaining and controlling heat.
• heat energy needs and • Heat technologies have changed and developed over time as people work to meet their
technologies needs for heat.
• energy conservation • Culture (way of life) includes how people meet their basic needs, and technology is
linked to culture.
• As people have evolved, so has the development of heat-related materials and
technologies.
• Choices about the environment are made by individuals and by society.

2.0 2.0 Heat affects matter in different ways.

• change of state • Transferring heat to or from matter can cause a change of state.
• particle model • The particle model of matter explains why matter changes state and changes volume.
• thermal energy
• Conduction transfers heat between two substances in contact with each other; only the
• heat transfer
energy is transferred from particle to particle; convection transfers heat by the
• thermal expansion
movement of particles; radiation transfers heat by invisible waves.
• temperature
• insulation and thermal • Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of the particles in a substance; heat is the
conductivity energy transferred between two substances; heat transfers from substances whose
particles have a higher kinetic energy to substances whose particles have lower kinetic
energy.
• Temperature is a measurement of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a
substance.

3.0 3.0 Understanding heat and temperature helps explain natural phenomena and
• heat energy needs and technological devices.
technologies • Thermal energy is produced naturally by the sun, decay, fire, and geothermal sources.
• thermal energy • Passive and active solar heating systems use the sun’s energy and are environmentally
• thermal energy sources friendly.
• insulation and thermal
conductivity • Thermostats help control temperature in heating systems.
• energy conservation • Insulation helps block unwanted heat transfer.

4.0 4.0 Technologies that use heat have benefits and costs to society and to the
• heat energy needs and environment.
technologies • Non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels have a limited supply.
• thermal energy sources
• Fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal are major heat sources but burning them
• energy conservation
is harmful to the environment.
• Three types of costs are involved in using natural resources: economic, environmental,
and societal.
• Five alternatives for producing thermal energy include solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, nuclear energy, and hydro-electric power; each has different costs
and benefits.

Unit Summary 253

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 254

PROJECT
U S I N G T H E R M A L E N E R G Y M O R E E F F I C I E N T LY

Getting Started
Canadians of this century live
fast-paced lives. Change is part
of our culture. As technology
quickly advances, we often
seem to model the saying, “Out
with the old, in with the new!”
But is that always the best
decision?
In this unit, you have
learned about making decisions
that consider possibilities,
facts, values, and priorities.
You have a new understanding
about the science of thermal
energy and how we use that
energy to meet our needs and
wants for heat. How and why
we have developed different
heat-related technologies has
been explored. You have also
learned about different costs
linked to the use of natural What You Need to Know
resources. This project will In 1911, the Michaels family, founding members of your community,
help you apply your learning to built a very grand brick mansion in the centre of town. The family’s
the renovation of a historical history of generous community service and financial donations made
building in your community. them well loved. The Michaels home became a unique community
landmark.
Your Goal This past summer, the last surviving member of the Michaels family
Use the background died, and in the will, left the mansion to your community. Some
information to determine the developers would like to tear it down to make a shopping complex
most likely sources of thermal because of its prime location. Another group would like to bulldoze the
energy loss in this old house. house to put up condominiums. However, a third group wants to
Figure out how thermal energy preserve the house and turn it into a museum that would celebrate the
could be used more efficiently community’s history. They feel that the house’s historical value is as
and in a more environmentally important as its economic value. They also believe that it is very
friendly way. Develop a plan worthwhile to conserve the high-quality materials that were used in
within a budget of $50 000. constructing the house.

254 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 255

At a town hall meeting, it is decided that the third A real estate report provides clues to solving the
group should have a chance to make the house into a problem:
museum. School programs and other activities could • inside of house in excellent condition—has many
be run from such a place, giving the people of the special features including hardwood flooring, oak
community and visitors a chance to learn more about panelling, variety of ceiling mouldings, sliding
local history. Most people feel that it is important to doors, carved staircase, south-facing sun porch
save the building if some of the operating costs can (glass enclosed), stained-glass windows, four large
be lowered. The outside of the building is still in very fireplaces, 3-m-high ceilings
good shape, needing only some minor repairs to the • original heating system (hot-water heating)
brickwork. However, there is a major concern about
• original single-pane windows
the large monthly heating bill.
• original insulation in attic
• has new electrical wiring
• landscaping consists of large lawn area, small
shrubs, and flowering plants
pantry pantry
kitchen
breakfast Steps to Success
room
1 Work in teams of 3 to 5. Brainstorm what you
sun
porch would do to reduce the heating bill. Make a list of
dining room den all possible options. Then collect information
about the costs of making changes to the house.
Writing letters, making phone inquiries, reading
catalogues, visiting home improvement stores,
parlour
library using e-mail, and checking Web sites on the
vestibule Internet are some ways to gather the needed
information.
2 Prepare a written proposal that clearly explains
what changes you would make and why.
Remember that you need to stick to your
$50,000 budget. Using diagrams, CAD drawings,
three-dimensional models, or other visual aids
bedroom sitting closet will add to your written work.
room
bath 3 Present your team’s plan to the class.

How Did It Go?

guest
bedroom
room 4 Describe how you decided on the changes to
make to the house.
5 Describe your research process. How was it
master similar or different from other teams’ research?
bath sewing
guest room bedroom
room 6 How well did your team work together? How
effectively did you make your decisions?
balcony 7 What would you do differently another time?

0 1.5 3.0 4.5

scale in metres
Project 255
03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 256

UNIT REVIEW: HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Unit Vocabulary 2.0

1. Write a short story about heat and 6. List the four main ideas of the particle
temperature using the following terms. model of matter.
thermometer 7. How does the particle model explain a
particle model of matter change of state of matter?
expand
8. A metal bolt heated to a high
contract
temperature will be slightly larger than
conduction
if it was in a freezer. Why?
convection
radiation 9. Define conduction, convection, and
insulator radiation.
conductor 10. Define temperature. Include the words
convection current “kinetic energy” and “particle model of
radiant energy matter” in your definition.
temperature 11. Explain how heat and temperature are
kinetic energy related yet different concepts.
thermal energy
fossil fuels 3.0
solar energy
sustainable use of resources 12. Give three examples of natural thermal
energy.
Check Your Knowledge 13. Describe how passive and active solar
heating systems differ.
1.0 14. Explain how a thermostat works and
why it is important for safety.
2. Is heat a substance or a form of energy?
Explain your answer. 15. Describe and give examples of local and
central heating systems.
3. Describe one example of heat technology
from the past and one example from the 16. Explain how insulation works in a
present day. building and why we use it.
4. a) Give one example of a personal 4.0
choice related to the use of heat as an
energy source or technology. 17. Describe three alternative forms of
b) Give one example of a societal choice energy that can be used to produce
related to the use of heat as an energy thermal energy.
source or technology.
18. Describe three non-renewable resources.
5. Identify one technological device that
19. Describe two examples of energy
produces heat and explain how it does
conservation in your home or
that.
community.

256 Unit C: Heat and Temperature

03_U7C_Heat_p174-257 12/14/06 5:08 PM Page 257

Connect Your Understanding 24. Sketch a diagram of your home. In that

same diagram, show how passive and
20. Create a chart or picture that illustrates
active solar heating could be used where
the three ways heat can be transferred.
you live.
Your chart should include a description
of the method of heat transfer and an
Self Assessment
example of a device that uses it.
25. Describe the fact or concept that you
21. Humans have gone from burning wood
found most interesting or most
as their main heat source to using
surprising in this unit.
alternative energy sources such as solar
energy. Describe how and why this has 26. What unanswered questions do you still
happened. Include illustrations in your have about heat and temperature?
answer. 27. Has your thinking about sustainable
22. List some of the costs and benefits to living changed now that you have
using fossil fuels. For each point in your finished this unit? Why or why not?
list, describe the consequences to the 28. What do you now see as your own
environment and society. personal responsibility to the
environment?
Practise Your Skills
23. A student poured hot water into a Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT
plastic cup, a Styrofoam cup, and a On
Styrofoam cup with newspaper wrapped
around it. Each had a thermometer in it. In this unit, you have learned about the
The student recorded the water social and environmental context of heat
temperature for each cup for 10 min (see and temperature. Think about what you
table below). Graph the results for each learned as you answer the following
cup, and determine which results go questions.
with which cup. Briefly explain your 29. In a paragraph, describe the relationship
choices. between these terms: human needs,
thermal energy technologies, fossil fuels,
Time Container 1 Container 2 Container 3
and conservation.
(Minutes) (Temp °C) (Temp °C) (Temp °C)
1 75 75 75 30. What are three major issues related to
2 73 72 73 how we generate and use heat?
3 70 66 69 31. Reread the three questions on page 179
4 68 63 67 about the social and environmental
5 67 59 63
context of heat and temperature. Use a
6 65 55 60
creative way to demonstrate your
7 64 53 58
8 63 50 55
understanding of one of the questions.
9 61 46 53
10 60 44 49

Unit Review 257

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:21 PM Page 258

UNIT

258
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:21 PM Page 259

In this unit, you will cover the following sections:

1.0 Structures are found in natural and human-made

environments.
1.1 Classifying Structural Forms
1.2 The Function of Structures
1.3 Human-Built Structures around the World

2.0 External and internal forces act on structures.

2.1 Measuring Forces
2.2 External Forces Acting on Structures
2.3 Internal Forces within Structures
2.4 Designing Structures to Resist Forces and Maintain
Stability

3.0 Structural strength and stability depend on the properties of

different materials and how they are joined together.
3.1 Materials and Their Properties
3.2 Joining Structural Components
3.3 Properties of Materials in Plant and Animal Structures

4.0 Structures are designed, evaluated, and improved in order to

meet human needs.
4.1 Building Safe Structures in All Environments
4.2 Strengthening Materials to Improve Function and Safety
4.3 Evaluating Designs from an Overall Perspective

259
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:22 PM Page 260

Exploring
Structures have a job to do. A roof must stay in place even under
the weight of heavy snow, sheltering whatever it covers. A bridge
must support hundreds of vehicles, as well as be able to withstand
the forces of weather and, in some cases, even earthquakes. The
case around a television must protect its internal parts—just as your
rib cage must protect your internal parts from the wear and tear of
daily life.
In this unit, you will learn about a wide variety of structures in
both the natural and human-built environments, examining the
many different purposes they serve and the forms they can take.
Investigating and analyzing the forces that act within and on
structures will help you explore how different materials,
components, and ways of joining can affect structural strength and
stability. As you build and test your own structures, you will also
learn about the relationship between design and function. This will
help you evaluate how structures built in the past, as well as those
you use every day, can be developed and improved to meet human
needs in a safe and efficient manner.

260 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:22 PM Page 261

RUGGED COMPUTERS FOR A RUGGED LIFE

A recent survey by a leading maker of computers in the world
reported that businesses in North America are spending millions of
dollars each year to repair and replace damaged laptop computers.
Laptops, the survey found, are most often damaged as a result of
being dropped, crushed, or spilled on. This is likely to become a
greater problem as people rely more and more on being able to take
their laptop computers wherever they go: the office, school, the
mountains, the beach—even into space.

Many laptop computers

A laptop computer has many delicate parts that can break. It are used far from
must therefore be designed to withstand being bumped around classrooms and offices.
every day. Still, it must also be light enough to carry. Early laptops In this photograph, a
satellite communicator is
were heavier than today’s models because of the materials and
also being used.
components used to make them. As computer technology has
improved, laptops have become increasingly lighter. At the same
time, designers and computer technicians have come up with
clever ways of making the devices more rugged. The illustration on
the next page shows several of the standard features on new laptops
today.

Exploring 261
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:22 PM Page 262

Laptops are not meant to be mistreated, but when accidents

happen, today’s portable computers can often survive with good
results.

sealed computer vibration-resistant

screen computer screen

metal case

sealed, spill-
resistant keyboard
dust-resistant hinges

flexible internal connectors

shock-absorbing hard drive

spill-resistant touchpad

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

SAVE THIS EGG!

How well could you design a structure to protect a very delicate object like a Materials &
laptop computer? Rather than finding out using a real computer, you’re going to Equipment
test your design abilities on another delicate object—an egg. Options:
• straws
• Brainstorm what design and materials might be used to protect an egg from • newspaper
cracking when it is dropped. • cardboard
• paper
• Using the least amount you can of the materials listed here, design an egg
• Popsicle sticks
protection case that will enable the egg to survive the force of impact when it
• masking tape
is dropped from a height of 3 m. • glue
• When everyone in the class has had a chance to test their egg protectors, • string
• paper clips
discuss the results. Which means of protection worked the best? What
• elastic bands
materials provided the best protection? Was there a particular arrangement of
materials that did the most effective job? Which successful protection case
was the lightest (that is, used the least material)?

262 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:22 PM Page 263

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
As you learn about structures and forces in this unit, you will be
given many opportunities to solve practical problems using your
knowledge of both science and technology.
Science provides an ordered way of learning and explaining the
nature of things. Technology is concerned with finding solutions to
practical problems that arise from human needs. As you’ll discover,
there are often several possible solutions to the same technological
problem, each involving different designs, materials, and processes.
In approaching a problem, it is helpful to
• define your need clearly
• develop an appropriate plan and design
• test and evaluate your design
To guide your reading as you learn about the nature of structures
and forces, keep the following questions in mind.
1. How do structures stand up under a load?
2. What forces act on structures?
3. What materials and design characteristics contribute to a
structure’s strength and stability?
The answers to these questions will help you understand the roles
that both science and technology have in the designing and
building of a wide variety of structures.

Exploring 263
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:22 PM Page 264

1.0 Structures are found in

natural and human-made
environments.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• structural forms
• function and design
• structural stability

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• recognize and classify
structural forms and
materials
• interpret and evaluate
variation in the design of
structures that share a
common function
• compare example structures
developed by different
cultures and at different Every object that provides support is a structure. A structure may
times be made up of one or more parts, and it may be large or small.
• interpret differences in Think for a moment of all the structures that are around you in
structural functions,
your everyday life. Some you can see in the natural environment,
materials, and aesthetics
and some are built by people. Some are made of delicate material,
• describe and interpret
structures found in the
and others of very rugged, hard material. Some structures have
natural environment lasted a long time because they can bend without breaking. Others
have lasted a long time because they are rigid.
You will probably also notice that the structures around you
vary in their strength and stability. Structural strength refers to a
structure’s capacity to hold itself up, as well as any weight added
to it. Structural stability is a structure’s ability to maintain its
position even when it is being acted on by a force.
If there are so many types of structures, how can we even
begin organizing them into a meaningful classification that helps
us understand them better? In this section, you will find out.

264 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 265

info BIT
1.1 Classifying Structural Forms
Portable Shelters
Usually, the first thing you notice about a structure is its shape, or The earliest human-
form. You can learn a great deal about a structure by comparing its built structures were
overall form with that of other structures. How would you do this? dwellings made with
There are three basic structural forms. You can see these for ice, sod, or wood. They
yourself by copying the actions in Figure 1.1. First, use your hand were strong and
to make a fist. This is an example of a solid structure. Feel what it weather-resistant, but
is like. Now, open your hand and put both hands together so your too heavy to be easily
fingertips are touching. This is an example of a frame structure. moved. Today,
Would this form be as strong and stable as your fist if you added a synthetic building
materials (materials
mass on top of it? Next, make one hand into a cup shape, as though
made from chemicals)
you wanted to carry water in it. This is an example of a shell
mean that many
structure. Suppose you added a mass on top of this form. What do
dwellings can be
you predict about its strength and stability? strong but also light
and portable.
A B C Examples are nylon
tents and
prefabricated trailers.

Figure 1.1 Your hand in the shape of a fist is a solid structure (A). Placing your hands in a tent-like
position creates a frame structure (B). Cupping your hand creates a shell structure (C).

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

TAKE THE POP BRIDGE CHALLENGE

If someone told you it was possible for a full can of pop to be
supported by a sheet of paper, would you believe it? Try this activity
and find out. Your teacher has a can of pop and two stacks of books
15 cm apart at the front of the class.

• Using only a sheet of paper (about 26 cm ⫻ 20 cm, roughly the

size of a page from your notebook), design a structure that will
rest between the two stacks of books and support the can of pop.
You have 5 min to work on your design at your desk. You will then
get a chance to put your structure to the test on the set-up at the Figure 1.2 How could you create a
front of the class. paper bridge strong enough to
support a full can of pop?

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 265

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 266

SOLID STRUCTURES
A solid structure is formed from a solid piece (or solid combination
of pieces) of some strong material. A concrete parking barrier is a
solid structure. So is a brick wall and a hockey puck. A solid
structure has little or no space inside, and relies on its own mass to
resist the forces that act on it. (You will find out more about mass,
meaning the amount of matter in an object, in section 2.0.) Solid
structures are usually stronger than either frame or shell structures,
but they are also more massive and therefore harder to move. Other
examples of solid structures are shown in Figure 1.3.

FRAME STRUCTURES
A frame structure is made up of a rigid arrangement of parts, or
structural components, fastened together. An example is your
skeleton, which is made up of bones, ligaments, and joints. The
strength of a frame structure comes from the way the components
are joined. Individually, no one component of a frame structure is
as strong as the components combined.
A frame structure can be arranged in two dimensions, the way a
door frame or fence is. It can also be arranged in three dimensions,
as a music stand or house is. Compared to solid structures, frame
structures are lighter because they use less material. Figure 1.4
Figure 1.3 Examples of
natural and human-made shows additional examples of frame structures.
solid structures

Figure 1.4 Examples of natural and human-made frame structures

266 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 267

SHELL STRUCTURES
A shell structure has a solid outer surface, which may be rounded math Link
or flat in shape, and a hollow inner area. Shell structures with a
rounded outer surface are usually stronger than those with a flat The spider’s web at
outer surface, because the curved areas distribute the load around the beginning of this
the whole surface. A bean pod, a tennis ball, and a car body are all section can hold up to
examples of shell structures. So are a flowerpot, a lunch kit, and a 4000 times the weight
of the spider that
CD case.
made it. If you were a
Having a hollow interior means that shell structures are lighter
spider, how much
than solid structures. They are also often stronger than frame
weight would your
structures and are therefore commonly used to provide protection. web hold?
(Think of helmets, for instance.) Other examples of shell structures
are shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Examples

of natural and human-
made shell structures

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 267

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 268

re SEARCH
Combination Structures
You may have noticed that most
structures in the built environment
are actually a combination of
structural forms. Combination
structures use the best of the three
basic forms to advantage. Study the
structures to the right and decide Calgary’s Saddledome shows how innovative architects
which structural forms they combine. can be when it comes to designing buildings.

Examples of combination structures

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Name the three main structural forms. In your notebook, make a
simple sketch of the basic design of each.
2. Copy the chart below into your notebook. Write the names of the
three structural forms in the left-hand column. Then, for each
structural form, write in two examples from the natural
environment and two from the human-made environment. Try
to make all your examples for (b) ones that have not been shown
or mentioned in the text.

Structural form Examples from the Examples from the

natural environment human-made
environment
1. a) a)
b) b)
2. a) a)
b) b)

Figure 1.6 Make a chart like this for Question 2.

3. Large human-built solid structures are often made from brick,

concrete, mud, or stone. Why do you think these materials are
used to construct solid structures?
4. Consider these facts: a) a bird’s wing bones are hollow, not solid;
and b) the supporting skeleton of some invertebrates (such as
sea stars and lobsters) is outside, not inside, their bodies. What
advantages do these structural designs have?

268 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 269

1.2 The Function of Structures

Imagine the following situation:
You are a landscape designer who has been hired by
the local parks commission to design a style of park bench
that will last a long time and can’t be easily moved.
Knowing what you do about structural forms, you decide
that a solid bench is the best choice. From your design, 10
block-like concrete benches are built. Several months after
they are installed, a member of the parks commission calls
you with a concern. Few people ever use the benches
because they are so unappealing and uncomfortable.
What important point was overlooked in the design
task? It was that the main function of the benches (that is,
their use or purpose) was not properly considered. Too
much attention was given to designing a bench that would
Figure 1.7 The Muttart Conservatory in
be durable and secure. Not enough attention was given to Edmonton is noted for its five glass
designing a bench whose function was to provide pyramids. Housed within these pyramids are
comfortable, inviting seating. indoor gardens that include tropical and
desert plants.
MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS
Many structures are designed to serve more than one function. An
airplane, for example, provides both movement and shelter. So does
a train. Sometimes these two types of structures are built to move
and shelter cargo. Other times they are built to move and shelter
people.
When a designer knows what all the functions of a planned
structure are to be, he or she will be better able to design a structure
that will be used.

info BIT
Inukshuit
What human need does an inukshuk (pronounced “in-OOK-
shook”) meet? This structure, found across the Canadian North, is
a unique symbol of Inuit culture. It expresses “joy and much
happiness” to anyone who encounters it. More than a greeting,
however, many types of inukshuit also serve as signs, providing
valuable information for travellers. For this reason, they must be
clearly visible, stable, and strong.
Some inukshuit point in the direction where, traditionally,
caribou herds have been hunted.

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 269

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 270

FUNCTION AND EFFECTIVE DESIGN

Technological problems can often be solved in a variety of ways,
using many different structural designs, materials, and processes.
What all successful solutions have in common, however, is that
they pay close attention to function. For example, consider
Canadian inventor Norman Breakey. In 1940, he grappled with the
following technological problem: how do you paint a large wall
quickly and inexpensively? People had been using paint brushes,
but it was a slow process and sometimes wasted a lot of paint.
Breakey thought of designing a device that would allow the
paint to be rolled on quickly and smoothly. Wisely, he also
remembered to think about how the device would be used. It had to
be light enough for people to handle, easy to use in large or small
spaces, and inexpensive to make. After making many modifications
to his prototype, he developed the hand-held paint roller. Today,
the roller is used by professional and do-it-yourself painters all over
the world.

Figure 1.8 Predict what might

have happened if Norman
Breakey had thought only about
the science of how his new
device applied paint, and not
about the practical problems of
using the device.

To get ideas for structures that will meet particular functions,

many designers, architects, and inventors look at the natural world.
For example, Prairie rancher Michael Kelly invented barbed wire in
1868 when he realized he needed something that would function
the same as a thorny bush to keep his livestock in one place. Over
time, Kelly’s invention has been refined, but the basic design has
stayed the same.

270 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 271

Problem
Solving DESIGN THE PERFECT DESK
Activity Recognize a Need
Right now you’re probably sitting at a desk. Think about what your desk has to
do. What are its main functions? How does its design help the desk perform
those functions? Is there something you would add to make your desk more
Materials & Equipment useful? Here’s your chance to improve on an old design.
• ruler
• metre-stick The Problem
• graph paper (optional) Design the “perfect” desk, one that serves all the functions you need it to do
during the school day.

Criteria for Success

Functions Design
(What special
For your design to be considered successful, it must
(Ways I want to
use my desk) features my desk • represent a completed desk that would fit an area no larger than
will have so I can 60 cm ⫻ 90 cm on the floor and 120 cm high
use it that way)
• show at least six unique features not used in current desks
Writing A flat surface
large enough to
Brainstorm Ideas
hold a workbook 1 Working on your own, make a list of (a) your desk’s essential functions and
and textbook (b) the extra functions you think it could serve. For example, do you need
more work space? Do you want a place to keep your lunch cold?
2 Beside each function you’ve listed, write down possible design solutions.
Maybe you need a built-in pencil sharpener, or a hook for hanging your
backpack off the floor? Be creative, but practical!

Make a Drawing
3 Decide what scale you will use in making a diagram of your design. For
example, 6 cm in actual size could be represented by 1 cm in your drawing
(see Toolbox 8).
4 Draw your design ideas on paper, using the scale you have set. If you need
to, make two or three drawings to show your desk from various views, such
as side, front, and back.
5 Label the design features shown in your drawings. Also, label the
measurements of the overall desk as they would be in actual size.

Test and Evaluate

6 Post your completed drawings on the wall.
7 As a class, assess whether the various designs look as though they would be
strong and stable enough to serve their intended functions.

Communicate
8 Share with the class any additional design ideas you had but were unable to
use because of the size limitations or another reason. Invite your classmates
to make suggestions for possible design solutions you hadn’t thought of.

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 271

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 272

COMMON FUNCTION, DIFFERENT DESIGN

Some structures, although they look very different from one another
in their design, actually share a common function.
For instance, look at the roofed structures pictured in Figure 1.9.
In simple terms, all roofs serve the same purpose. They provide a
top covering for a building and protect the contents inside. Yet, as
the pictures show, there is great variation in the way roofs are
designed and built. All of the roofs shown here are effective in their
own way because they suit the local climatic conditions and they
meet the needs of the people using them.
Over time, people have discovered through trial and error what
works and what doesn’t work in roof design. How effective do you
think a flat roof on a house would be if the house were located high
in the mountains? After one season of heavy snow, how would you
modify the roof design?

Figure 1.9 How do these roofed structures C This type of roof, commonly seen on
differ in form and materials used? Suggest barns, is called a gambrel roof.
reasons for why they are so different from
one another.

A
D
A house with a Grain silo with
gabled roof its characteristic
dome-shaped
roof

F
The “onion-dome”
roof characterizes
many Ukrainian
churches

B
Why do you
think this
house has a Flat-roofed adobe house. What
steeply pitched advantage do you think this type
roof? of roof has for these homes?

G
Vancouver’s Canada Place is a convention
centre located on the harbour.

272 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 273

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURES

In addition to form and function, structures can be interpreted and
classified according to the materials and components they are made
of. You will learn more about these in section 3.0, but for now, look
at the structures in Figure 1.10 and analyze their characteristics.
Match one of the natural structures with one of the human-built
structures that is similar in shape. Compare the two structures.
How else are they similar besides the design? How are they
different? For example, a bat’s wing and an airplane wing are
similar in shape. They are also similar in function since both
provide a means to fly. However, they are different in the materials
they are made of, and they are different in how they work.

A B
Figure 1.10 In terms of
structural characteristics,
which objects from the
natural environment and
which from the human-
built environment can be
paired up?

C D

E F

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 273

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 274

AESTHETICS
One other way that structures can be interpreted and classified is in
terms of their aesthetic quality. Aesthetics refers to the pleasing
appearance or effect that an object has because of its design. Not all
structures need to be aesthetically pleasing. For example, the
framework supporting a train trestle does not have to be beautiful in
design, colour, or finish, but it does have to be strong and stable. A
park band shell, on the other hand, should be pleasing to look at
and use.

Figure 1.11 Honouring its Ukrainian heritage, the town of Vegreville built this monument to the
pysanka (Ukrainian Easter egg). The aluminum egg, weighing 2270 kg and measuring 7 m by
6 m, stands on a steel and concrete base. Why might a concrete block with a plaque have been
a less aesthetically pleasing structure?

Humans throughout time and across cultures have shared a need

for beauty in their surroundings. Indigenous peoples around the
world have traditionally decorated their dwellings on both the
outside and the inside with painted designs and other artistic
features. Today, people still make a conscious effort to design and
embellish their dwellings and other buildings so that they are
attractive.

re SEARCH
Nice Fins ...
Just as with clothing, trends and styles in structural design
come and go. What was considered aesthetically pleasing
at one time may not be many years later. Cars built with
large “fins” were popular in the 1950s and early 1960s, but
that feature gave way to more rounded vehicle forms.
Choose another type of structure that interests you and
research how changing tastes in aesthetics have affected Aesthetics plays a big part in structural design.
the structural design of that object over the years. Aesthetics, of course, is “in the eye of the beholder.”

274 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 275

Aesthetics has always played an important role in the

structural designs of First Nations people. The design on
teepees used by Plains First Nations reflected the environment
as well as the owner’s personal spiritual beliefs. For
example, the animals portrayed were considered to be
sacred and were thought to provide protection for
the family living within.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Briefly explain what is meant by the function of a structure, and
why function is such an important part of design.
2. Think about the characteristics of solid, frame, and shell
structures, and about the importance of a structure’s function.
With these points in mind, decide which structural forms you
would use to make each of the following and explain why:
a) a bridge to carry trains over a deep valley
b) a rain shelter in a public garden
c) a stand to hold a guitar
d) a stand to hold a large plant
e) a child’s playhouse
3. Study the three bicycles in Figure 1.12.
a) Even though they all share a common function, what does
the variation in their design show?
b) Evaluate the effectiveness of each design. Does each bicycle
serve the function it was designed to? Explain your answers.

A B C

Figure 1.12 (A) a mountain bike, (B) a racing bike, and (C) a folding bike

4. What is aesthetics? List three structures that you consider

beautiful. Explain why this beauty is important to their function.

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 275

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 276

info BIT
Stonehenge
1.3 Human-Built Structures around the
Stonehenge is an World
ancient monument on
the Salisbury Plain in
England. Built more
than 3000 years ago,
the structure consists of
more than 36 megaliths
(large stones) arranged
in a circle and
surrounded by a ditch
91 m in diameter.
Although there are
many theories about
how Stonehenge came
to be, what its function
was when it was built is
not completely
understood.

Figure 1.13 Taj Mahal, Agra, India

Throughout this unit, you’ve already seen or thought about many

different types of structures. Some of these are modern and some
are from ancient times; some are from Canada and some are from
elsewhere in the world. As the examples of various roof structures
in Figure 1.9 showed, even those structures with a common
purpose can have very different designs. Climate, culture, tradition,
technology, and economics are among the main reasons that
structures are so varied.

THE HUMAN HOME

Homes developed by different cultures and at different times are
just one example of how widely humans have adapted a basic form.
Many people around the world built homes that, while
providing protection, were also portable. Similar to the North
American teepee, for example, were the yurts used in Siberia and
the tents used in the deserts of the Middle East.
Houses built of sod (clumps of earth) were long used by early
peoples in Europe. This was also a common structure built by
pioneers in the Prairies. The material was easy to get and didn’t
cost anything. It also created a relatively protected enclosure that
could be heated by a fire.

276 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 277

In countries with hot climates, houses have traditionally been

constructed of sun-baked brick (adobe), clay, or mud. These
materials, combined with a shell form having few windows or door
openings, create interiors that can be kept cool even under intense
sun. Dwellings made of grasses and bamboo have been built for
hundreds of years in many warm, wet countries. In some locations,
these homes are constructed high on stilts to raise the dwelling
above wet ground.
Look at Figure 1.14 to see examples of these and other types of
homes. As different as they are from one another, they still share
two essential characteristics of effective structures: 1) they are all
basically stable; and 2) they all provide shelter for the people who
live in them.

B Figure 1.14 Dwellings

Igloos have A In European
such as those pictured
been used cities,
by the Inuit apartment here show the
for living is tremendous variety
thousands common. there is in human-built
of years. structures around the
world.

G C

Stone mountain huts,

Many homes in the
such as this one in
world are floating
the Himalayan
homes, such as this one
mountains of Nepal,
in French Polynesia.
are warm once
heated inside.
F

Buildings, such as this

In a tropical climate,
medieval fortress in Spain,
houses must keep people
provided a home and
cool and dry. This bamboo
protection against invasion.
Tents offer desert dwellers protection house is in Assam state,
from sun, wind, and cool night India.
temperatures. This photograph was
taken in Saudi Arabia.

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 277

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 278

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

CURRENT OR C L A S S I C A L ? A N A LY Z E A STRUCTURAL DESIGN

You work for a company called “Build It Yourself: Current or Classical
Boats.” It’s an unusual business that specializes in selling kits to people
who want to build their own life-size sailing vessel. All the kit designs are
of authentic sailing vessels, from all cultures and eras. You have been
hired for your skills in interpreting different types of boat structures. This
week’s assignment? The sales staff want you to assess three vessels and
write notes that they can use to help their customers in choosing a kit.
• Study the three sailing vessels shown in Figure 1.15. Analyze each
vessel’s general design and the materials from which it appears to be
made.
Figure 1.15 Human-built
• In a small group, brainstorm as many advantages and disadvantages as
structures vary widely,
you can think of for each vessel. Record these on a large sheet of even those that share a
paper. Share your ideas with the class. basic function and design.

A B C

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What are some of the main reasons for the great variation in even
the same type of human-built structure?
2. Look at the two modern suburban houses in Figure 1.16. In what
kind of climate do you think each of these houses is located? In
what ways do you think the designs of these houses would
differ because of the climates?

Figure 1.16 Question 2.

A B

278 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 279

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Choose a structure in your classroom.
a) Identify its basic structural form, and then describe its
function.
b) What special features of the structure allow it to be used the
way it is? Are there any features you would change if you
were redesigning this structure?
c) Given the materials and design characteristics of the
structure, briefly describe how long you think the structure
will last.
2. Name three examples of human-made structures that are copies
of natural structures in design and function.
3. In design terms, is it fair to say that an umbrella is stronger than
a mushroom, or that a jet is more efficient at movement than a
hummingbird? Why or why not? Express your views in a class
discussion.
4. Think of examples in your own neighbourhood where
aesthetically pleasing features are part of various structures.
Compare your examples with those of your classmates. Do you
all have the same opinions about what is aesthetically pleasing
and what isn’t? Discuss why defining an object in terms of
aesthetics can vary from individual to individual.

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
When a technology is used to solve a problem, it must be
appropriate for the situation. If it is not, it hasn’t really solved the
problem. Reflect on what you learned about structures in this
section.
1. What were some of the solutions to technological problems you
read about?
2. What factors must you consider when assessing the
appropriateness of a technological solution?
3. How could you apply what you have learned about structural
form and function in solving a technological problem such as
how to build a summer outdoor shelter for your pet?

Structures Are Found in Natural and Human-Made Environments 279

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:23 PM Page 280

2.0 External and internal forces

act on structures.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• material strength and
flexibility
• forces on and within
structures
• direction of forces
• structural stability
• modes of failure
• performance requirements

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed
this section, you will be able
to:
• use units of force and mass,
and measure forces and
loads
• identify tension,
compression, shearing, and
bending forces within a
structure
• describe how forces can
cause failure in natural and Tall, taller, tallest. Office towers allow large numbers of people to
built structures work and live in the same city block. Communication towers must
• infer how the stability of a stand high above their surroundings so that signals can be
model structure will be broadcast and received without interference from other structures
affected by changes in mass or features on the landscape. It seems there’s no end to how tall
distribution and the these types of towers can be. Or is there?
foundation design
Imagine you’ve been asked to design the tallest possible tower
that will withstand the force of a wind. What determines the
ability of a structure—especially a tall one—to keep standing
despite the push of air? What other forces affect structures? You
will need the answers to these and other questions to be able to
meet the design challenge at the end of this section.

280 For Web links relating to 2.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 281

2.1 Measuring Forces

A force is a push or pull that tends to cause an object to change its
movement or shape. Working with a partner, copy the actions
pictured in Figures 2.1 to 2.3 and answer the questions below.

Figure 2.1 Does the size of a force have an

effect on your ability to resist it? Caution! Do
not overload your hands. Allow time for your
arms to recover before performing another
test.

Figure 2.2 Does the direction of a force have

an effect on your ability to resist it? Record
your prediction before testing. Hold your arm
in this position while your partner applies a
gentle but firm pressure against your hand in
different directions. Record any differences.
Caution! Use only a gentle pressure during
this experiment.

Figure 2.3 Does the location of a force have

an effect on your ability to resist it? Record
your prediction before testing. Caution! Use
only a gentle pressure during this
experiment.

MAGNITUDE, DIRECTION, AND LOCATION

The actual effect of a force on a structure depends on three things:

• the magnitude, or size, of the force
• the direction of the force
• the location where the force is applied

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 281

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 282

info BIT The bigger a force’s magnitude, the stronger it is and the more effect
it will have on a structure (Figure 2.4). However, the effect of even a
Showing Force strong force depends on how massive the structure is.
In drawings, forces can
be represented by
arrows. This makes it Figure 2.4 Two
easier to envision how people pushing on
and where forces act a large object exert
on a structure. The more force than
direction in which an one person. What
arrow points shows the forces are trying to
keep the fridge
direction in which the
from moving?
force is acting. The
length or size of an A B
arrow shows how
The direction in which a force acts on a structure also
strong it is.
determines what effect that force will have. In the two situations
shown in Figure 2.5, the magnitude of the force is the same, but the
direction is different.

Figure 2.5 Why

is pushing the
fridge in one
direction (A)
more difficult
than pushing it
in the other
direction (B)?

A B

The location on a structure where a force is applied affects the

outcome. Applying a force at a point high up on an object that you
are trying to slide along the floor may cause it to topple over
(Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6 What

happens when
force is applied too
high up on the
fridge?

A B

282 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 283

Inquiry DIRECTION AND L O C AT I O N OF A FORCE

Activity The Question
Does the direction and location of a force have any effect on how that force will
act on a structure?

Materials & Equipment Procedure

• straws 1 Using just enough straws and tape to do the job, construct a simple bridge
• masking tape that will cross a gap of 50 cm between two tables or other supports. Tape the
• spring scale bridge to the tables or supports to hold it in place.
2 Using the spring scale, pull down on the bridge as directed in each of the
four cases below. Pull just until the bridge begins to kink and then release the
scale. In each case, before you measure the force, predict the results.
Observe what happens in each case and record the force on the scale when
the bridge begins to kink each time. (See Toolbox 5 on spring scale use.)
• Pull straight down at the centre of the bridge.
• Pull straight down at the end of the bridge, close to the support.
• At the centre, pull down at a 45° angle to the bridge.
• Pull down at a 45° angle from one end of the bridge close to the support.

45°

Figure 2.7 Step 2

Collecting Data
3 Organize your data in a table.

Analyzing and Interpreting

4 What was the difference between pulling straight down from the centre of the
bridge and pulling straight down from one end of the bridge?
5 What was the difference between pulling straight down from the centre and
pulling at a 45° angle? Was this result the same as pulling down at a 45°
angle from the end of the bridge?
6 What do you conclude about the importance of knowing where a force will
act on a structure?

Forming Conclusions
7 From your results, determine the weakest point on your bridge. What does
this suggest about where a bridge should be tested for the largest load it can
support?

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 283

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 284

THE NEWTON
The standard unit for measuring force is called the newton (N).
One newton is the amount of force needed to hold up a mass of 100
g. That’s similar to the force required to hold an apple in your hand.
Holding a 1-kg book in your hand would take about 10 N.

re SEARCH
Sir Isaac Newton
The newton is named after Sir Isaac Newton, an
English scientist. In 1687, he became the first person
to describe the “law of gravitation.” Find out the
role that mass and distance play in this famous law.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. The effect of a force on a structure depends on three factors.
What are they?
2. Which of the factors above are very important to consider in
designing each of the following structures? Explain.
a) a kite
b) a lighthouse
c) a backpack
d) a bridge
3. You’ve joined the circus as an acrobat. In one act, you must hold
your partner, who will try to be stiff as a board, over your head
in a horizontal position. He has a body mass of 50 kg. How
much force will you need to exert to hold him aloft?

284 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 285

2.2 External Forces Acting on Structures

Figure 2.8 The external force of

gravity is pulling the weights to
the ground.

An external force is a force that is applied on a structure by

something else. When you walk into a wind or stand in waves, the
force you feel acting on your body is an external force. To remain
standing, all structures on Earth must be able to resist the force of
gravity pulling on them. Since gravity is the pull of Earth, gravity is
an external force. It acts constantly on you and everything else on
Earth. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The more mass an
object has, the greater the gravitational force.

info BIT
Height Gains in Space
When the space shuttle orbits Earth,
astronauts experience weightlessness. With
weightlessness, the structure of the human
skeleton no longer has to carry a load. This
results in the human spine stretching.

Dr. Roberta Bondar, Canada’s first female

astronaut, became 4 cm taller during her first
space mission.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 285

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 286

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Where does gravity act on a structure? If you hold your arms out
straight for a few minutes, you can tell that gravity is acting on both
of your arms. What happens if you stand on one foot for a while? To
keep balanced, you might have to move your arms about or lean to
one side. That is because gravity is having an effect on the stability
of your body.
How can you predict the effect of gravity on a structure?
Scientists have discovered that even though gravity acts on all parts
of a structure, there is a point where we can think of the downward
force of gravity acting on a structure. That imaginary point is called
the centre of gravity. When a structure is supported at its centre of
gravity, it will stay balanced. Therefore, the location of the centre of
gravity of a structure determines the structure’s stability.

Figure 2.9 In most cases, structures

with a low centre of gravity and wide
base are stable. Which of these tables
do you predict is the more stable of
the two? Why do you think that? A B

The main method of increasing a structure’s stability is to

increase the width of its base relative to its height. One way to do
this is to place most of the mass of the structure close to the ground.
This lowers the centre of gravity.

Figure 2.10 Try balancing a

ruler on your finger. Where
do you have to place your
finger so the ruler will not
fall? That point on the ruler
is the centre of gravity.

286 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 287

SYMMETRY
Notice in Figure 2.10 that the finger under the balanced ruler
divides the ruler into two parts of the same mass. This means that
the ruler has symmetry, a balanced arrangement of mass that
occurs on opposite sides of a line or plane, or around a centre or
axis. The force of gravity on either side of the centre point of the
ruler (where the finger is supporting it) is the same.
In this symmetrical arrangement, the ruler is stable. What
would happen if you moved your finger away from the centre of
the ruler, even 1 cm to either side? The mass on one side of the
ruler would become greater than on the other, and therefore, the
force of gravity would be greater on the side with the greater mass. Figure 2.11 For this gymnast to
The ruler would become unbalanced. hold a stable position on the
For a symmetrical structure to be stable, its mass must be balance beam, the forces of gravity
on all parts of her body in the air
distributed equally around the centre of the structure’s base. This
must be balanced around her
means that the force of gravity around the centre is also equal, hands on the beam.
making the structure stable.

Y This at Hom A C T I V I T Y

R e
T

Materials &
TESTING TEEPEES Equipment
• 8 bamboo skewers,
Do you think you could build a teepee that would stay standing even in a 2 of 23 cm and
strong wind? Build these two models, test them, and find out. 6 of 30 cm
• plastic wrap
Teepee A: • 2 large non-skid mats
• Tie 4 of the long skewers together about 2–3 cm from the end of each • fan
skewer. Splay them out in 4 directions to make a base and stand the • ruler
structure on a non-skid mat. Cover the frame with plastic wrap. • string
• Place the fan about 50–60 cm away from the teepee at the NW position. • scissors
Turn the fan on high. How does the teepee respond to the force?

Teepee B: Caution!
• Take care around the
• Tie the 2 short skewers and the 2 remaining long skewers together, again
fan when it is on.
about 2–3 cm from the end of each skewer. Splay the skewers out and set
• If you have long hair,
the structure on the second non-skid mat so that the 2 short poles are at
tie it back.
the NW and SW positions. Cover the frame with plastic wrap.
• Keep water or wet
• Use the fan as above to test how Teepee B responds to the wind force. hands away from
electrical outlets.
Which teepee design is the strongest?

Activity adapted with permission from Science Alberta Foundation

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 287

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 288

LOAD
When engineers and architects design a structure, they consider the
load that the structure will have to resist. For example, a bookcase
must be so designed that it will support its own weight and the
weight of the books it is going to hold. For a bridge, the load might
be the force of gravity on a car crossing the bridge, plus the force of
a strong wind blowing against the bridge structure, and of course,
the weight of the materials that make up the bridge.

Static and Dynamic Loads

The term “load” has a specific meaning when you are considering
Figure 2.12 The force of
gravity pulls down on the
structures and their function. A load is an external force on a
bookcase and the books. structure. The weight of the books in a bookcase is a load on the
This is the load the bookcase. The force of gravity pulls down on the books and they, in
bookcase must bear. This turn, pull down on the bookcase. The weight of the bookcase itself
bookcase appears to be is also a load. It is the force of gravity acting on the mass of the
overloaded.
bookcase. A load can be a weight, such as a car crossing a bridge, or
the push of a force, such as the wind blowing on a tower. Two types
of loads can affect structures: static and dynamic.
The weight of a structure—and the non-moving load it
supports—is called the static load. These are forces that stay the
same for a long period of time. (Static means not moving or
changing.) Some examples of static loads are the wood, nails, and
screws used to make a bookcase as well as the books, or the steel
beams, cables, rivets, and steel plates used to construct a bridge.
Even though these parts make up a structure, the static load they

force of wind (dynamic load)

weight of truck
(dynamic load)
weight of bridge
(static load)

Figure 2.13 Forces acting on this bridge include the weight of the bridge (static load), the
weight of the truck (dynamic load), and the wind (dynamic load).

288 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 289

create is an external force. Why? Because it is the force of gravity

acting on all the parts of the structure. Static load is also called
dead load.
A dynamic load is an external force that moves or changes with
time. These loads can change very quickly, as occurs with a sudden
gust of powerful wind or an earthquake. The weight of the moving
students on the staircase in Figure 2.14 is a dynamic load. Dynamic
load is also called live load. Designers must plan their structures to
be capable of resisting both dynamic loads and static loads.

Figure 2.14 What is the static load on

this staircase? How would you measure
it? What is the dynamic load? How
would you measure that?

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 289

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 290

Supporting the Load

Different structures are designed to withstand different loads and
forces. Think about a bridge. A number of different types of bridges
can be built. Engineers use two conditions to decide which type of
bridge will best suit a situation:
• what the bridge is crossing (for example, water or land)
• what kinds of loads the bridge will be supporting

The beam bridge (Figure 2.15) is the most common bridge used. A
simple beam bridge is flat and is supported at its two ends. A
longer beam bridge may be supported by additional piers (vertical
supports).

Figure 2.15 A beam bridge

A truss bridge (Figure 2.16) is a lightweight but strong bridge,

made of trusses (triangle-shaped frames) along its sides.

Figure 2.16 A truss bridge

290 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 291

A simple suspension bridge (Figure 2.17) hangs between two re SEARCH

ends (they may be trees!) that hold it up. A modern suspension
bridge has tall towers on either end that support the main cables Arch Support
holding up the bridge. The main cables are anchored in concrete at The ancient Egyptians
each end of the bridge. Smaller cables, which support the roadway, and Greeks first
are suspended from the main cables. recognized the
structural advantages
of the arch. However,
it was the Romans
who made the arch a
regular building
feature. Use library
resources and the
Internet to find
examples of how
arches were used in
Roman architecture.

Figure 2.17 A suspension bridge

An arch bridge (Figure 2.18) is designed to withstand heavy

loads. The dynamic load of people and other traffic causes each
piece of wood or stone in the arch to push against the piece next to
it. This push is eventually transferred to the end supports, which
are embedded in the ground. The ground pushes back (resists), and
this resistance is passed back through all the pieces creating the
arch.
Aqueducts are a type of
bridge used to carry a
large quantity of flowing
water between places.
Many Roman aqueducts
are still standing today.

Figure 2.18 An arch bridge

Which of the bridges shown do you think must support the

greatest static load? Which must support the greatest dynamic load?
Look carefully at the design of each type of bridge. Make note of
any components that help add strength and stability to the structure.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 291

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 292

Problem
Solving MY BRIDGE IS STRONGER THAN YOURS
Activity Recognize a Need
A local walking path must cross a stream. The stream is dry during the summer,
but in the spring, it fills up with water until it is too wide to jump. A
neighbourhood committee has decided to build a small, inexpensive bridge that
Materials & Equipment can hold several people at a time. You’ve been asked to work with a group to
• cardboard prepare a model of your design. The committee has set certain standards for
• wire testing all of the submitted models.
• aluminum foil
• Plasticine or modelling clay The Problem
• straws To design and build a simple beam bridge model that will support the greatest
• blocks or other small heavy possible dynamic load under the following conditions:
objects • The bridge must be 60 cm long.
• balance
• The bridge must be no more than 5 cm wide and no more than 5 cm tall.
• The bridge must span a distance of 50 cm (between two desks).
• There must be a means of fastening the test load to the centre of the bridge.

Criteria for Success

The bridge, designed to the specifications outlined above, must support the
Caution!
greatest possible dynamic load without breaking.
Before starting any
construction project, be Brainstorm Ideas
sure you know the answers 1 Working with your group, brainstorm designs that meet the conditions set.
to these questions:
Keep in mind that the committee wants an inexpensive bridge. Can you
1. What special safety
produce a design that uses as few materials as possible to support the load
precautions should you
required?
take?
2 Choose the combination of suggestions you think will create the best overall
2. Where do you store any
tools when you have design.
finished using them? 3 Decide which materials from those provided you will use.
3. How should you 4 Decide how you will measure the ability of your bridge to support static and
dispose of any waste or dynamic loads. You might, for example, add blocks in progressively heavy
unused materials? amounts to the bridge and see at what weight the bridge kinks.

Figure 2.19 Step 4. This is one way to test a static load on a bridge.

292 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 293

Build a Prototype
5 Build your bridge. If necessary, make modifications to the design as you
build.

Test and Evaluate

6 Measure the dimensions of your completed model. Does it meet the
conditions set by the committee? Adjust the structure as required.
7 Measure the mass of the bridge.
8 Test the strength of the bridge using the method you decided on in your
brainstorm. Record your results according to the headings shown in
Figure 2.20.

Bridge Mass of Bridge (g) Maximum Dynamic

Number (Static Load) Load (kg)

Figure 2.20 Step 8

9 Collect the results from your classmates and add them to your table.
10 Evaluate the materials you used. Are you satisfied that they were the best
choice for the design? Why or why not?

Communicate
11 Combine your findings with those of the other groups.
a) From the class results, graph the relationship between bridge mass and
the mass of the maximum load the bridge can support without kinking.
b) Copy each sentence below into your notebook and fill in the blank using
the information from your graph.
• The smaller the mass of a bridge, the __________ mass it can
support.
• The larger the mass of a bridge, the __________ mass it can support.
• The relationship between bridge mass and mass supported is best
described as a __________ line.
12 In a class discussion, explain what you think is the best way to make a beam
bridge stronger.
13 Consider the different materials that were used to make the bridges. Which
materials seemed to be the best choice? Share your ideas in class.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 293

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 294

MEASURING A STRUCTURE’S LOAD PERFORMANCE

How well a structure holds up under the load it was designed to
carry is important for safety, cost, and efficiency reasons. Engineers
therefore set conditions that a structure must meet after it is built
to show it is performing to certain standards. All these conditions
together are referred to as performance requirements. Load
performance is often expressed as a maximum weight.
A new waterslide, for example, might have to meet the
following performance requirements:
• The structure must be able to support the weight of 200 people at
one time, plus the weight of the water.
• The structure must be able to withstand high winds and heavy
snows in winter without becoming unstable.
Performance requirements also apply to many other aspects of a
structure. These include the safety of the structure and its
effectiveness in meeting the purpose for which it was designed.

Figure 2.21 Why is it

important that load
performance requirements
be expressed as a
maximum weight rather
than an average weight?

COMPARING PERFORMANCE
The performance of one structure can also be compared with that of
another. Consider the following example. Bridge A has a total mass
of 10 000 kg. It is designed to support cars and trucks with a total
mass, at any one time, of 100 000 kg. Bridge B has a total mass of
1000 kg and is designed to support people and bicycles with a total
mass of 1500 kg. How would you compare Bridge A’s performance
with Bridge B’s?
First, you would calculate that Bridge A is supporting 10 times
its own mass (100 000 ÷ 10 000 = 10). Then you would calculate
that Bridge B is supporting 1.5 times its own mass (1500 ÷ 1000 =
1.5). This tells you that Bridge A is supporting a greater load per
unit of its own mass than Bridge B.

294 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 295

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

FIGURING TRIPOD PERFORMANCE

You work at a camera shop. In a brochure about new tripods, you learn that the
“Ace” tripod has a mass of 10 kg and is designed to support a camera and assorted
lens sizes up to a total mass of 20 kg. The “Top Choice” tripod has a mass of 6 kg
and is designed to support camera equipment with a total mass of 24 kg.

• How does the performance of these tripods compare?

• How might this kind of information be of use to a customer who is looking
for a tripod to carry in the mountains for wildlife photography?

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Copy the following sentences into your notebook. Fill in the
blanks using the words below. (Hint: You can use the same
word more than once.)
try
tre gra external symme stable
cen vity

a) An ________ force is one that acts on a structure. An example

of this kind of force is ________.
b) A structure that can be divided into two equal portions that
look the same has __________.
c) If a structure can resist the forces acting on it, it is ________.
d) The ________ of ________ is the point on a structure where
the force of gravity appears to pull a structure downward.
2. How do you find out where a structure’s centre of gravity is?
Describe how a structure’s centre of gravity affects its stability.
3. Many structures can be built to great height, but if they are not
also symmetrical around their centre of gravity, what will be the
result?
4. a) Explain how you can identify the static and dynamic loads
that act on structures.
b) Describe the relationship between a structure’s stability and
its ability to support the load acting on it.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 295

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 296

2.3 Internal Forces within Structures

Figure 2.22 The

components of a structure
exert force on one another.
What force is being exerted
on the lower students in
this photograph?

info BIT
Materials under Force
Concrete is strong
under compression,
but weak under
tension. Steel frames
are strong under
tension, but weak
under compression.
Some builders combine
concrete and steel to
make very strong Think about what you have learned so far about structures and
structures. force, and then try to answer the three questions below.
• You crumple a piece of cellophane into a ball and put it on the
table. Slowly, the cellophane opens up again. Why?
• You’ve used an elastic band to hold a collection of cards together.
Suddenly, the elastic snaps. Why?
• To remove excess water from a sponge, you squeeze the sponge.
To remove excess water from a towel, you could also squeeze the
towel, but wringing it works better. Can you explain why?
In all of these cases, some type of internal force is at work. An
Modern construction
requires good knowledge of internal force is a force that one part of a structure exerts on other
how forces act and parts of the same structure. In other words, internal forces are forces
materials respond. that act within a structure. Press the palms of your hands together
firmly. Can you feel the internal force your muscles are exerting?

296 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 297

COMPRESSION, TENSION, AND SHEAR

Internal forces can be classified by the direction in which they act
within an object. Three internal forces are compression, tension,
and shear.

Figure 2.23 Compression

Compression is a force that acts to squeeze an object or push

parts within an object together (Figure 2.23). Structures with parts
that must resist compression include the human body, chairs,
shelves, and architectural columns. Which parts of those structures
do you think are resisting compression? Solid structures can
usually resist the force of compression because of the strong
materials they are made of.

Figure 2.24 Tension

Tension is a force that acts to stretch and pull apart something

(Figure 2.24). It can cause lengthening and possibly snapping of a
component. Structures with parts that must resist tension include
ski lifts, hydro towers, and running shoes. Which components of
those structures do you think are resisting tension? Tension can
also be used to advantage, as in the case of the cables used to hold
up a suspension bridge.

Figure 2.25 Shear

Shear is a force that acts to push parts that are in contact with
each other in opposite directions (Figure 2.25). Structures with
parts that must resist shear include doors, airplanes, and scissors.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 297

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 298

Y This at Hom A C T I V I T Y

T R e

MODELLING INTERNAL FORCES

One of the best ways to be sure you understand a concept is to see if you
can find an example or model of that concept. A good way to model the
forces of compression, tension, and shear is to use a piece of Plasticine (or
modelling clay).

• Look at the illustrations in Figures 2.23 to 2.25 and note the direction in
which the forces are working.

• Using a piece of Plasticine at least 4 cm by 4 cm, copy the force shown in

the figures. Observe what happens to the Plasticine.

• Look around you at home. Can you identify different objects in which
these forces are being exerted? Can you visualize these forces at work? Is
there evidence of their effect?

COMPLEMENTARY FORCES
When different kinds of internal forces act on a structure at
the same time, they are called complementary forces.
Bending is an example of complementary
forces at work. When the beam in Figure 2.26 is
bent into a U-shape, compression is produced on
the top and tension on the bottom. If the load is
too great, the beam will break. This break would
be the result of the beam’s failure to resist either
compression or tension.
By examining where a break happens on a
com sio
n beam, engineers can find out how to improve the
pre
ssio pres
n com structure. For example, if a beam broke (failed)
first along the upper surface, the new beam
n

co io
mp ss should be designed so that the upper surface is
ressi
on m pre
tension co strong enough to resist compression. If the beam
failed first along the lower surface, what design
change would you recommend? Why?
Figure 2.26 Complementary forces—The
tension
weight of the girl results in compression
and tension in the beam.

298 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 299

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MODELLING COMPLEMENTARY FORCES Materials & Equipment

If you could see inside a structure that is supporting a load, you • a strip of Styrofoam,
2 cm by 3 cm by 10 cm
would be able to observe compression and tension acting
• ruler
together on that same structural part. Here’s one way to see
• scalpel or small sharp knife
these forces at work.

• Make several, equally spaced cuts (about 0.5 cm deep) Caution!

on both the top and bottom of a Styrofoam strip. • Always handle sharp objects
• Place the Styrofoam on two supports of the same size, such with care.
as wood blocks or textbooks. Press your finger in the middle • Wear goggles in case the
of the Styrofoam, enough to make it bend. scalpel or knife blade breaks.
• What happens to the top and bottom of the Styrofoam?
Can you see two different forces acting on the Styrofoam?
Where is the compression force acting? Where is the
tension force acting? Record your results in a drawing.

Figure 2.27 Make shallow cuts in the Styrofoam.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Copy the following sentences into your notebook. Fill in the
blanks with one of the following terms: compression force,
tension force, shear force.
a) When you stretch an elastic band, you are applying ________.
b) When you tear a piece of cardboard in half, you are
applying ________.
c) When you sit on an air mattress, you are applying ________.
As the air pressure inside the mattress increases, the
structure of the air mattress experiences an increase
in ________.
2. Identify the internal and external forces that act on a tree under
a heavy load of snow. Draw a sketch and use arrows to show
these forces.
3. Return to the three questions at the beginning of this subsection
(page 296). Modify your answers, if necessary, based on what
you have discovered about internal forces.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 299

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:26 PM Page 300

2.4 Designing Structures to Resist

Forces and Maintain Stability
350 B.C.—
The marble
Temple of
Artemis at
Ephesus

350 B.C.—The marble

Mausoleum of Halicarnassus

297 B.C.—The Pharos

2500 B.C.—The Pyramids of of Alexandria
Giza, Egypt

430 B.C.—The
Statue of Zeus at
Olympia. It was 290 B.C.—The Colossus of Rhodes.
made of ivory This was a huge bronze statue of
and gold and the sun god, Helios. It stood more
stood 12 m high. than 35 m high, overlooking Rhodes
Harbour in Greece.

Figure 2.28 The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Some took many years to complete,
so the dates of when they were built are approximate.

560 B.C.—The Hanging

Gardens of Babylon. Have you heard of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World? All of
These beautiful gardens the structures are shown in Figure 2.28. Some of them lasted a very
were created in the long time. Look closely at the illustrations. List the structures by
middle of the desert.
name in your notebook and then, for each one, record anything
about the shape that you think helped it withstand the forces acting
on it. Next, add your ideas about the materials used to make each
structure and how those materials may have contributed to the
structure’s durability.

300 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 301

STRONG STRUCTURAL SHAPES

You’ve had several opportunities in this unit to think about how a
structure’s shape might affect how strong it is. From that
knowledge, what do you think the strongest two-dimensional shape
is: a triangle, a square, or a rectangle? What is the strongest three-
dimensional shape: a triangular prism or a rectangular prism?
If you’re not sure about the answer to these two questions, use
some straws to try the simple exercise shown in Figure 2.29. What
you should notice is that while the square and rectangle will shift
their shape slightly, the triangle will not. A triangle is a very strong
and rigid shape that cannot be bent easily. In the same way, a
triangular prism is stronger than a rectangular prism, a pentagonal
prism, or any other multi-sided three-dimensional shape.

A B C

Figure 2.29 Bend one straw into a square (A), one into a rectangle (B), and one into a triangle (C).
Tape the ends of each shape together. Lying each structure flat on a table or resting it upright on a
table, gently push on an upper corner of the structure (in the same plane as the structure itself).

info BIT
Standing the Test of Time
Part of the foundation of the Mausoleum of Ephesus, not far from where Halicarnassus was) also
Halicarnassus can still be seen where it was built in still exists. Longest lasting, however, have been the
what is now Turkey. Some of its statues are in the Pyramids at Giza, near Cairo, Egypt. They still stand
British Museum in London. One of the original much as they were when they were built 4500 years
127 columns in the Temple of Artemis (located in ago.

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 301

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 302

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
Have you ever tried to cross a small river or stream by walking on a
flat wooden plank laid across it? If the plank was weak, you
probably noticed it bending. If you tried bouncing up and down,
you probably knew there was a chance you could end up getting
wet.
Figures 2.30 to 2.36 show several components that make up
structures. Also shown are some of the ways these components can
be combined to create strong structures.

Arches
An arch is a common shape in structures such as bridges (Figure
2.30). The arch can support a large load because the force of the
load is carried down through the arch to the foundation. This
spreads out the load.
keystone

Figure 2.30 Arch

Beams
Beams are common components in a wide range of structures. A
simple beam is a flat structure that is supported at each end (Figure
2.31). If too much weight is put on a beam in the middle, it will
bend in a U-shape and may even break. Changing the shape of a
beam, however, can increase its strength.
The shape of an I-beam gives it strength (Figure 2.32). I-beams
have less mass than solid beams. Girders, or box beams, are long
beams in the shape of hollow rectangular prisms (Figure 2.33).

Figure 2.31 Simple beam Figure 2.32 I-beam Figure 2.33 Girder, or box beam

302 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 303

A truss is a framework of beams joined together (Figure 2.34). re SEARCH

Trusses are usually in the form of interlocking triangles. A
cantilever is a beam that is supported only at one end (Figure 2.35). Geodesic Domes
When weight is placed on the beam, the beam bends in an N-shape Do you know what a
to resist the load. geodesic dome is? Find
out about these
noteworthy structures,
Figure 2.35 Cantilever how they are built, and
what gives them their
strength and stability.
crossbeam Use library resources
and the Internet in
researching these
Figure 2.34 Truss structures.

Columns
columns
A column is a solid structure that can stand by
itself (Figure 2.36). Columns can be used to
support beams. Figure 2.36 Column

STRUCTURAL STRESS, FATIGUE, OR FAILURE

Buckling
Sometimes too great a combination of external and internal forces
acting on a structure can weaken it. The result can be structural
stress.
A strong, stable structure is designed and built to be able to
resist stress without any damage happening. However, repeated
abnormal use of the structure could cause structural fatigue. This is
a permanent change in a structure caused by internal forces such as Shearing
compression, tension, and shear. Cracks, for example, might start
appearing in the material. Structural failure, such as the collapse of
a bridge, occurs when a structure can no longer stand up to the
forces acting on it. Failure can also take the form of buckling,
shearing, separating of components and deformation, as illustrated
in Figure 2.37. Separating of
Components
A structure needs strength and stiffness to avoid failure:
• The strength of a structure is defined by the load at which it fails.
For example, if it takes a load of 100 kg to cause a skateboard to
collapse, the strength of the skateboard would be 100 kg.
• The stiffness of a structure is its ability to withstand changing its
shape under a load. For example, the skateboard must be stiff
enough to prevent failure for any load up to about 100 kg.
Deformation

Figure 2.37 Some forms of

structural failure

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 303

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 304

Problem
Solving T H E TA L L E S T T O W E R
Activity Recognize a Need
Several companies are hoping their design will be chosen for the new
communications tower. This tower must be the tallest structure in the city so that
signals for telephone, television, and radio will be able to pass above all other
Materials & Equipment buildings. The communications company would also like to build a restaurant and
• newspaper observation deck near the top of the tower, so the structure must be able to carry
• uncooked spaghetti this additional load safely.
• bamboo skewers
• plastic straws The Problem
• plastic interlocking blocks You and your group have been hired by one of the companies who want to build
• masking tape the new tower. As part of your preliminary work, you must design and build a tall,
• cellophane tape stable free-standing model of the proposed tower with the materials provided.
• marshmallows You will have 20 min to design and build your tower before it is tested. Your
• a balance teacher will set a timer.
• a ruler
• egg or golf ball Criteria for Success
• a fan • Your structure must be built from at least three of the materials listed.
• Your structure must be the tallest possible free-standing structure that can
support an egg or golf ball without structural failure.
• Your structure must be able to withstand the wind from a fan for 60 s.
• You must complete the activity within the time given.

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Discuss and sketch out design ideas for your tower. Keep in mind the
function of the tower, the design criteria, and the time limitations. What
Caution! factors about external and internal forces and loads must your design
Before starting any consider?
construction project, be
2 Consider the materials you have to work with. This may give you some
sure you know the answers
design ideas and options. (Also, in real-life situations, the materials available
to these questions:
for a project may be limited. Learning to work with what you’ve got is all part
1. What special safety
of the design process!)
precautions should you
take? 3 Predict which of your design ideas will best meet the Criteria for Success.
2. Where should you store Use this design.
any tools after using
Build a Prototype
them?
4 Assemble the materials you will need
3. How should you
dispose of any waste or to build your structure.
unused materials? 5 Construct the tower as quickly as
possible. As a group, you may wish
to assign different members to
construct certain components of the
structure. These can be assembled
when they are ready.
Figure 2.38 Steps 4 and 5

304 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 305

Test and Evaluate

6 When your tower is complete, test that it can be free-standing. Place the egg
or golf ball on top of the model to test the strength of the structure. Make
design or construction modifications if there is time.
7 Place the fan about 1 m away from the model and let it blow onto the model
for 60 s. Observe how well the model maintains its stability. Again, make
design or construction modifications if time allows.
8 Measure the mass of your completed structure and record it.
9 Does your structure meet the design criteria? Explain why it does and/or why
it does not.
10 Evaluate your structure along with those of the other groups.
a) What is the overall range of structure heights? Which structure is the
tallest? the shortest?
b) Why are some structures better able to resist the wind? That is, why are
they more stable than others?
c) How does the mass of your structure compare to that of the other groups’
structures? How does the quantity of material you used compare?
11 Compare the area of the bottom of your structure with the area of the top of
your structure. Did this ratio prove to be an advantage or a disadvantage in
making your structure strong and stable? Explain.

Communicate
12 Compile the results of the activity in a short report:
a) State the problem you were trying to solve and list the performance
requirements of the model.
b) Sketch the design you chose for your prototype and label it with the
forces acting on it.
c) Note the quantity of materials you required to build your structure and
what two- and three-dimensional shapes you used most often and least
often. Describe any construction difficulties you had.
d) Summarize your test and evaluation results under the following headings:
Strength, Stability, Height (compared to all the designs in the class).
Explain whether you think you could have used more or less material than
you did to achieve the same strength and stability.
e) Explain whether your prediction in step 3 was right. Suggest
improvements that you would make to your structure.
f) Write a concluding statement that answers the following questions: To
build a structure taller and taller, what must be done to maintain its
stability? Is there a limit to how tall a structure can reach and still be free-
standing, strong, and stable? Explain. Communications tower

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 305

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 306

BUILDING FOR STRUCTURAL STABILITY

Designing a hang-glider that is stable in the air requires careful
analysis of the forces that will be acting on it. It is important that
the hang-glider be designed so that it is symmetrical and so that the
mass within the structure gets evenly distributed. Distributing the
load in that way helps reduce internal forces such as tension,
compression, and shear.
The properties of the materials used for the individual parts of a
structure also determine how well the structure will hold together
Figure 2.39 What external under different loads and forces. Look at the hang-glider in Figure
forces are acting on this
2.39. The components of the structure are not all made of the same
hang-glider? what internal
forces? What type of design material. Rather, a variety of materials has been used, each for its
features and materials have effectiveness in resisting the applied forces.
been used to make it
structurally stable?

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Make a labelled drawing of the three main types of structural
components. Answer the following questions:
a) For each, give an example of a structure in which you would
use this component.
b) For each, what is the advantage of including this component
in a structure?
c) If an arch and a beam were of the same mass, which one
would be the strongest? Why?
2. Make a flowchart to connect the following events, beginning
with the one that happens first. You can connect more than one
event to another. You can use an event in more than one place.
(Hint: First, put these events in the correct order.)
• The bridge structure experiences structural stress.
• A freight train loaded with iron ore passes over the bridge.
• The bridge collapses.
• The beams of the rail bridge bend slowly.
• The rail bridge carries 10 trains a day over the valley.
• The beams of the rail bridge give way.
• The bridge is experiencing structural fatigue.
• A rail bridge was built here 30 years ago.
• The bridge is experiencing structural failure.

306 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 307

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Think of a symmetrical solid structure and determine its centre
of gravity and lines of symmetry. How do you know that your
findings make sense?
2. Describe and provide examples of the following structural
forces:
a) compression
b) tension
c) shear
3. Explain how compression and tension act together by describing
what happens when a diver jumps up and down on a diving
board.
4. How can a structure remain standing for several years, then
suddenly collapse?
5. What makes many free-standing coat racks so unstable? What
design characteristics should you consider when making a coat
“tree”?
6. A local marina wants to suspend a sign from a bridge. There are
two choices for doing this: it could be hung straight down from
cables, or it could be hung between two cables at 45° angles
from the bridge. Which arrangement do you recommend? Why?

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
Scientific knowledge may lead to the development of new
technologies, and new technologies may lead to scientific
discovery.
Reflect on what you learned about forces in this section.
1. What forces act on and within structures, and how can they be
measured?
2. How can these forces cause structures to fail?
3. Some skiers lost in a snowstorm face the necessity of spending the
night on a mountain. They decide to construct an emergency
structure out of branches and snow. How could you apply what
you have learned about forces to make their structure stable?

External and Internal Forces Act on Structures 307

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 308

Structural strength and stability

3.0 depend on the properties of

different materials and how they
are joined together.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• deformation
• joints
• material strength and
flexibility
• structural stability

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• compare properties of
structural materials, including
natural materials and
synthetics
• use methods of testing the
strength and flexibility of
structural materials
• identify examples of frictional
forces and their use in
structures
• analyze methods of joining Figure 3.1 What materials are within your reach? within your sight?
Figure 3.1 What materials are within your reach? within your sight?
used in structures and
evaluate their
appropriateness for a given What materials can you see around you? What is holding them
structure together?
• investigate the role of With your teacher timing you for one minute, work with a
different materials found in partner to make a list of all the materials you can spot in your
plant and animal structures classroom. When a minute is up, repeat the exercise, but this time
identify examples of fasteners (that is, things that join materials
together). Again, you’ve got one minute. At the end of the allotted
time, compare your two lists with those of the other groups.
When everyone has finished the exercise, the class will
compile one large list of materials and fasteners. You will use
these lists later in this section.

308 For Web links relating to 3.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 309

3.1 Materials and Their Properties

In the past, people constructed shelters out of material they could info BIT
find, including animal skins, mud, and sticks. Some of these
shelters were large and elaborate. Over the years, many more Letting the Sun
materials were discovered or invented. Today, designers can choose Shine In
from a wide variety of materials. New materials today
Even though there’s now so much choice in materials compared allow builders to use
to before, how do we know which material will be best to use for a the sun to advantage.
particular purpose? Think for a moment about jumping on a For example, the
skateboard made of nylon or trying to carry a tent made of bricks. windows on the top
You know these materials are poor choices for each of those floors of this home are
structures, because you already know a lot about materials. But made of tinted glass
what else is there to know about their properties? that lets light in but
keeps ultraviolet
CLASSIFYING MATERIAL PROPERTIES radiation out. The
solar panels produce
The materials used in structures can be evaluated according to electricity, making the
many properties. How well the designer, engineer, or builder home more energy
analyzes those properties determines how well the resulting efficient.
structures will do what they’re supposed to. It also determines
how long the structures will last before giving in to the forces
acting on them.
Some of the most important properties of materials are listed
in Figure 3.2.

Some Properties of Materials Other Considerations

• brittleness (How easily does • aesthetics (appearance,

the material break?) texture, etc.)
• ductility (How easily can the • consumer demand
material be made into wire?) • availability
• hardness • cost
• plasticity (How easy is the • effect on the environment (Can
material to shape?) the material be used safely?)
• resistance to heat • disposal of waste (Can the
• resistance to water material be recycled or reused?
• compression Is there a cost to dispose of it?)

• tensile strength

Figure 3.2 Properties of materials and other considerations.

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 309
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 310

TESTING DEFORMATION AND FLEXIBILITY OF MATERIALS IN STRUCTURES

Deformation
Focus for a moment on the property of strength. Any time you have
to design and build a structure, you need materials that will have
enough strength to resist the forces acting on the structure. You also
need materials that won’t deform easily. Deformation is a change of
shape in a structure or any structural component, because the
material is unable to resist the load acting on it. When too much
deformation occurs, a component or the entire structure might fail.

Figure 3.3 When you apply

a very small force to an
aluminum can, its sides start
to dent, but will return to the
original shape when the
small force is released. If
you apply a greater force,
the dent may become
permanent, and the can is
deformed permanently.

Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability of a material to be bent under force
without breaking. How much an object can change shape
under a given load without breaking is an indication of how
flexible it is.
Structures such as tall buildings must be able to resist the
force of the wind. However, being very strong and rigid is not
necessarily the best way for a tall building to be designed.
Think of a tall tree in the wind. The tree bends a little as the
wind pushes against it, and when the wind stops, the tree
straightens up again, unharmed. Copying nature, structural
engineers have found ways of using materials and combining
structural components to make buildings in “high hazard”
wind or earthquake zones more flexible.

Figure 3.4 It is their flexibility that allows trees to resist being deformed under strong
forces like that applied by the wind.

310 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 311

Inquiry M AT E R I A L S T R E N G T H AND S TA B I L I T Y
Activity The Question
Is it possible to predict what material would be suitable for providing strength
and stability to a structure?

Materials & Equipment Procedure

• uncooked spaghetti 1 Organize into groups of three or four. Each group will be assigned a different
• newspaper material to build a model tower as illustrated in Figure 3.5. Predict the
• plastic straws suitability of the material for building the tower.
• bamboo skewers 2 Before any building begins, decide as a class how you will test all the
• masking tape materials for strength and stability. Agree on what observations you will
• blocks or other small heavy record before, during, and after the test to determine the effect of the forces
objects acting on the structures. Include:
• ruler
• Qualitative observations: These are changes you observe taking place in the
structure as you proceed with your test.
• Quantitative observations: These are changes you are able to measure in
the structure as you proceed with your test.
3 Work with your group to build your model.

Collecting Data
4 After all towers have been completed, each
should be tested in front of the class using Note: If a computer and
the test methods agreed to in step 2. software are available, you
may enter your data into a
Analyzing and Interpreting spreadsheet. This will allow
5 Which material most resisted the forces you to produce graphs to
acting on the structure? Why do you think show your results and
that is? Which properties gave the structure compare them with those for
that strength and stability? Which material other materials.
Figure 3.5 Example of a straw
model, Step 1 least resisted the forces acting on the
structure?

Forming Conclusions
6 Do you agree or disagree that by knowing the properties of given materials,
you can accurately choose a material that will provide strength and stability to
a structure? Explain, using the results of this investigation.
7 What material properties do you think are the most important in real life for
building tall, free-standing structures that can support the greatest mass?
Why?

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 311
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 312

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MEASURING DEFORMATION Materials & Equipment

• polyester foam cube
Deformation of a structure can be measured.
• ruler
• Weigh the masses and record the amounts.
• 3–4 small heavy masses
• Measure the height of your foam cube and record the height in a table.
• Add the smallest mass to the top of the cube.
• Measure the height of the foam and record it.
• Repeat the procedure using each of the different masses.

Observations and Analysis

• What internal force is acting in this activity?
• Plot a line graph of your results. (Refer to Toolbox 7 if you need help
drawing a graph.)

CHECK AND REFLECT

re SEARCH 1. Explain why it is important to match structural material and

structural function.
Wasp Nests 2. Do you agree or disagree with the statement, “Almost any
Research how wasps material can be used to build any structure”? In a paragraph,
build their nests. explain your answer.
What materials do
3. The hydro-electric dam in your area is beginning to need
they use to make their
expensive repairs. The building of a new dam is being proposed.
nests? What is the
advantage of these Several people have been asked to provide advice to the
materials? designers of the new dam, including
• the manager of the marina upstream from the dam
• a freshwater ecologist
• a drinking water expert from the city downstream
• a person representing the hydro-electric power company
• a person representing a local group wishing to open a biking
trail and to use the new dam as a bridge
a) In your notebook, list the people above. In turn, put yourself
in the position of each person. Note what structural
characteristics of a dam would be important to you, and how
those characteristics would affect the choice of building
materials you would recommend.
b) Choose to be one of the individuals above. Compare your
ideas for material choice with those of a classmate who is
being a different individual. How could both of your needs
be met in the new design?

312 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 313

info BIT
3.2 Joining Structural Components
Expansion Joints
Outdoor structures
such as bridges get
very cold in winter
Figure 3.6 What
and very hot in
is happening when summer. Because their
the design and components contract
materials of a and expand at
structure are just different rates with
right, but the these temperature
structural changes, the joints
components don’t
connecting them must
stay connected?
be able to move a
little bit, too. Next
time you’re crossing a
Have you ever taped the broken frame of a pair of glasses together large bridge, watch
only to have the pieces work their way apart again? Have you ever for these “expansion
struggled with a locker or cupboard door when one of the hinges joints.”
has broken off?
The problem is that the components are not properly joined.
Just as design and materials are important to a structure’s strength
and stability, so is how the parts of the structure are fastened
together. The place at which structural parts are joined is called the
joint. Some joints need to be rigid, or fixed, for the structure to
work as intended. Others need to be flexible, or movable.

JOINTS THAT RELY ON FRICTION

Think of pulling your desk across the floor. The drag or resistance
you feel is the result of the friction that is occurring between the
floor and the legs of the desk. Friction is the force that results when
the surface of one object moves against the surface of another
object. You may be able to overcome the force of friction easily
when you are moving just the desk by itself. But what if a friend sat
on the desk while you were pulling? You would have to work
harder to move it. Can you explain why, using the terms gravity,
mass, and force?
The strength of the force of friction also depends on the Figure 3.7 What force is
roughness or smoothness of the two surfaces in contact with each helping this rock climber’s
other. It is easier to move a desk across a freshly waxed linoleum foot stay joined to the rock?
Is this the same force that is
floor than across a rough concrete floor. Why do you think that is? keeping the pitons (metal
To create strong joints between parts of a structure, the force of spikes) firmly in the cracks
friction can be used to prevent the individual components from where they were hammered?
slipping apart.

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 313
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 314

Nails, Screws, Rivets, Tacks, Staples

When a nail, screw, rivet, tack, or staple is used to hold components
together, it is the friction between the metal and the material
surrounding it that does the job. This is the most common type of
joining used in modern construction (Figure 3.8). One advantage of
screws, tacks, and staples is that they can be easily removed to
dismantle a structure if necessary.

Figure 3.8 Modern

structures are usually
made of steel framing
riveted together for
maximum strength.
Wood components are
often fastened with nails
and screws.

Interlocking Pieces
Since friction is the force as two surfaces rub against one another,
you can increase the amount of friction by increasing the area in
contact. As Figure 3.9 shows, this method is used, for example, to
join wood together in interlocking pieces (without screws or nails).

Figure 3.9 The notches cut into

these logs ensure that the parts in
this structure will remain tightly
interlocked. Furniture uses
notches for strong joints.

Mass
The friction between the base of
the block shown in Figure 3.10
and the surface underneath is
enough to keep the block in place.
Figure 3.10 Landscape The blocks forming the Pyramids
architects often use this of Giza are joined together only by
“mass” method of joining to
the force of friction.
design stone retaining walls
and split-rail fences.

314 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 315

JOINTS THAT RELY ON BONDING

Another form of joining actually changes the two surfaces being
joined so that they are connected by a common material—whatever
bonding substance is spread on them.

Glue, Tape, Cement, Welds

Adhesive glue and tape (which has glue on one side), cement, and
welds act to bond the surfaces of two materials. Some types of glue,
for example, dissolve the surfaces on which they’re spread, creating
a chemical change. The two new surfaces mix and harden together
into one solid mass. Figure 3.11 shows an example of glue being
used as a means of joining.

Figure 3.11 The joints in wooden furniture can be

strengthened using glue.

FIXED OR MOVABLE? WHICH JOINT FOR WHICH STRUCTURE?

All of the methods of joining just described can be combined
in different ways to create fixed joints or movable joints.
Fixed joints are rigid to prevent any movement. They
result, for example, from welding, cementing, gluing, or
nailing parts firmly together. Which of these methods
works best in any given structure depends on the material
of the components, how the structure is to be used, and
where it is to be located. Why would gluing to hold a
fence together or welding to assemble a kite not be
appropriate?
Movable joints are flexible or mobile so that parts of
the structure can move as required. Hinges, pin joints, and Figure 3.12 No matter how good a
flexible rubber tubing are examples of movable joints. So structure’s design is on the drawing
board, the ultimate strength and
are your knees, elbows, and shoulders. Even though they
stability of that structure depend on
are mobile, movable joints must still be able to withstand a the right materials and method of
load and the stress of repeated movements. joining being used.

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 315
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 316

Problem
Solving A HOME FOR TIME
Activity Recognize a Need
Your school has decided to do a unique project to mark its upcoming anniversary.
Each class will put together a message for students of the future, as well as small
objects that may have special meaning in 100 years. The messages and objects
Materials & Equipment will be put into a metal time capsule. The school is asking students to submit
Suggested modelling designs for a small structure to protect the box until a century has passed. The
materials. Use other materials structure will be built by a local contractor who has volunteered time and
if you prefer. materials.
• Plasticine or modelling clay
• cardboard or foam board The Problem
• Popsicle sticks You and a small group of fellow students have decided to submit a design to the
• tape contractor. Your group will come up with an overall shape for the structure, as
• glue well as make suggestions for the materials and how they should be fastened. You
will present your design as a combination of a scale model and a written list of
materials for the real structure.

Figure 3.13 How would you

build a structure to protect a
time capsule?

Criteria for Success

The contractor who has volunteered to build the structure to hold the time
capsule has set the following criteria for the student designs:
• There must be a door in the structure that can be opened when the time comes
(in 100 years), but which would be locked until then.
• The material for the real structure must be able to withstand the climate found
at your school over time.
• The material must be easily obtained.
• Preference will be given to a design that uses a material that is easily obtained,
not expensive, and attractive looking.
• There has to be some way people in the future will be able to identify the
function of the structure, so they know there is a time capsule inside.

316 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 317

Brainstorm Ideas
1 Brainstorm how you want the structure to look. Make sketches to show
possible structures from different views, such as from the top and from the
side. Keep in mind the structure will be outside and visible to the public.
2 When you’re ready, make a scale drawing of your design. Include any
features such as doors or other moving parts, as well as any signs or
ornamentation you wish to use.
3 Brainstorm possible materials and their pros and cons. Once your group has
decided on the materials you want for the structure, modify your design if
necessary. Make note of any properties of your materials that will be
especially valuable for this structure.
4 Build a model of your structure using any modelling material you wish. Your
model should include a scale model of the time capsule so you can
demonstrate how the capsule fits inside. Make any modifications you need to
during the building process.

Test and Evaluate

5 Your teacher will, if possible, invite a local contractor to help assess the
various designs. Alternatively, a class selection committee can be formed to
choose the design that best fits all of the criteria.

Communicate
6 In a short assessment report, summarize:
a) the most difficult aspect of this challenge that you had to overcome in
your design
b) how you overcame that difficulty
c) how you might have tested your design for
strength and stability
7 Which features of the chosen design were
considered most important by the contractor or
selection committee? Discuss how the other
designs could be improved using some or all of
these features. Often one design will be just as
good as another, and a final choice is made
based on personal opinions about appearance.
If this was the case in your class, hold a vote to
see which design would receive the most
support.
8 This could be a project that your school or a
community group would be interested in doing.
St. Paul, Alberta, is home to the world’s first UFO landing pad. Built
Discuss how you might get such a project
in 1967 (the year this picture was taken), this imaginative structure
started. also contains a time capsule.

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 317
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 318

re SEARCH DESIGNING JOINTS TO LAST

If a structure is to last any reasonable length of time, it must be

When Friction Is a
designed to withstand the forces acting on it year after year.
Problem
For some structures, such as a monument, the main forces acting
When structural parts are
on them are extremes in weather (such as extreme heat or cold).
joined together, friction
can cause wear in one or
For structures with moving parts, “building for time” is also a
both of the surfaces challenge. The joints used in them must be able to survive the force
rubbing together. of repeated movement. Consider your refrigerator at home. How
Friction also generates many times a day does its door get open and shut? How many times
heat where the two a week is that? How many times
surfaces rub. Neither of a year? An inappropriate type of
these is a good thing joint for the job will eventually
when it comes to experience fatigue and then
keeping structures breakage, even though other parts
strong and stable. Think of the structure remain strong.
of an example in which
wear and heat
generation between
structural parts pose a Figure 3.14 A structure’s basic shape may
problem. Research how be stable and its materials strong, but if its
the problem is being joints are not suited to how and where it is
dealt with. used, it won’t be useful for long.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Remember the list of fasteners, or joints, you made at the start of
subsection 3.1? Which ones function based on friction? How
does friction help those joints do the job they are supposed to
do—that is, not slip apart?
2. Given what you now know about friction, read the statements
below and correct the three that are incorrect (one is right!):
• A camper spreads rubber tarp on slightly sloping ground,
then puts a backpack on top of the tarp. When the camper
returns a moment later, the backpack has slid several
centimetres down the slope.
• It is easier to open a jar lid if your hands are dry than if they
are wet.
• A hockey skater reduces speed by digging in the tip of each
skate when striding forward.
• A very thin film of water on a road is less slippery to a
moving car or truck than a dry road.
3. Identify four structures found in the natural environment that
have fixed joints and four that have movable joints.

318 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 319

3.3 Properties of Materials in Plant and

Animal Structures
As you have studied, structure and function go together. The living
world is no exception. Have you ever seen a Venus flytrap catch an
insect? If you have, you would have been amazed at how fast the
leaves that have been modified to form a trap can move. The
unsuspecting insect triggers this reaction when it touches the small
hairs located on the inside of the trap. The human body is built to
move quickly as well.

Figure 3.15 The Venus

MATERIALS IN THE HUMAN STRUCTURE flytrap has an unusual
Think about your body as a structure. Each of the components in structural design for
the human body is a unique material with special properties suited trapping its food.

to the function of that part.

Bones, Ligaments, and Cartilage of the Frame Structure

Bones in the human adult are hard and rigid. They form a
structural frame that is strong enough to support and protect other info BIT
parts of the body. The thigh bone is connected to the shin bone by
ligaments. These are bands of strong, flexible connective tissue. Synthetic Muscles
Cartilage that is found at the ends of some bones reduces friction Scientists have
and provides a smooth surface for movement. When you fall off discovered that a glue
commonly used for
your bicycle, the cartilage helps to absorb the shock of your bones
such jobs as holding
being bumped together.
road signs up over
highways may create
the perfect “muscles”
for robots and
cartilage artificial limbs. The
covering glue, an acrylic
bone
elastomer, can take
ligaments
strain better than
human muscle can. It
bone ligaments
also creates as much
force as human muscle
does. Other
advantages are its
light weight and the
fact that it goes back
to its original shape
even after it has been
stretched.
Figure 3.16 The seven ligaments that hold your leg bones together meet at your knee.

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 319
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 320

Muscles and Tendons

The muscles of your body, 656 of them, allow your skeletal frame to
move. Muscles are made of semi-solid fibrous tissue that functions
by contracting (shortening) and relaxing. They are attached to bones
by tendons. Like ligaments, tendons are strong and flexible. A
tendon will often hold together even when the bone to which it is
connected breaks. When a skeletal muscle contracts, a bone moves.
Muscles also are located in your internal organs. Heart muscle
contracts and pumps blood. Digestive tract muscles contract and
move food along.

Joints
The joints in your body are specialized for various functions. Ball-
and-socket joints in your shoulders and hips permit movement in
many directions. Elbows and knees function with hinge joints.
There are pivot joints in your spinal column and gliding joints in
your wrists. All of these allow movement. However, there are joints
in the body that don’t allow movement at all. They are found
between the bones of your skull. What do you think the function of
the skull is? Do immovable joints make it suited for that function?

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MATERIALS IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

You’ve just learned a little about the role of different materials found in the
human body. You’ve also seen how the functions of the body’s various
components are made possible by a range of methods of joining. The role of
different materials in plant and animal structures is just as fascinating.

• Using the library or Internet, research the material composition of a plant or

animal of your choice. Find out what properties the main materials have and
what advantages these give the structure in terms of how it functions. Also
note how the parts of the structure in your chosen plant or animal are joined.
• Write a summary of your findings, and include drawings to illustrate the
materials and joints.

320 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:28 PM Page 321

Skin, the Human Shell

Skin, along with the bones, joints and connective tissue, form a
shell and frame structure. Skin is a tough, flexible material. It
provides the ultimate structural shelter. It waterproofs your body
and protects it from harmful bacteria. As well, it helps to regulate
your body’s temperature through such actions as perspiration and
shivering.

MATERIALS IN A TREE’S STRUCTURE

A tree trunk may seem to be made of just one material (“wood”),
but in fact, it is a structure composed of several layers of different
materials. As Figure 3.17 shows, each layer of material has a
specific job to do to maintain the strength and stability of the tree.

Bark, the outermost layer,

protects the inner layers
of the tree.
This thin layer is called
This woody layer vascular cambium. It
contains phloem, a tissue contains dividing cells.
that transports sugars
throughout the tree.

Heartwood is the
centre of the tree. It
helps support the rest
of the structure, but it Figure 3.17 Each layer of
does not conduct
material in this tree plays a
water and minerals.
role in keeping the tree
Sapwood conducts water strong, stable, and healthy.
and minerals between
roots and leaves.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What would happen if ligament material in the human body
were replaced by bone material?
2. Most sports injuries involve damage to joints such as ankles,
knees, and wrists. Why do you think this is so?
3. True or false? The different layers of materials found in plants
are needed only to make the plants strong. Explain your answer.

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 321
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:29 PM Page 322

and
Careers Profiles

Designing for the Environment

Jenny Tse is an architect in Alberta. It’s important that Figure 3.18

Jenny Tse was
Jenny understands the natural forces in the
trained in Hong
environment. Buildings in Canada have to last through Kong and moved
the heat of summer, the cold of winter, wind, snow, to Canada in
rain, and even earthquakes! 1969.
“In Hong Kong, the weather is always warm and
there is not much space for building. It was a fun and
interesting adjustment to adapt myself to cold climate
design,” Jenny says. “For example, in the Arctic
region, buildings are put on stilts. This stops the
building’s heat from escaping into the ground, which
will melt the permafrost and cause the building to
collapse.”
How does Jenny plan a house? First, she starts
drawing designs. These drawings show her ideas
about the shape of the house and the arrangement of Figure 3.19 Jenny was a
the rooms. If Jenny’s clients like her design, she design architect of this
building, Mineral Springs
makes working drawings of the house. These are very
Hospital in Banff, Alberta.
detailed drawings that tell the builder how to
construct the house. When construction starts, Jenny
has to check the construction site often to make sure
the builder is following her design and instructions. Jenny’s job changes all the time and gives her
Then, finally, she hands the new house over to its new lots of challenges. Still, she says she loves it.
owners. “Students who want to be architects should be
creative and love to work with people,” says Jenny.
“An architect’s life is exciting, and you will learn a lot,
too!”

1. Why must architects have a good

understanding of the natural
environment for which they are
designing structures?
2. If you were an architect, which part
of planning and overseeing the
building of a house do you think
would be most challenging? Why?
Figure 3.20 Edmonton Buddhist Research Institute,
Edmonton, Alberta, is another one of Jenny’s designs.

322 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 323

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. As part of a community parks restoration project, students in a
grade 7 class have volunteered to design and build a bridge
across a 5-m-wide stream. They can use only non-living, natural
materials found in the forest and a hand saw.
a) Based on your knowledge of structural components, what
suggestions would you make to the students for designing
and constructing the bridge?
b) What problems do you foresee happening as the bridge is
used over time and under a variety of weather conditions?
2. Look at the typical brick wall shown in
Figure 3.21. Why are the bricks in the wall
Figure 3.21
not stacked directly on top of each other? Question 2
3. Explain how each of the following
methods can help improve the joining
between two components:
• sanding the surface of a smooth material to make it rougher
• adding more weight (load) to an object sitting on a base
4. A weight lifter puts a powder on his hands before picking up a
pair of heavy weights. Why?
5. Make a concept map that puts together what you have learned
about designing a strong and stable structure. Compare your
map with that of other students until you have included as
many concepts and terms as possible. Put a question mark
beside any concepts that you need to review or would like to
learn more about.

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
Technological problems often have many solutions, involving
different designs, materials, and processes.
Reflect on what you learned about materials in this section.
1. What were some of the properties of materials you read about?
2. Why is it important to evaluate the appropriateness of methods
of joining for individual structures?
3. How could you apply what you have learned about materials
and methods of joining to solve a technological problem such as
how to build an emergency winter shelter?

Structural Strength and Stability Depend on the Properties of Different Materials and How They Are Joined Together 323
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 324

Structures are designed, evaluated,

4.0 and improved in order to meet
human needs.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• margin of safety
• structural stability

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe methods to increase
the strength of materials and
improve designs
• identify environmental factors
that can affect the stability
and safety of a structure
• analyze a technological
design or process according
to costs, benefits, safety, and
impact on the environment
If you could travel back in time to talk with the cyclist in the
black-and-white photograph above, what do you imagine he
would say about his new bike? Would you expect him to feel that
the bike was strong, efficient, and safe to ride? Would he feel his
needs were being met by technology? What might he say about
how the design of this bike was an improvement over earlier
models?
Now imagine having the same conversation with the cyclist in
the colour photograph. Do you think she, too, would feel that her
bicycle was strong, efficient, and safe to ride? What improvements
in her “state-of-the-art” bike might she identify compared to the
bike of her counterpart in the black-and-white photograph?
Few structures remain unchanged in design once they are
created. In this final section of the unit, you will learn about the
processes used to develop, evaluate, and improve human-made
structures so that they do the job we want them to in a safe,
reliable, and cost-efficient way.

324 For Web links relating to 4.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 325

4.1 Building Safe Structures

in All Environments
All structures are created to satisfy human
needs. These needs may vary widely, but
the one common to all structures is safety.
Since so many environmental factors can
affect the stability of a structure,
designing for safety is a constant
challenge.

MARGIN OF SAFETY
Figure 4.1 Although all
Safety is important to all designers. However,
structures are created to satisfy
since it is impossible to make anything perfectly safe, a human need, none would be
designers work with a margin of safety. This refers to the limits completely successful if their
within which a structure’s safety performance is felt to be designer did not take
acceptable. environmental factors into
account.
Think of speed limits on roads and highways. Cars and trucks
are designed and built to move safely within these limits. While
vehicles are intended to be driven at these speeds, designers still
need to make cars and trucks that are safe to drive at slightly higher
speeds. The margin of safety in this case might be 30 km/h or
40 km/h faster than the common speed limit.
Tire pressures are determined with a margin of safety also. The
manufacturer will have assessed aspects such as size of tire, vehicle
load and increased temperature due to use, weather or speed. If
someone over-inflates the tires of a vehicle in order for it to carry a
heavier than normal load, the margin of safety has been decreased.
If a tire hits a pothole, there is a greater chance it will have a blow-
out.
Building components are designed in the same way. For Figure 4.2 Road signs show
example, the steel beams in a bridge must be able to withstand drivers the safety limits that
have been calculated by
three or four times their maximum intended load.
highway engineers.

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 325
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 326

Testing for Structural Safety

One way of finding out how safe a structure is before it is in full
operation or available on the market is to test how well it can
withstand the forces acting on it. Many such tests are extreme.
New hockey helmets are hammered against a steel anvil at
almost 15 km/h, or test cars are driven into brick walls at 25 km/h.
Helmets must be strong enough to protect a player’s head against all
types of collisions. Car bumpers must protect the front of cars
against damage during impact. Testing occurs at all stages of a
product’s development, from choosing its components and testing
them, to testing the design (e.g., by computer modelling) and testing
the final product before approval for consumer use. In the activity
where you will build a model of a drawbridge, you will test a
component as well as the final product. You will also determine a
margin of safety.

info BIT Monitoring Structural Safety

Another method of evaluating the safety of a structure is to look at
how frequently that type of structure fails and why. This can be
Brought Down by Ice
Six days of freezing done through a process called monitoring, in which experts keep
rain damaged this track of how well the structure performs. Information can also be
hydro tower in Quebec. gathered through surveys that ask the users of particular structures
What forces caused it what their opinions of the structures are.
to collapse? Would a
coating of ice be a ACCOUNTING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
static or a dynamic
Climatic Conditions
load? Suggest ways
that a tower like this In many parts of the world, buildings, bridges, vehicles, and other
could be protected outdoor structures must regularly withstand the forces of heavy
from this load. snow, rain, and wind. Other climate-related factors are intense heat,
intense cold, very high humidity, and extreme dryness.
Building on permafrost is a particular challenge in frigid regions
around the world, such as Canada’s North. Permafrost is a
permanently frozen layer in the ground. Although frozen solid in
the winter, the upper portions of permafrost melt in the summer,
making the ground spongy. Without solid foundations, structures
built on these areas undergo structural stress that usually leads to
failure. Technology is helping to solve these problems.

A downed hydro tower and

power line, damaged by the
1998 ice storm in Quebec
and Ontario.

326 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 327

Terrain Conditions
Unstable soils and steep terrain make building stable structures
difficult. In areas where soils are soft or shifting, special
construction techniques must be used. This problem wasn’t taken
into account when the Empress Hotel in Victoria, B.C., was built in
1905 on landfill over what used to be mudflats. A few decades ago,
engineers found that the hotel had sunk about 75 cm over the years.
The large stone building has since been “shored up” beneath with
concrete supports and pilings.
Areas that are low lying often suffer flooding or pounding from
storm waters. While it is debatable whether people should live in
Figure 4.3 In Malibu,
those areas at all, some structures, such as lighthouses, must be
California, heavy winter
there. Building them to withstand the forces of water and wind is rains during 1983 caused
always a challenge. landslides on steep,
On steep mountainsides, hill slopes, and cliffs, mass movement unstable slopes. As a result,
of snow, rock, and mud is a common hazard. Avalanche and several homes suffered
serious structural damage.
rockfall tunnels are often built over highways where this danger
exists. They must be able to support massive loads.

Earthquake Risk
When an earthquake shakes and heaves the ground, some structures
fail and may even topple to the ground, while others
remain standing. The stable structures
protect people and property. Not all
areas are subject to the risk of severe
earthquakes, but in those that are,
the structures must be designed
and built to resist the external
and internal forces acting
on them.

Figure 4.4 A powerful earthquake struck

western Turkey on August 18, 1999,
killing more than 2000 people.
Many victims were trapped in
collapsed buildings such as the
ones shown here.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Explain what is meant by “margin of safety.”
2. List five environmental factors that structural designers and
builders might have to take into account, depending on where
they locate their structures.

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 327
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 328

Experiment BUILD A WORKING MODEL OF A

ON YOUR OWN
DRAWBRIDGE

Before You Start ... 2 Discuss what materials and equipment you will
You are now familiar with the different types of need to build and test your model. For example:
structural forces, the characteristics of structural a) What kind of building materials will you use?
stability, and the nature of structural stress, fatigue, b) Set criteria for one of the building materials.
and failure. You’ve also learned a little about how Test the material to see that it meets your
designers test for structural safety. Here’s an criteria and has a 25% margin of safety.
opportunity for you to use your knowledge to design, c) How will you lift and lower the movable
construct, and test a bridge that has moving parts. sections?

The Question d) How will you test the structure’s strength and
stability?
How can a structure with movable parts be built so
3 Draw up a plan. Include in it a detailed sketch of
that it is functional, but strong and safe?
your design, a list of the materials you propose to
Design and Conduct Your Experiment use, and a brief description of how you will test
1 Working by yourself or with a partner, plan how the completed structure. Show this plan to your
you could design a model drawbridge that has teacher before you proceed.
either one or two movable sections.

4 Build your model and test it. Modify the structure,

if necessary, to correct practical problems or
improve overall strength or stability. Be prepared
to demonstrate to your class how the drawbridge
works.
5 Present your experimental design and findings to
the class. State what limits you would
recommend for live load and what your margin of
safety is. Describe how well your model meets
those criteria.

Figure 4.5 Step 4

328 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 329

4.2 Strengthening Materials to Improve

Function and Safety info BIT
As you’ve seen throughout this unit, a goal of science and
technology is to provide solutions to practical problems. Body Fusion
A structure such as a bicycle is designed and built to meet a At birth, a baby’s
human need. Gradually, through use and formal and informal skeleton contains 350
processes, it is evaluated and tested. From the results of these tests, bones. As the baby
new designs and materials may be applied. Sometimes, it is trial grows through
childhood and into an
and error in technological problem-solving that brings about the
adult, many of the
changes. Other times, it is advances in scientific knowledge that
bones fuse together,
lead to change, as when methods to increase the strength of
until the total number
materials are discovered or new materials are developed. of bones is 206. This
fusing is nature’s way
ALTERING MATERIALS FOR STRENGTH of strengthening and
One way that many structural problems can be solved is to combine reinforcing the frame
materials and components in new arrangements. This lets you take of a human for
adulthood.
advantage of the best characteristics of each.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

DESIGNING A BETTER BACKPACK

No structural design, not even that of a backpack, stays the same over time.
Humans are always working to adapt and improve designs to meet people’s
needs better. Here’s your chance to do that yourself. The approach you use in
this activity to evaluate and improve the backpack is the same basic process you
would use to analyze and improve any technological design.

• Prepare a short questionnaire and survey a sample of students. Your survey

should find out what the students use backpacks for, under what conditions
they use them, and how long, on average, they find a backpack lasts. You
should also ask whether your respondents have ever experienced backpack
failures and, if so, what parts of their backpacks failed.
• When you have your survey results, work with a small group to brainstorm
how the components, materials, and fasteners in backpacks could be
improved and strengthened. How could backpacks be made so that they
provide more efficient service for a longer time?
• Summarize your ideas and present them to the class. With all the groups,
debate the advantages and disadvantages of the various suggestions.

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 329
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 330

Corrugation
Imagine you wanted to design a way of packing two layers of small
glasses in a box. All you have on hand as packing material is some
heavy paper. The divider between the two layers must be strong
enough to resist bending under the load of the top layer of glasses.
It must also be smooth enough to keep the glasses upright. You’ve
learned that triangles and arches are strong shapes. If you folded a
flat piece of paper into a series of triangles or arches, that would
make a strong support. The only problem is, the folded surface
would cause the top glasses to fall over.
What’s the solution? If you combined the folded piece of paper
with two smooth ones, the result would be a sandwich with a
strong interior and a smooth exterior—perfect for making a sturdy,
yet lightweight, divider (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6 Corrugation
Corrugation is the process of forming a material into wave-like
provided the solution to this
packing problem. ridges or folds. Corrugated cardboard and corrugated metal are
common examples.

Lamination
Gluing layers of a material together to create a strong bond is called
lamination. Laminated materials are stronger than a single piece of
the same material of the same thickness. Some laminated beams, for
example, are made of short pieces of wood. Overlapping,
interlocking, and gluing the members into single beams makes them
better than solid beams for supporting heavy loads.
Have you ever looked carefully at plywood? Did you see the
five or seven layers? It is laminated. Kitchen counter tops have a
waterproof layer laminated onto wood. Another example of a
tension
laminated product is automobile safety glass. It consists of two
pieces of glass with a layer of plastic in the middle. If the glass is
hit by a flying object, the outside layer of glass may break but the
plastic layer is elastic and it will hold the broken pieces of glass
together.

Strengthening Component Arrangements

If stronger materials to build stronger components are not available
or affordable, using different arrangements of components is often a
compression good solution. Making greater use of trusses and arches, for
example, can provide the strength that is missing. Even adding
small supports for reinforcement (see Figure 4.7) can make
structural components stronger.

Figure 4.7 The component that provides support for the sign in (A) is called a “tie.” It
works by resisting tension in the structure. The component that provides support for the
sign in (B) is called a “strut.” It works by resisting compression in the structure.

330 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 331

Problem
Solving BUILDING STRONG
Activity Recognize a Need
One of the most popular annual events in your school is “The Year’s Greatest
Designers” competition. The theme this year is “New Idea, Old Materials.” You
and some friends decide to enter the competition.
Materials & Equipment
The Problem
Materials will vary, but may
include the following items. Your challenge is to design, build, and test a chair using recycled materials.
Check your choices with
Criteria for Success
your teacher before starting
to build. The chair must be made of recycled, “non-traditional chair” materials and be able
• cans to withstand an agreed-upon amount of stress. You may use up to four different
• cardboard boxes kinds of material and as many methods of joining or fastening as you want.
• cardboard tubing
• plastic containers
Brainstorm Ideas
• rope 1 Working in a group of two or three, brainstorm ideas for a chair design, the
• plastic cord materials you could use, and the method you will use to test your chair.
• glue Evaluate all the ideas discussed and reach a decision amongst yourselves
• adhesive tape about which idea your group will use. (Refer to Toolbox 3.)
• staples
• paint Build a Prototype
• papier-mâché 2 Assemble your materials and any tools or equipment you will need to build
Equipment will vary, but your chair prototype.
may include the following 3 Build your chair, testing all components as well as the final chair. Modify the
items. Check your choices design if necessary as you go.
with your teacher before 4 Troubleshoot problems as they are identified. For example, are there some
starting to build. weaknesses in the original design? If so, how could you resolve them?
• scissors
• scalpel or small sharp knife Test and Evaluate
• tape measure 5 With your group, present your completed chair to the class. Answer
questions about the design. Be prepared to support your design decisions.
6 After all groups have displayed their chairs and given a presentation, the
Caution! teacher will test how well each chair functions (i.e., how much weight it can
• Wear goggles when support, how stable it is, and determine if the size is appropriate).
using a knife.
7 For all the chairs, the class will vote to select the one that is best in each of
• Wear gloves when
four categories: Most Original Use of Materials, Strongest and Most Stable,
using paint.
Most Aesthetically Pleasing, and Overall Best Chair.

Communicate
8 As a class, review the multiple solutions that were found for the practical
problem posed by this activity. Why was there not just one solution?
9 Describe what you feel were the biggest challenges in meeting the criteria set
for the problem. How did these limitations affect the process you went
through in developing your design and then building a prototype?

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 331
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 332

re SEARCH Changing Methods of Fastening

The purpose of most backpacks is to carry a load and keep the
Titanium contents inside protected from weather. Some backpacks maintain
Titanium is a durable their strength and usefulness better than others, but most often the
but light metal. It is a parts that fail are the fasteners: the seams, zippers, and buckles that
material of choice in hold the various materials and components together.
the automobile and Failed fastenings in structures such as backpacks are usually
aircraft industries. just an inconvenience rather than a safety concern. Think what
You may also know of
would happen if the welds joining the steel plates of a ship’s hull
titanium’s use in
failed, or if the cables supporting a gondola snapped. Clearly, the
sports equipment
consequences of poor fastenings in these cases could be disastrous.
such as tennis
rackets, bicycles, and Changing methods of fastening to strengthen even a simple
golf clubs. Another structure can mean switching to screws from nails, or using cement
important property of rather than relying on mass to hold structural parts together.
this metal is that it is
non-toxic. This makes NEW MATERIALS
it a good material for
Science and technology are creating new materials all the time.
producing artificial
Many of these are providing solutions to challenges of building
body parts. Research
stronger, lighter, and more stable structures.
more about the use of
titanium to build a Composites of carbon fibres, for example, have properties that
wide variety of are superior to steel and other metals. Their light weight allows
structures. them to be used in aircraft structures. Technological advancements
have led to other composites such as Kevlar to be used in such
diverse products as tires, fibre optic cables, and sporting goods. E-
glass fibre (fibreglass) is widely used for energy efficient windows.
New plastics are being developed. How many objects can you
see around you that are made of some type of plastic?

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Define corrugation and lamination, and describe how they add
strength to a material.
2. Explain why a builder might choose to reinforce the
arrangement of components as a means of strengthening a
structure rather than just buying stronger material.
3. True or false? A new material made from combining other
materials can never be as strong as the originals. Explain your
answer.

332 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 333

and
Careers Profiles

Roller-Coaster Designer
Roller-coaster designers use computer programs to design
coasters. These programs help them change factors like the
height and steepness of the coaster to get the fastest and
safest ride possible.
Once the design is ready, a small-scale model of the
coaster is built, probably around one-eighth of the actual
size. The designers test this model to make sure it is safe
and works well. Next, a full-sized model is built and tested.
Finally, the roller coaster is completed. It is set up in an
amusement park and ready to go!
What forces do you think are acting on the roller coaster
shown at the right?

Building Inspector
People buying a new home often hire a building
inspector to examine it. The inspector will check that
the structure, heating, plumbing, and electricity in the
dwelling are all safe and working well.
Building inspectors need to understand how
structures work. They also need to understand how
forces such as wind and gravity act on a building. In
Canada, for example, roofs have to be strong enough
to hold up the weight of snow that builds up during
the winter.

Building inspectors make sure buildings are safe for

people to live and work in. When a building is under 1. What roles do a roller-coaster designer
construction, a city building officer will come to check and a building inspector play in ensuring
that the builders are following proper safety rules. that amusement park rides and houses
• The structure and foundation of the building have meet human needs within a margin of
to be strong enough to hold up the weight it will be safety?
carrying. 2. For each of these two careers, list three
• Tall buildings have to be stiff enough to resist the important skills a person would need to
force of strong winds. have to be successful.
• Buildings in earthquake zones have to be sturdy 3. Which aspects of these two careers do
enough to withstand the shaking and movement of you think would be most interesting?
the ground.

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 333
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 334

4.3 Evaluating Designs from an Overall

info BIT Perspective
Holiday Lights—Safely Any structure, whether it is a backpack or a hydro-electric dam,
In 1917, a large fire in must meet a range of human needs. “Will it do the job I want it to?”
New York City was
is not the only question that must be answered if you want to
found to have been
evaluate the “whole story” about how effective a structure is. Figure
started by open
4.8 lists several other important questions that must be answered.
candles placed on a
Christmas tree. At the
time, the Sadacca Cost Benefits Safety Impact on the
family had a novelty • How much will the • What are the • Is there a safety Environment
business selling structure cost to benefits of having hazard? • What steps might
imitation birds that lit build, operate, and this structure? • Who and what be taken to prevent
maintain? • Who will enjoy could be affected environmental
up. Albert Sadacca,
• Can we afford to those benefits? by these risks? harm?
then 15, suggested that build it? • How will waste
his family begin materials related to
making electric lights the structure be
for Christmas trees. The disposed of?
lights were not
popular, however, until Figure 4.8 Any design should be evaluated from many perspectives.
after Albert thought of
painting the bulbs
different colours. A CASE STUDY IN IMPROVING DESIGNS
In 1978, two men in a Vancouver bike store modified a Nishiki road
bike by adding wide tires, straight handlebars, and thumb shifters.
This was the first “mountain bike” for the future founders of Rocky
Mountain Bicycles. In 1982, the “Sherpa,” their first Rocky
Mountain bike, was produced.
math Link Read about how Rocky Mountain Bicycles makes its bikes, and
then answer the following questions in your notebook.
The frame of a popular
1. Give an example of a design change the company made based
bicycle costs $139 to
on what customers liked. How did the company get this
assemble in the
factory. A proposed information?
design change would 2. Why are triangles used in the frame of a bicycle?
save the manufacturer 3. What efforts does this company make to help create a
$4.50 per frame. If sustainable environment? Why is this important?
2500 bicycles are built 4. A designer sometimes has to choose between the material with
per month, how much the best properties and a more economical material. Why? Give
money would the an example of how Rocky Mountain Bicycles does this. What
manufacturer save would you predict might happen if a new, recycled plastic
over 1 year by making material, light but as strong as steel, were developed?
this design change? 5. Why does this company invite trade magazines to test and
evaluate its bicycles?

334 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 335

How
Rocky Mountain
Bicycles
Makes Bikes

Figure 4.10 At Rocky Mountain Bicycles, the most important

criteria for materials are strength, weight, and cost. Some of
the materials that have the best strength-to-weight ratios are
Figure 4.9 Before you make a new bicycle, you have expensive and limited to only high-end (meaning high cost)
to know what kind of bike people want. By doing market bikes. Aluminum, which costs less, also has excellent
research, the company determines which bicycles are strength-to-weight properties and is used to make mid- to
popular and which features, such as straight or curved high-end frames. Steel is generally used for mid- to low-end
handlebars, are favoured by customers. frames because of its low cost.

Figure 4.11 The traditional shape for a bicycle is

essentially two triangles. Hollow tubes tend to be Figure 4.12 Rocky Mountain Bicycles uses computer-aided
used because they provide the best strength and systems for all of its bike designing and manufacturing. This
stiffness against forces for a given weight. allows other departments in the company, such as marketing,
to approve the design before an actual bike is built.

Figure 4.13 New techniques in painting use non-toxic Figure 4.14 Rocky Mountain Bicycles uses a combination of
chemicals that produce little waste. Extra material and trade shows, advertising in bike magazines, promotions, Web
rejected frames are cut up and recycled. Even the sites, and sponsorships to promote its products. It also
cardboard used for packaging is made from recycled encourages trade magazines to test and evaluate its product.
material. However, word of mouth is the best advertisement.

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 335
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 336

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

STRUCTURAL REPORT CARD

You’ve had a chance to learn about the technological process that goes into
designing, building, and improving the product at Rocky Mountain Bicycles.
You’ve also considered a number of criteria that are important in an overall
evaluation of a structure. Now it’s your turn.

Choose another structure of interest to you and evaluate the technological

design and development process that has gone into creating it. Use the following
criteria to guide your evaluation:

• cost of building the structure

• benefits provided by the structure
• safety of the structure
• impact of the structure on the environment

re SEARCH
Wind Me Up Why would a
The radio shown here doesn’t use batteries. structure such as
Neither does it have a plug for electricity. this wind-up radio
Instead, a few turns of a crank in the back be popular? What
human needs is it
provide enough power for about
serving?
30 min of operation. Find out more about this
type of radio and how it works.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. When a bicycle gets old and falls apart, who is responsible for
disposing of the bicycle in an environmentally friendly way—
the store that sells the bicycle or the buyer?
2. Make a flowchart to show the major steps in designing, making,
and selling a new kind of bicycle. For each step, indicate which
of the following factors should be considered and explain why:
cost, benefits, safety, and impact on the environment.

336 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 337

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Do you agree or disagree with the statement “It is impossible to
make everything perfectly safe”? Explain your reasoning.
2. Identify three environmental factors that can affect the strength
and stability of structures in the area where you live. What
structural designs help resist those environmental forces?
3. Waste is produced by many technological processes, as well as
by the everyday operation of large facilities such as schools and
hospitals. Study your own class’s waste disposal habits as
follows:
• Make a three-column chart like the one shown in Figure 4.15.

Type of waste Ideal way to dispose What actually happens Figure 4.15 Question 3
of it

• In the first column, list each type of waste item you see in
your classroom.
• In the middle column, state the ideal way to dispose of each
type of waste: recycle, reuse, or dispose.
• Investigate your school’s recycling and waste-handling
procedures. In the right-hand column, record what you find
out actually happens to each type of waste.
• Make suggestions about how your school could improve its
methods of disposing of waste.

Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

On
All technologies must be assessed to determine whether they are
appropriate for the context in which they are to be used.
Reflect on what you learned in this section about designing,
evaluating, and improving structures.
1. What environmental factors can affect the stability of structures?
2. How can materials be strengthened to improve safety and
service?
3. Besides function, what considerations about a structure should
be evaluated?
4. How could you apply what you have learned about designing
safe and effective structures to planning a walking aid (walker)
for elderly people who cannot walk on their own?

Structures Are Designed, Evaluated, and Improved in Order to Meet Human Needs 337
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 338

S C I E N C E W O R L D

y
a
se d
S t u

Preserve or Replace?
The Issue
Today, there are thousands of abandoned structures in
North America, including homes, stores, and railroad
stations. Some people think derelict structures are
eyesores that should be torn down and replaced. Other
A
people think older buildings are objects of beauty and
heritage that should be preserved. What do you think? The abandoned home
Read the two views below for and against preserving shown in (A) was built in
the 1890s. The same
old buildings.
building has been carefully
renovated into a two-family
View 1: Old Buildings View 2: Old Buildings residence (B).
Should Be Preserved Should Be Demolished B
and Replaced
Many old buildings have Old buildings are unsightly. Go Further
historical value. They are an This can reduce property
Now it’s your turn. Look into the following
important part of an area’s values in the neighbourhood.
resources for information to help you form an
heritage.
opinion.
Many old buildings are Old buildings that sit • Look on the Web: Check out the Web sites
beautiful and have abandoned for a long time
of heritage protection societies and
architectural value. are a safety hazard. They
associations.
Demolishing them become in danger of
• Ask the Experts: Talk to experts about the
diminishes the character of collapsing.
issue. Builders, architects, building
an area.
inspectors, historians, and specialists in
Demolishing old buildings Many old buildings don’t heritage restoration can provide you with
to replace them with new meet modern building codes
important facts and background information.
ones is a waste of or the needs of modern
• Check Newspapers and Magazines: Follow
materials and resources. It tenants. They fail to meet
current stories about the issue in local,
reflects the bad habits of a standards for electrical
national, and international newspapers and
consumer society. Many wiring, plumbing, and
structures can still be structural stability. Few meet magazines.
modified for new uses. fire code regulations.
In Your Opinion
Renovating is often more
expensive than demolishing
Think of an abandoned structure in your area.
and rebuilding from scratch. What would you do with this structure:
Any renovation job, no matter preserve and renovate it or demolish and
how carefully done, will replace it? Summarize your opinion on the
destroy some of the issue in a letter to the local newspaper, clearly
building’s original character. explaining the reasons for your choice.

338 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 339

U NIT SUMMARY: STRUCTURES AND FORCES

Key Concepts Section Summaries

1.0 1.0 Structures are found in natural and human-made environments.

• Structural forms can be classified as solids, frames, or shells. Each offers structural
• structural forms stability under different forces. Examples of the three forms are found in both the
• function and design of natural and the human-built environment.
structures
• For any structure to be effective, it must serve the function for which it was designed.
Structures that have a common function may vary widely in design. Many structures
serve multiple functions.
• Climate, culture, tradition, technology, and economics all influence the design of
human-built structures and reflect the great variation that exists across time and
around the world.

2.0 2.0 External and internal forces act on structures.

• The effect of a force on a structure depends on the magnitude, direction, and location
• material strength and
of the force. These aspects can be identified and measured.
flexibility
• forces on and within • An external force is one that is applied to an object from the outside. Stability can be
structures affected by changes in the distribution of mass within the structure, and by changes in
the design of its foundation. A structure’s ability to withstand a load depends on its
• direction of forces
overall strength and stability. Performance requirements ensure that structures are
• structural stability performing to certain standards.
• modes of failure
• performance requirements • Three main types of internal forces at work within structures are compression, tension,
and shear. The shape and properties of materials and structural components determine
how well they can resist internal forces. When structures cannot withstand the forces
acting on them, they undergo structural stress, fatigue, and failure.

3.0 3.0 Structural strength and stability depend on the properties of different materials
and how they are joined together.
• deformation
• Structural material, including both natural and synthetic types, can be classified
• joints
according to a range of properties.
• material strength and
flexibility • The strength and flexibility of materials in a structure can be tested. One way is to
measure the amount of deformation that occurs when a material is under a load.
• structural stability
• The appropriateness of a type of joint in a structure depends on how and where it will
be used in the structure.
• Each of the many different materials found in the structure of a plant or animal plays a
special role in maintaining the strength, stability, and functioning of that structure.

4.0 4.0 Structures are designed, evaluated, and improved in order to meet human
needs.
• margin of safety
• Environmental factors can affect the stability and safety of a structure.
• structural stability
• Materials and components can be strengthened in several ways to increase structural
safety. Corrugation and lamination are two examples.
• All structural designs and processes can be evaluated on the basis of identified criteria
such as costs, benefits, safety, and potential environmental impact.

Unit Summary 339

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 340

PROJECT
S U RV I V E !!

Getting Started
In this climate, most people
have experienced what it feels
like to be outside in a winter
storm. The wind seems to
reach everywhere and makes it
hard to keep warm. As the
snow builds, it becomes more
difficult to move around. If you
can get indoors, you know you
will be fine. But what if you’re
not near a warm place? What
kind of shelter could you use in
an emergency?
In this unit, you have
learned how to design
structures to withstand forces
of various types. You have also Your Goal
learned about considering Your goal is to design a shelter that can be set up quickly by two people
human factors as you turn and that will help them survive a sudden winter storm.
ideas into designs. How could
you use this information to What You Need to Know
design and build a temporary Your shelter is to be presented to the class as a drawing and as a model.
shelter to protect yourself until The model will be tested for its ability to meet the criteria below:
help arrived or the storm was • The shelter must be portable, both when it is set up and when it is
over? packed.
• You must be able to carry the shelter yourself or in a vehicle such as a
car.
– If the shelter is to be carried by a person, it must be small enough to
fit inside a backpack (or be tied to the outside of a backpack). It must
have a mass of less than 4.5 kg.
– If the shelter is to be carried in a vehicle, it must be shorter than
0.5 m in any direction. Mass can vary.
• The shelter must be easy for two people to set up quickly in a wind.
• The shelter must be safe to use and must protect two people against
wind chill and snow for at least two hours.
• You must dispose of waste materials from its construction properly.

340 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 341

Steps to Success How Did It Go?

1 Work with your group to design a plan for solving 6 In a short report, answer the following questions:
this technological challenge. For example, think • Describe how well your shelter met the criteria
about how you will choose a design and materials, of the project. How do you know?
whether you need to build a prototype, how you • What part of this challenge did you find most
will test your shelter, and how you will make difficult? Why? How did you overcome or deal
modifications. (See Toolbox 3 if you need help with this problem?
with this.)
• What part of this challenge did you find most
2 When you have a plan, show it to your teacher for successful? Why?
approval. Make sure you have a diagram
• Compare your final product with your original
illustrating what your shelter will look like.
idea. Explain any changes you made.
3 Proceed with the plan.
• Describe the skills you needed to learn in order
to design and build your shelter. How did you
Caution! identify those skills? Where did you go to learn
• Use equipment with care.
them?
• Do not test your shelter unless your
• How would you change your shelter so that a
teacher is present.
person could safely use a candle inside for
warmth and light?
4 Make changes to the plan as necessary. Document
reasons for your change.
5 Be prepared to demonstrate your model to the
class.

Project 341
04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 342

UNIT REVIEW: STRUCTURES AND FORCES

Unit Vocabulary 2.0

1. Create a concept map of the following 6. Explain how the direction in which a
terms. Remember to use a couple of words force is applied can determine the effect
or a short sentence between the terms to that force has.
show how you connected these terms.
7. Give an example of a dynamic and a static
centre of gravity load. How are these two examples the
complementary forces same and how are they different?
dynamic and static load
8. What four different types of bridges can be
solid, frame, and shell structures
used to support a load? Use a labelled
structural stability
diagram to illustrate the similarities and
structural strength
differences between them.
structural fatigue
structure 9. Describe, using a diagram, three different
materials types of internal forces.
10. Name six common structural components
(or combination of components) and
Check Your Knowledge sketch them in your notebook.
11. What is the difference between structural
1.0
stress and structural failure?
2. Define the term structure.
3. What is the difference between solid, 3.0
frame, and shell structures?
12. True or false? A material that is very rigid
4. Give an example of a combination
is always better in a structure than a
structure in the human-built environment material that is very flexible. Explain.
and in the natural environment. For each,
say what structural forms are combined. 13. How can the deformation of a material
under a load be measured?
5. Why do structures that serve the same
function often have such different 14. What role does friction play in some
designs? methods of joining?
15. How would you evaluate whether a
particular joint should be made using
nails or glue?

342 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 343

4.0 22. Look at the truck below and answer the

following questions.
16. How might heavy snow affect the
a) What external forces are acting on the
strength and stability of a structure? Use
structure of the truck?
the terms force and structural fatigue in
your answer. b) Which types of internal forces are
acting on the truck?
17. What is corrugation and how is it used
in structures?
18. What criteria other than strength and
stability might you use to evaluate a
structure?

Connect Your Understanding

19. An archaeologist finds the remains of
three types of structures in an area, all
built during the same period of time by
Question 22
the same ancient people. The shell-like
structures were made of light materials
23. From your knowledge and experiences
such as animal hide. The frame-like
in this unit, what do you think is the
structures seem to have been permanent,
best type of structure to hold up a large
but evidence indicates they were only
mass? What evidence can you provide to
used in warm weather. The solid
support your opinion?
structures were formed from piles of
stone. Inside each pile were dried grains 24. In what way does your body respond to
and other foods. What would you infer a compressive force being applied to it?
was the most likely function of each For example, what happens when you
type of structure for these people? How jump down from a bench?
did the designs of these structures suit 25. A broken beam in a frame structure was
their function? found to crack along the lower surface
20. A container is needed to hold 50 CDs. It first. How could you redesign the beam
should provide easy access to all discs to account for this problem?
and be able to withstand being dropped. 26. Do all methods of joining or fastening
What shape would you use? Why? need to be strong? Think of two cases
21. If you were to design a picnic table, where the strongest means of fastening
would you pay more attention to the would not be a suitable choice.
function or the aesthetics? Explain.

Unit Review 343

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 344

UNIT REVIEW: STRUCTURES AND FORCES

27. a) You’ve been asked to design a hand- explain the many factors involved in the
pulled wagon for a child. How would design of structures, make yourself a
you decide what materials and concept map using the terms listed
methods of joining to use? below:
b) What changes to your selections in (a) • arch
would you make if you had to design • beam
a second wagon for an adult? Why? • centre of gravity
• external forces
28. Suggest improvements to the following
• internal forces
structures that might make them useful
• load
to more people. Try to make the least
• mass
change possible.
• shape
a) A narrow revolving gate is used to • structural component
control the number of people entering • weight
the fairground at once. It works well
30. You have been asked to design a short
for an average-sized person who is
footbridge across a muddy section of the
not carrying any objects.
schoolyard. Develop the plans needed to
b) Two of the three shelves in a set of build this structure. You should have a
kitchen cupboards are too high for diagram of the structure, a list of
any member of the family to reach materials, and a brief description of how
without climbing on a stool. to assemble the bridge.
31. What structural shapes and materials
would you use to build an observation
Practise Your Skills tower in a bird sanctuary?
29. You have been asked to judge a 32. You have the choice of building a
competition in which students were bicycle storage shed with either concrete
challenged to design the strongest and blocks or wood. Create a chart that
most stable structure possible using demonstrates the benefits and costs of
Popsicle sticks and tape. In your role as using each type of material. Once you
judge, you will be discussing each have completed your chart, select a
structure with the students who material and describe why you chose it
designed it. To help you remember and using the information you collected.

344 Unit D: Structures and Forces

04_U7D_StrucFrces_p258-345 12/14/06 5:30 PM Page 345

Self Assessment Focus SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

33. Think about the three questions first On
posed in the introduction to this unit:
In this unit, you have investigated science
A How do structures stand up under a
and technology related to structures and
load?
forces. Consider the following questions.
B What forces act on structures?
36. Reread the three questions on page 263
C What materials and design about the nature of structures and forces.
characteristics contribute to a Use a creative way to demonstrate your
structure’s strength and stability? answer to one of the questions.
Go back through your notes and write A, 37. What aspects about structures and forces
B, or C beside main ideas to show how did you investigate that demonstrated
each aspect of your learning in this unit how technology could be used to
can help you answer those questions. develop solutions to practical structural
34. Think back on everything you did problems?
during this unit. Use your thoughts to 38. Describe the process involved in
answer the following questions: designing a structure to perform a
• The most surprising part of this unit specific task. Was this a straightforward,
for me was: step-by-step process, or did it require
• During my study of structures, the modifications as you developed and
toughest part I found was: evaluated the design?
• I solved this by: 39. Describe the situation where an
• I would like to learn more about: understanding of the local conditions
• My advice to someone starting this was important for a technology to be
unit would be: used appropriately.
• What I liked most about structures
was:
35. What types of careers could you pursue
that are related to structures? Which one
seems the most interesting to you? Why
is this?

Unit Review 345

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 346

UNIT

346
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 347

In this unit, you will cover the following sections:

1.0 Earth’s surface undergoes gradual and sudden

changes.
1.1 A Model for Earth
1.2 Sudden Earth Events
1.3 Incremental Changes: Wind, Water, and Ice

2.0 The rock cycle describes how rocks form and

change over time.
2.1 What Are Rocks and Minerals?
2.2 Three Classes of Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary,
and Metamorphic
2.3 The Rock Cycle

3.0 Landforms provide evidence of change.

3.1 Continental Drift
3.2 Plate Tectonics
3.3 Mountain Building

4.0 The fossil record provides evidence of Earth’s changes

over time.
4.1 Tracing Evidence of Geologic Change Using Fossils
4.2 Methods Used to Interpret Fossils
4.3 Geologic Time

347
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 348

Exploring

Oldman River, Alberta

If you look out the window of your classroom, what kind of land
features do you see: mountains? hills? valleys? What characteristics
do you notice about these features? Are the mountains tall with
steep, jagged cliffs or are they rounded like huge hills? Is there a
river running through the valley or is the bottom of the valley a
large, flat plain? In this unit, you will learn about Earth—our
constantly changing planet. You will learn about its surface features
and the forces that affect its interior. This knowledge will help you
understand the models scientists have developed to explain the
changes that Earth has undergone over its long history.

EARTH-SHATTERING EVENTS
Most of what people have known about Earth they have known
because of what they could directly observe. However, observations
don’t always tell the whole story. Consider the two news stories on
the next page. One shows a volcano in Washington State that
literally “blew its top!” The other describes an earthquake that
happened in Kobe, Japan.

348 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 349

Mountain
blows its top
On May 18, 1980, Mount
St. Helens in Washington
d
State exploded. Gas an
ash shot 19 km into the
sky. The mountain’s top
collapsed—it lost 400 m
of its original height.

Shocking shock waves!

At 5:46 a.m. on January
17, 1995, the million plu
Kobe, Japan, were throw s residents of
n from their beds by a ma
Broken gas lines led to hu ssi ve earthquake.
ge fires and thousands die
d.

What caused these dramatic natural disasters? Surely not wind

or water or other events that you have noticed occurring on Earth’s
surface.
Earth is a planet that is in constant motion and change. Intense
heat from deep inside Earth creates volcanoes that spew lava. Huge
plates of rock moving across its surface cause earthquakes that
shake and split the ground. Mountains grow upward, while wind
and water wear them down and carry them away.

Exploring 349
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 350

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

EXAMINING EARTH
What do you know about Earth and the events that shape and change its surface
features? Look at the photos below. They show situations where Earth’s features
have been changed in some way. Discuss with a partner what you think is
happening in each picture, and answer these questions in your notebooks:

• What do you think caused these features to occur?

• Do you think this change happened slowly or quickly?

A B

Why are the bands of rock not straight across the sides of the
mountain?
What forces could have shaped this rock?
D

What can this fossilized insect in amber tell us about insects What are the roots of this tree doing to the rock?
today?

As you go through this unit, think about what you are learning, and modify or
revise your answers to these questions.

350 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 351

Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

On
While studying this unit, you will be asked to organize your
thoughts based on your own observations and the evidence of the
science community. This evidence has come about in a number of
ways:
• through experimentation
• by interpreting facts and observations
• by creating and interpreting models
Think about the following questions while you study how the
forces of Earth have transformed its features. The answers to these
and other questions about Earth will help you understand the
nature of the forces that shape and change our planet.
1. What do we know about Earth, its surface, and what lies
below?
2. What forces act on Earth to change its landforms?
3. What are the processes and techniques we use to develop an
understanding of Earth and its changes?

Ocean inlets, British Columbia

The Badlands in southern Alberta

Exploring 351
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 352

1.0 Earth’s surface undergoes gradual

and sudden changes.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• developing models
• Earth models
• earthquakes
• volcanoes
• tools and techniques for
studying Earth
• the effects of water, wind,
and ice
• glaciers

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• interpret models of Earth’s
interior structure
• investigate evidence that
Earth’s surface undergoes
both sudden and gradual
Canada’s Precambrian Shield
changes
• identify tools and techniques
for studying Earth It may seem to you that Earth’s landscape doesn’t change very
• interpret and investigate
much. Earth is, after all, made up largely of rocks, and rocks are
examples of weathering,
hard and difficult to move. But the fact is, nothing could be
erosion, and sedimentation
• use suitable terms and
further from the truth. Rocks and the structure of Earth are part of
conventions in describing a landform cycle of creation, loss, and renewal.
Earth’s substances Most of the time this change goes unnoticed, but sometimes, it
shows up in dramatic and devastating ways. Sudden geologic
events, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides,
can occur quickly with catastrophic results. Other events, such as
glacial and river erosion, happen more slowly and are not nearly
as harmful to humans.

352 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 353

1.1 A Model for Earth

Think of Earth’s long history as a story, a cross between an info BIT
adventure and a mystery. The adventure part of the story is about
people facing the powerful forces of Earth—earthquakes, mountain Our Ancient Past
building, volcanoes—in their efforts to understand it. The mystery Geologists estimate
is about the fact that we can’t easily see inside our home planet. We that Earth is about
live on its outermost skin. We have only indirect evidence of what 4.6 billion years old.
is happening deep below its surface. Human-like creatures
did not appear on
Have you ever looked at a present you’ve received and
Earth’s surface until
wondered what is inside? Its wrapping paper keeps you from
about 3 million years
quickly figuring it out, but that shouldn’t stop you from guessing.
ago, making us
You can still note the size of the package, lift it and guess its newcomers to an
weight, and shake it to hear how it sounds. Using this information, ancient planet.
you can make an “educated guess” as to what is inside.

DEVELOPING A MODEL
A model is an idea of something that can’t be fully known or seen.
It is a way of demonstrating an object or an idea that is difficult to
picture in its real form. Models are useful when something is too
big or too small or too complicated for us to study easily. They can
take many forms: drawings, actual constructions, or comparisons to
familiar things. For example, a globe is a model for Earth.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

WHAT’S INSIDE?
You will be given a “mystery container.” It may contain one or more different
objects, and you will be asked to create a model to help explain what’s inside.
Your goal, in co-operation with your group, is to use your senses to gather as
much evidence as possible about what might be inside the mystery container.
After gathering your evidence, each member of your group should independently
sketch a diagram, or “model,” of the container’s contents.

• Compare the diagrams and discuss the similarities and differences and the
evidence that supports them. You may want to revise and improve your model
as you gather more evidence.
• Sketch a final diagram of what your group believes the contents to be.
• Explain to another group how you came up with your model.
• What further evidence could you get to provide you with even more
information about your mystery container?
• Now open the container. How does your model differ from the real object?

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 353

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 354

What you have just done is very similar to the methods

scientists use to develop, debate, and change the models that they
use to explain the structure of Earth.

WHAT’S INSIDE EARTH

In 1864, the French author Jules Verne wrote a novel called Journey
to the Centre of the Earth. He described a land deep inside the core
of Earth populated by strange plants and animals. The story
captured everyone’s imagination, and for years afterward, people
wondered about what really lay below Earth’s surface.
Scientists began to wonder, too. What are the layers that make
up Earth? How thick is its outer skin? Is the interior solid or molten
liquid? What does the centre core look like?
Because Earth is so large, geologists, who are scientists that
study Earth, have had to use a model to help them understand its
inner structure. They know a lot about its surface because they can
easily study it, but digging a hole to Earth’s centre to examine its
core is out of the question. The extreme conditions there prevent
any kind of exploration. Geologists would have to travel more than
1700 times the depth of the deepest mine in the world (a gold mine
in South Africa, which reaches a depth of 3.8 km).

Figure 1.1 It’s never cold in

deep mines. At 1 km below
the surface, temperatures
can be around 29°C—even
on the coldest day in winter.

Geologists also use many indirect methods of studying Earth,

some of which you will learn about later in this unit. What they
have discovered is that there’s more to Earth than what can be seen
on its surface. Earth appears to be made up of three major layers.
Each layer surrounds the layer beneath it, much like an onion.

354 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 355

Earth’s outer layer is the crust. The inner core layer is solid, even
All the features we see around though it’s very hot. The weight
us—mountains, valleys, plains, of the other layers has
hills, plateaus—are all part pressed the inner core
of the crust. It is the into an extremely
thinnest layer— hard ball. Its
10–90 km. radius is about
1250 km.

crust

inner core outer core

mantle

The mantle is
about 2900 km
thick, but it isn’t the
same all the way
through. The upper part of
the mantle is solid, like the crust.
In fact, this solid upper part and the
crust together form a layer called the In Earth’s molten outer core, the temperatures
lithosphere. Below the solid upper part of the mantle, are so high that the rock is completely liquid
the temperature and pressure are higher, and the rock or molten. This layer is about 2200 km thick.
is partly melted. This rock can flow very slowly.

Figure 1.2 Model of Earth’s

interior
Here are some more facts about Earth’s interior:
• Inner Core—Geologists believe it consists mainly of solid iron
and nickel. It reaches temperatures as high as 7000°C.
• Outer Core—The outer core is thought to be liquid because the
pressure isn’t great enough to make the molten rock into a solid.
• Mantle—The mantle makes up about two thirds of Earth’s mass.
• Crust—Because Earth is so hot in the inner core, the crust
radiates heat into the atmosphere.

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 355

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 356

re SEARCH THE CRUST

The crust is the layer that covers the surface of Earth. All living
Two Rock Ridges
things are found here. It is the rich storehouse of minerals, such as
There are many stories
iron and copper ore, used in manufacturing many of the products
about the structure of
Earth. One of these is you buy. It is also here we get the fossil fuels, such as oil, natural
the Dene story, “The gas, and coal, that supply our energy needs.
Two Rock Ridges. ” As you can see in Figure 1.2, it is the thinnest layer of Earth,
Research this or any with an average thickness of about 50 km. Under the ocean, it can
other idea about be as thin as 10 km. Beneath tall mountain ranges, such as the
Earth’s structure. In a Rocky Mountains, the crust thickens to about 90 km. Still, that’s not
paragraph, describe very thick, considering the total distance from Earth’s surface to its
the story, briefly centre is nearly 6400 km.
explaining its origin. So what exactly makes up the crust? At first glance, Earth’s
surface seems thickly covered with vegetation and fresh and
saltwater areas. Yet these features form only a thin covering. The
crust is made up of solid rock.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Look at the three photos below.

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5

Do you think that any of these would make a good model for
Earth’s interior? Give reasons for your answers.
2. Give two examples where models are used to serve different
purposes.
3. Why do you think computers are useful in creating and
displaying models?
4. Make and label a drawing showing Earth’s layers as you would
see them if a wedge were cut from Earth. Be sure to use a ruler
and try to make your drawing to scale. For example, 1 cm could
represent 500 km, or 1000 km. Show the increasing depth as
you reach the centre.

356 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 357

1.2 Sudden Earth Events

You wake up suddenly from a deep sleep feeling as though your
bed is on a ship in a bad storm. You have trouble reaching the light
info BIT
to turn it on. When you do, you can see the walls of your bedroom
Some Canadian
changing shape in front of your eyes. And the noise! The whole
Earthquakes
building sounds as if it’s being pulled apart board by board.
Date Richter Place
Everything on the shelves crashes to the floor. But outside you can Scale
hear the twisting of metal and shattering of concrete mixed with the 1663 ? St. Lawrence
shouts of people. region
1700 ⬃9 off coast of
B.C.
1918 ⬃7 Vancouver
Island
1946 7.3 Vancouver
Island
1949 8.1 near the
Queen
Charlotte
Islands, B.C.
1990 4.9 Fraser
Lowland,
B.C.

Figure 1.6 Armenia, Columbia, January 1999 (6.0 on the Richter scale)—This earthquake
lasted less than a minute, but look at the results!

Few forces in nature are as dramatic and devastating as

earthquakes and volcanoes. In a matter of moments, they can
transform a peaceful countryside into a violent, twisted landscape.
The earthquake in Kobe, Japan, lasted only a few seconds, but
resulted in 5000 deaths. When Mount St. Helens erupted in
Washington State, 57 people died, and the ash from its spewing top
destroyed an area of 560 km2. People from as far away as Ontario
and Quebec were cleaning the grey dust off their cars a few days
later.
Have you ever felt an earthquake? Have you read about its
effects? What happened? What do you think it was like? Share your
experience with the rest of the class.

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 357

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:48 PM Page 358

WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKES?

Earthquakes are tremblings or vibrations of the ground. They are
caused by the sudden release of energy that has slowly been
building up in Earth’s crust. Large masses of rock in the crust move
and sometimes become locked together or stuck. A tremendous
force is created until finally the rocks break. This sudden break
causes an earthquake.

rock
Figure 1.7 Pressure forces the rocks first to change shape and then to break.

THE FIRST BREAK

The first place that the rocks break below the surface in an
earthquake is called the focus. The sudden breaking of rocks at the
focus releases energy that spreads as waves through Earth. These
earthquake waves are called seismic waves (from the Greek word
“seismos,” meaning “earthquake”). The shaking you feel in an
earthquake is caused by the seismic waves moving through the
ground. Powerful ones can damage and change Earth’s surface.
Geologists use these waves to study Earth’s interior because the
waves travel right through Earth’s layers, just like X-rays do inside
your body.

re SEARCH
Alberta Quakes
Earthquakes are a rare occurrence in Alberta, but on • What time did the earthquake occur?
October 19, 1996, people near Rocky Mountain House • What did the quake measure on the Richter scale?
were awakened to one. The National Earthquake • Were there any aftershocks? If so, how many and
Hazards Program of Natural Resources Canada records how powerful were they?
and researches all earthquakes felt in Canada. Use an • Did the quake cause any damage?
Internet search engine to find their regional western • Research where in Canada earthquakes are most
Web site so you can find out more about this likely to occur.
earthquake.

358 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 359

Because of the effect an earthquake can have on the surface of

Earth, geologists look for its epicentre. This is the point on the
surface directly above the focus (“epi-” means “above”). Officials
need to know where the epicentre is to provide disaster relief. It
helps them determine if the earthquake was in a location where it
would harm people, buildings, transportation systems, or
communications. Figure 1.8 shows how the focus and the epicentre
are related.
Figure 1.8 The epicentre
MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF EARTHQUAKES of an earthquake is
directly above the focus.
Geologists have developed various
scales to determine the strength or
magnitude of an earthquake. These
scales allow scientists around the
epicentre
world to share and compare data.
When you hear reports of the fault
magnitude of an earthquake, it’s
usually given as a number on the focus
Richter scale.
Charles Richter, an American,
developed the scale in 1935. The
scale starts at 0, and each increase of
1 represents an increase of 10 times
the amount of ground motion of an
earthquake. For example, an earthquake of Richter magnitude 2 is
10 times stronger than one that measures 1. Look at the newspaper
article below. What was the magnitude of the earthquake? Do you
think this was a strong earthquake or a mild one?

Quake hits
bay city
SAN FRANCISCO—An
earth-
on
quake measuring 7.7
the Richter scale struck the
o
city of San Francisc
today, damaging freeways
s.
and many building
give
Unconfirmed reports
er
the death toll at ov
twenty, and fire s are
in
burning out of control Figure 1.9
many parts of the city.
Rescue work has been
hit this city in years.
one of the worst quakes to
s flee crumbling buildings in
October 17, 1989—Resident

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 359

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 360

VOLCANOES
“A deep rumbling in the ground and a fiery flash in the night sky—
the volcano is about to erupt! Run for your life!” How accurate do
you think this description is of a volcanic eruption?
A volcano is an opening in Earth’s crust through which solid
and molten rock, ash, and gases escape. Scientists have generally
been more successful predicting volcanic eruptions than they have
earthquakes. Even though they can’t say exactly when an eruption
will happen, they usually can tell if one is about to occur. As you
read through this subsection, think about what signs people could
watch for that might tell them when a volcano is going to erupt. Jot
down notes as you go along.

4 The finest ash particles settle at the

bottom of the slope or are carried many
kilometres by the wind. If ash mixes
with heavy rain, it can cause mud flows
that race down mountainsides, causing
enormous damage and loss of life.

5 Larger rock fragments fall

3 The eruption begins. Lava either near the vent; smaller ones
flows from the vent down the fall farther away.
volcano’s sides or shoots violently
into the air as a cloud of rock
fragments and ash.

6 Lava and rock fragments

move downhill because of
2 The molten rock, or magma, gravity.
forces its way upward
through a weakness in
Earth’s crust.

1 The molten rock in the magma chamber is 7 The magma activity inside the volcano
lighter than the surrounding rock because shows up on the outside as changes to
solid rock expands when it melts. As it the shape of the mountain. It also causes
expands, the molten rock moves upward. small earthquakes around the volcano.

Figure 1.10 What happens when a volcano erupts

360 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 361

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING EARTH math Link

Investigating earthquakes and volcanoes can be a risky business. Each number on the
Geologists often venture into dangerous territory to take Richter scale represents
measurements or collect samples. Their efforts to learn more about an increase of 10 times
sudden, violent Earth events may one day make these events more in the ground
predictable. Below are some of the tools and techniques geologists vibrations caused by
use to get the job done. Use your library resources and the Internet an earthquake. How
to find out more about how geologists study these Earth events. would you calculate
how much more
Tools of the Trade powerful Richter
magnitude 7 is than 3?

Figure 1.11 Geologists

studying volcanoes must
wear a special suit with a
metal coating that reflects
these intense temperatures.
This allows them to get
close enough to an eruption
to make observations, take
measurements, or collect
gas and lava samples.

Figure 1.12 A seismograph

is a device that detects the
waves of energy that spread
through Earth from the
focus of an earthquake.
Geologists read the
seismogram produced by
the seismograph to
determine the strength of
an earthquake and its
location.

Figure 1.13 Some volcanoes bulge outward slightly

when the pressure from rising molten rock inside them
builds up. Before an earthquake, stress builds up
causing the ground to tilt slightly. These signs, although
not visible to the naked eye, can be detected using a
surveyor’s level, a device that measures minute changes
in the angle of the ground’s slope.

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 361

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 362

re SEARCH
Frozen in Time
Nearly 2000 years ago, in A.D. 79, a volcanic eruption completely
destroyed the city of Pompeii in Roman Italy. Mount Vesuvius
suddenly and without warning erupted, spewing out volcanic ash
and burying the city and most of its inhabitants. Find out more
about Pompeii.
• Why is Pompeii a famous tourist attraction?
• Why didn’t the people of Pompeii just close their windows and
doors to keep the ash out, or just run away?

A plaster cast of a body at Pompeii, Italy

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What is believed to be the cause of earthquakes?
2. Where in Canada do you think earthquakes are common?
3. Why do you think it is difficult to predict earthquakes?
4. You were asked to look for clues that people could use to
determine if a volcano were about to erupt.
a) What other information might be useful for predicting
volcanic activity that was not mentioned in this subsection?
b) Working with a small group, use your information to create a
poster, a television program, or a brochure to tell people in a
volcanic area how the volcano is being monitored and what
the signs of an upcoming eruption are. If you need more
information to complete your task, use reference books or
information from the Internet.
5. What are some instruments and equipment used to investigate
earthquakes and volcanoes?

362 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 363

info BIT
1.3 Incremental Changes: Wind, Water,
and Ice Muddy Rivers
The Red Deer River
begins from the
While earthquakes and volcanoes offer sudden and catastrophic
crystal clear waters
change, the shaping or sculpting of Earth’s surface is accomplished high in the Rocky
by a combination of slow, step-by-step changes called weathering Mountains of Alberta’s
and erosion. Weathering refers to the mechanical and chemical southeastern slopes.
process that breaks down rocks by means of water, glacial ice, As the river travels
wind, and waves. Erosion occurs when the products of weathering eastward, it
are transported from place to place. Deposition is the process of accumulates
these materials being laid down or deposited by wind, water, and tremendous amounts
ice. Throughout the weathering/deposition process, material is not of silt, sand, and
gained or lost—it simply changes form. In other words, weathering dirt—causing the river
or the process that wears down rocks and other objects never to change from clear
produces new material. It is just part of a greater process of to chocolate brown.
transforming Earth’s features.

Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering happens when rock is broken apart by
physical forces, such as water or wind. In our climate, rock is often
broken down by water freezing in cracks. This action slowly helps
to break apart even the largest rock formations.

Figure 1.14 Hoodoos in southern The Red Deer River,

Alberta—Wind is another cause Alberta
of mechanical weathering. In dry
climates, if the wind often blows
strongly, it can pick up lots of
dust and grit to bombard rock
surfaces, wearing them away.
How long do you think it would
take wind to make these odd-
shaped rocks called hoodoos?

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 363

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 364

Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering happens when water and oxygen react with
the minerals in rocks to produce new minerals. Often these new
minerals are softer and can crumble more easily. For example, gases
in the air combine with rain or snow to form solutions called acids.
These acids can wear away rocks by dissolving the minerals in
them (see Figure 1.15). Think of a sugar cube dissolving in water—
it gets smaller and smaller until it disappears. Certain kinds of
rocks exposed to chemical weathering wear away in the same way.

Biological Weathering
Biological weathering is the wearing away of rocks by living things.
Figure 1.15 Look at older
Growing things can be powerful destructive forces for rocks. The
buildings and statues in your
community. How have they
need to grow causes plants to force their roots into any small space
been affected by acid rain? where a little soil has collected.
How can you tell? Then, as their roots and stems get
bigger, they put enormous pressure
on their surroundings.

Figure 1.16 This tree started growing in a small

crack in the rock. As it grew, it made the crack
bigger. What do you think will happen if the tree
continues to grow?

THE EFFECTS OF MOVING WATER

Have you ever seen a river that looks really “muddy”? Rivers
flowing through soil, not rock, pick up fine grains and carry them
along, giving the water a muddy appearance. Rivers and streams are
probably the most powerful forces of erosion that alter the
landscape.

Figure 1.17 How does damming up a river Figure 1.18 Bow Falls, Alberta—How do you
affect its flow below the dam? think waterfalls affect riverbeds?

364 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 365

As rivers flow, they carry a load of silt, sand, mud, and gravel,
called sediment. This weathering process can take a great deal of
time and is influenced by the nature of the moving water (for
example, the amount of water or the steepness of the terrain).
Sedimentation is the process of sediments being deposited, usually
at the bottom of oceans, lakes, and rivers.
Landforms that are created by running water are known as
fluvial landforms. Alberta has many examples of fluvial landforms,
such as the Badlands of southern Alberta (see the illustration in
Exploring at the beginning of this unit).

flood plain (high water level)

n
wa orm
ter al Figure 1.19 A flood plain is the
lev
el high water level caused by the
extra water from melting snow
and heavy rain. This extra
water flow erodes the stream
and river banks. Sediment
ter deposits are left when the
wa
its

f
os

o water levels return to normal.

ep

w
flo sediment
td
en

deposits
m

no
di

wat rmal
se

er l
eve
l

ERODING AWAY
The powerful forces of erosion caused by moving water
gradually wear away rock and soil, transporting them to
other locations. Sometimes, though, erosion can change
the landscape very quickly. Landslides are sudden and
fast movements of rocks and soil down a slope. They
usually happen where soil on the side of a hill gets
soaked with water. The wet soil then slides quickly
down the hillside, taking with it all the vegetation. If any
houses or other buildings were built there, they slide too.

Figure 1.20 Landslides are common in areas with steep hillsides and high
rainfall at certain times of the year. What do you think people could do to
prevent landslides?

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 365

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 366

re SEARCH GLACIERS—RIVERS OF ICE

Picture a field of snow as far as the eye can see. The air is extremely
Global Warming and
cold, and the wind tears at your face, stinging you with sharp grains
Glaciers
of ice and snow. There are many holes and cracks in the snow that
Current research
are deeper than you can see. This icy world is thousands of years
suggests that
increased burning of old and it’s not standing still, either. It creeps along, making
fossil fuels is emitting cracking and groaning noises.
harmful gases (called A glacier is a moving mass of ice and snow. For over two
greenhouse gases) million years, this force of erosion has visited North America at
that are warming the least four times. In fact, ice once covered areas of Alberta to heights
planet. Search your of 600–1000 m and has greatly shaped its landscape.
library or the Internet
for information on
glaciers and climate
Figure 1.21 Big Rock,
change. What do you
near the Sheep River
think will happen if south of Calgary—This
much of the polar large boulder is called a
glacial ice melts? glacial erratic. Weighing
16 500 t and as tall as a
3-storey building, it was
moved many kilometres
and deposited by glacial
ice.

As glaciers flow, they pick up large rock fragments that act as

grinding tools to carve and scrape the landscape beneath them.
Erosion occurs when this advancing ice mass scoops up rock
fragments and drags them along its base. In doing so, the glacier
grinds the bedrock (the layer of solid rock beneath the loose rock
fragments), producing a polished but often scratched or furrowed
surface. When the glacier melts (or retreats), it leaves its eroded
rock fragments in the form of small hills called drumlins and
moraines and snake-like hills called eskers.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Explain the relationship between erosion and weathering.
2. Give some examples of weathering.
3. How does moving water change the landscape?
4. What might happen to a riverbed if sediments are deposited?
5. How do glaciers change the landscape?

366 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 367

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. a) Why do we use models when we study Earth?
b) Why are some models changed or revised over a long period
of time?
2. Name the layers that make up the interior of Earth. Describe
some of the characteristics of each one.
3. What is the difference between the crust and the mantle?
Explain two causes for this difference.
4. What is the difference between the focus and the epicentre of
an earthquake?
5. What instruments do scientists use to help monitor earthquake
activity?
6. Explain in your own words what causes a volcano.
7. What kind of indirect evidence do scientists use to study the
inside of Earth?
8. What is deposition? Why is this force different from erosion?
9. a) Describe two types of weathering.
b) Where would you look for these types of weathering in your
area? Why?
10. Explain how wind, water, rivers, and glacier erosion differ in
shaping the landscape.

Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

On
Because science is studied by people from many different language
backgrounds and cultures, scientific language and classifying
systems need to be precise.
1. Why is it important when studying Earth’s surface features for
everyone to use the same system of classification?
2. What terms and concepts did you study in this section that you
still don’t understand?
3. What terms and concepts in this section do you feel you
understand?

Earth’s Surface Undergoes Gradual and Sudden Changes 367

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 368

2.0 The rock cycle describes how rocks

form and change over time.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• rocks and minerals
• classes of rocks: igneous,
sedimentary, and
metamorphic
• geology tools and techniques
• the rock cycle
• describing and interpreting
local rock formations

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• distinguish between rocks
and minerals
• describe characteristics of
the three main classes of
rocks
• use suitable terms and
conventions in describing
Earth’s substances
• describe local rocks and
What can rocks tell us about Earth? They tell
sediments
• interpret and investigate a story of change. Scientists, such as
examples of weathering, geologists, can “read” rocks to learn their
erosion, and sedimentation stories. You can start to read the story
(the rock cycle) yourself by carefully looking at rocks.
What do you see when you look at a
rock? Can you tell what it is made
of or how it was formed?

Figure 2.1 Do you realize there is a rock

that you eat: the salt on these chips! (See
the infoBIT on page 370.)

368 For Web links relating to 2.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:49 PM Page 369

info BIT
2.1 What Are Rocks and Minerals?
Rock Products
Rocks: You have probably walked on them, ridden over them, and An area of the Bow
even eaten them! But if you had to describe them to someone, what Valley in the Rocky
would you say? Mountains near
Exshaw, Alberta, is
MINERALS IN ROCKS mined for limestone.
This mineral is used to
To read the story of a rock, you have to know something about the
make a variety of
substances that are part of it. If you examine a rock closely, you will products, from
notice it is made up of many little particles called grains. The stomach relief tablets
appearance and properties of a rock depend on the nature of these that relieve upset
many grains and the particular materials of which they are made. stomachs, to concrete.
The building blocks of rock are pure, naturally occurring solid
materials called minerals. All rocks are made of minerals. Some
rocks, such as limestone, are formed of only one mineral, while
others, such as granite, are made up of several different minerals.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MISSION CONTROL, THIS IS …

Pathfinder was a robot vehicle sent by NASA to investigate and gather
information from the surface of Mars. Imagine you are with Pathfinder, and
you must transmit a description of the rocks and minerals you’ve found on
the planet’s surface. Use a hand lens or magnifying glass to study the rock
samples your teacher gives you. (Be sure to wash your hands after
handling the rocks.) Describe each one using words or pictures, and use
the following questions to help you with the description.

• What colour is the sample? Is it the same colour all around? (Wet the
surface and see if the colour changes.)
• Does it have a smell?
• What does the surface feel like?
• Is it living or non-living?
• Does it seem to be made up of one substance or a combination of
several others?
• Are any of the samples similar to each other?
• What else can you say about these samples? Figure 2.2 Mars Pathfinder

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 369
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 370

You may have heard the names of common minerals, such as

quartz and mica. In fact, more than 3500 different minerals have
been identified. However, you don’t have to recognize or know all
of them to identify most of the rocks you’ll find. Just five minerals
combine in different ways to form the majority of the rocks in
Earth’s crust. These minerals are:
• calcite
• quartz quartz
• feldspar
• mica
• hornblende
Figure 2.3
mica

calcite

feldspar

hornblende

info BIT
Rock Crystals
Crystals form when the particles in a mineral line up in a regular
pattern that creates smooth surfaces and sharp edges. Each
mineral has its own, unique crystal pattern. Crystals that cool
slowly, for example, will form bigger crystals than those that
cool quickly. Halite (common table salt) forms cubes. Quartz
forms long, six-sided crystals with a pointed end. What kind of
conditions do you think a mineral would need to allow it to
Halite crystal Quartz
grow into a crystal? (sodium chloride)

370 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 371

USING PROPERTIES TO IDENTIFY MINERALS

To identify rocks, you need to identify the minerals they contain.
Because many of the same rocks and minerals are found in different
parts of the world, geologists have developed a series of
classifications for describing their properties. Properties are the
features that a material or object has. For minerals, some important
properties are:
• colour
• lustre
• streak
• cleavage
• fracture
Figure 2.4 Properties of
• hardness
different minerals
Knowing only one of these properties is usually not enough for you
to identify the mineral. You need to look at a combination of these
properties. Think of this process as a jigsaw puzzle: one piece does
not give you the whole picture. (See Figure 2.4 for some examples.)

Colour
Colour is a useful starting point because it’s the first property you
The colour of amber is yellow.
notice.

Lustre
Lustre is the way the surface of a mineral reflects light. Some
minerals have a metallic lustre. This means they are shiny like
metals, such as gold or silver. Even though two minerals may have
the same colour, their lustre may help to tell them apart. Other
words to describe a mineral’s lustre are pearly, glassy, waxy, silky,
The lustre of native copper is shiny.
greasy, and brilliant.

Streak
A mineral’s streak is the colour of the powder that it leaves behind
when you rub it across a rough surface. The colour of the streak is
not always the same as the colour of the mineral. Usually,
geologists use an unglazed ceramic tile (like the tile used on
bathroom walls, but not shiny). They scratch a mineral sample on
Jade makes a white streak.
the plate, and the colour of that streak gives a clue as to the
mineral’s identity.

Cleavage and Fracture

If you drop or break a mineral, you may notice the sample will
break in a certain way. If a mineral splits easily into two smooth
surfaces, this can be described as cleavage. In contrast to cleavage,
fracture is a mineral breakage with rough and uneven surfaces. Mica is a mineral that cleaves
(However, any mineral can be fractured if enough force is applied.) easily into flat sheets.

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 371
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 372

Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is measured by how easily it can be
scratched. The harder mineral leaves a scratch on the softer one.
The relative hardness of a mineral is measured with a scale
developed by a German scientist, named Frederic Mohs. Mohs scale
of hardness consists of 10 minerals ranked in order of hardness.
The scale is described below and in Figure 2.5.
The hardness of quartz is 7.

Mohs Scale of Hardness

Scale Mineral Can Be Scratched With

1 talc (softest) soft pencil point
2 gypsum fingernail
3 calcite copper wire
4 fluorite iron nail
5 apatite glass
6 feldspar steel file
7 quartz sandpaper
8 topaz sandpaper
9 corundum emery board
10 diamond (hardest) diamond

1 2 3 4 5

very easily scratched can be scratched very easily scratched easily scratched hard to scratch
with a fingernail with a fingernail with a knife with a knife with a knife

6 7 8 9 10

can’t be scratched with scratches glass scratches glass very cuts glass and scratches a steel file
a knife but it may barely easily easily and scratches
scratch glass a steel file

Figure 2.5 The hardness

scale is a guide to
IDENTIFYING MINERALS
identifying minerals. Each The first step in identifying a rock is determining what minerals it
mineral can scratch all
contains. This is not always an easy task as two rocks can have
the minerals with a lower
scale ranking than its exactly the same minerals in them, yet they may look different
own. because they formed in different ways. However, if you use the six
properties of minerals, the Mohs scale of hardness, and a good
database of mineral characteristics, you can identify most rocks.

372 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 373

and
Careers Profiles

VOLCANOLOGIST
It’s Monday, and you’re back on the job ... but where are you?
You’re walking over a rocky black mountain and it’s rumbling
gently under your feet! A few metres away, you can see jets of
smoke coming from cracks in the rock. Oh no! It’s a volcano!
But instead of running, you haul out your instruments and set
them up. This is your job: you’re a volcanologist.
Volcanologists study volcanoes. They measure the
movement in volcanoes to see if they’re going to erupt. When
an eruption occurs, they watch carefully to see how it happens.
They also study the way lava comes out of a volcano and how it
moves. The most serious part of their job is predicting whether
or not a particular volcano will erupt. If they are right, many Figure 2.6 Volcanologists taking samples from a
lives could be saved. lava tube on the island of Hawaii

Seismologist
Seismologists study earthquakes. They watch carefully for
changes in Earth’s surface, like twisting or moving rocks.
Devices such as the seismograph are used to record the shaking
and trembling of an earthquake. Yet even though seismologists
know the areas of earthquake activity, they unfortunately can’t
predict when and where earthquakes will occur.
Another important part of a seismologist’s job is to make
sure buildings are earthquake-safe. Buildings made of brick
often fall apart in an earthquake. It is better to have a building
with a steel or wooden frame. Seismologists teach people in
earthquake areas how to be safe in case of danger.

1. What does the work of volcanologists

tell us about Earth’s structure?
2. In what areas in Canada might you

Figure 2.7 Seismographs record movement deep

expect to find seismologists at work?
inside Earth.

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 373
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 374

Inquiry PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS

Activity The Question
How can you identify a mineral by its properties?

The Hypothesis
Materials & Equipment Develop a hypothesis based on the question above.
• samples of known
minerals
• hand lens
• streak plate
• copper wire
• iron nail
• sandpaper
• samples of unknown
minerals
• database of minerals (or a
rock and mineral field
guide)

Figure 2.8 Step 6. Use a hand lens to examine the mineral’s structure.

Procedure
Part 1
1 Choose a sample of a known mineral, and record its number and name in
your chart. (See the chart example on the opposite page.)
2 Record its colour in your chart.
3 Describe its lustre as metallic (shiny like metal) or non-metallic. If it’s non-
metallic, try to describe it in another word. For example, if it looks like glass,
you could describe it as “glassy.”
4 Scrape the sample across the streak plate. Brush off the loose powder with
your fingers. If there is a streak, record its colour.
5 To test hardness, start by scratching the sample with your fingernail. If it
doesn’t leave a scratch or groove on the sample, try the copper wire. If the
wire doesn’t leave a scratch or groove, try an iron nail. Then try the
sandpaper. Record the hardness of the sample. (It might be between two
numbers on the hardness scale, so you could rank it as 4–5 or 6–7.)
6 Use a hand lens to examine the mineral’s structure.
7 Add any other information that you’ve observed about the mineral. Record
this in your “Other” column.
8 Repeat steps 1 to 7 with the other samples of known minerals.

374 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 375

Part 2
8 For each unknown mineral, record its number in your chart.
9 Repeat steps 2 to 6 from Part 1 of the procedure for each unknown mineral.
10 Use the information in your database of known minerals to identify your
unknown samples. Enter the name of the mineral in the “Mineral Name”
column.

Collecting Data
11 Use a chart like the one below to record the information about the properties
of each mineral sample.

Mineral Mineral Colour Lustre Streak Hardness Other

ID No. Name

Analyzing and Interpreting

12 Is colour a reliable property to use for identifying minerals? Why or why not?
13 Which property or properties did you find the most useful for identifying
minerals? Why?

Forming Conclusions
14 Write a summary paragraph that answers the question: “How can you identify
a mineral by its properties?”

Applying and Connecting

Can you think of another way to display the information in your database so it can
be used easily? Work with a partner to create an identification key to help you and
others identify minerals. After you and your partner have completed your
identification key, see if other students can figure out how to use it. Can they
suggest ways to improve it?
Figure 2.9 Native copper
Extending
Use a rock and mineral field guide to find out about the
properties of copper and diamond. List some of the
commercial uses for these two minerals. How are their
properties related to these uses?

Figure 2.10 Raw diamonds

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 375
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 376

PROSPECTING FOR WEALTH

Identifying rocks and minerals isn’t just a fascinating hobby; it’s big
business! Canada is the world’s largest mineral exporter and is one
of the world’s leading producers of gold, copper, nickel, zinc, lead,
silver, iron ore, asbestos, potash, sand, gravel, and clay. There are
over 500 mines and quarries scattered across Canada, with mining
operations taking place in every province and territory.

Figure 2.11 These

diamonds are from
Canada’s first diamond
mine, the Ekati mine near
Lac de Gras, Northwest
Territories. It began
operations in 1998.

Figure 2.12 The Highland

Figure 2.13 Alberta’s coal mines produce
Valley open-pit mine near
nearly half of all of Canada’s coal. (It is
Kamloops, British
estimated that there is enough coal in
Columbia, is the largest
Alberta to last about 1000 years at
base metal mine in Canada.
current rates of use.) The Highvale mine
It produces copper and
pictured above is 80 km west of
molybdenum ore.
Edmonton. It is Canada’s largest coal
mine.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. One of the steps in identifying a rock is to identify the minerals
it contains. For example, granite is made of quartz, feldspar, and
mica. If you were given an unknown rock, how would you use
what you learned in this section to identify it?
2. The properties of minerals are useful for more than just
identifying them. Sometimes, properties make a mineral
valuable. For example, colour is important in gemstones. What
other property that you learned about in this subsection might
make a mineral useful or valuable?

376 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 377

info BIT
2.2 Three Classes of Rocks: Igneous,
Treasures in Earth’s
Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Crust
Earth’s crust is a
Even though you’ve been able to identify rocks by knowing their treasure house of
minerals, to learn the whole story, you need to know how the rock valuable things. Gold,
was formed. You need to look at the way the minerals are arranged silver, and precious
and the sizes of the individual grains. stones are all found in
As you explore the different types of rocks in this section, use a Earth’s crust.
diagram like the one below to keep track of the information (Figure • The ancient
2.14). Copy this diagram into your notebook, using a whole page. Egyptians were
Label your diagram as you go through the text. On your diagram, mining for emeralds
indicate where the different types of rock are forming. Add any as far back as
notes that will help you remember what process formed them. To 1650 B.C. That’s more
get you started, the diagram shows one example. than 3000 years ago.
• Canada is one of the
top 10 gold
producers in the
world.

pressure

A wall painting of an
Egyptian wearing
precious stones
heat metamorphic
rock formed
magma
from heat
and pressure

Figure 2.14 How rocks are formed

TYPES OF ROCK
Although there are many different kinds of rocks, all rocks can be
organized into three major families or types according to how they
were formed as: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 377
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 378

Figure 2.15 One place

where you can watch
igneous rock forming is at
active volcanoes, like those
in Hawaii and Iceland.

IGNEOUS ROCKS
info BIT The word igneous comes from the Latin word “ignis,” meaning fire.
Igneous rocks form from hot, molten rock called magma, but by the
Rock Hounds time you hold them in your hands, they are hard and cold. Magma
Are you a rock hound? may cool deep inside Earth or it may reach the surface before it
A rock hound is cools. When it flows out onto the surface of Earth either on land or
someone who collects beneath the ocean, it’s called lava. The photographs of pegmatite
and studies rocks as a and basalt show one way that you can tell the difference between
hobby. Every spring, igneous rock that cools on the surface and one that cools deep
many rock hounds inside Earth.
attend the Calgary
Rock and Lapidary
Club’s Gem, Mineral,
and Fossil Show. The
Calgary area and the
nearby Rocky
Mountains are famous
for the unique geology
that can be found pegmatite basalt
there. If you’re a rock
hound and want to get Figure 2.16 Pegmatite and basalt are both igneous rocks. The pegmatite formed when magma
involved, look up a cooled deep in Earth. Molten rock cools slowly underground. This gives the mineral grains
more time to grow, so the pegmatite has larger grains. The basalt formed when lava flowed out
local rock club in the
of a volcano. It cooled very quickly, so its mineral grains are much smaller.
phone directory or on
the Internet.
Igneous rock is classified into two groups, depending on
whether it was formed on or below Earth’s surface. Rock formed
from magma that cooled and hardened beneath the surface is called
intrusive rock. This type of rock is found on the surface only where
erosion has worn away the rock that once lay above it. Rock that
was formed from lava cooling on the surface is called extrusive
rock.

378 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 379

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Have you ever seen rocks that have layers in them, like the ones in
the photographs (Figure 2.17)? These are called sedimentary rocks.
They form when small pieces of rock are carried by water or wind
and settle or sink down onto the rocks below them. Sometimes
these pieces are made up mainly of tiny shells from dead animals.
As more and more sediments pile up, the ones on the bottom are
squeezed by the weight of the ones above. Over time, this pressure
causes the sediments to turn into sedimentary rock. You’ll find out
more about sedimentary rocks later in this unit.

Figure 2.17 Limestone (left) and

sandstone (right) are two kinds
of sedimentary rock that usually
occur in layers.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

GRAPH IT!
If you examine this table of the world’s top producers, you will probably notice
that Canada is among the world leaders in mining. But numbers are difficult to
visualize. (See Toolbox 7 for help in graphing data.)
• Your challenge is to take the numbers in the table and create a graph (or
graphs) that compares Canada with the other countries listed.
• Choose one of these countries, and use your library resources and the Internet
to research its mineral production. How does your research compare with the
data given here?

Copper (⫻1000 t*) China (3200) U.S. (1920) Canada (700) Australia (550) Indonesia (530)

Lead (⫻1000 t) China (650) Australia (530) U.S. (450) Canada (260) Peru (250)

Zinc (⫻1000 t) Canada (1250) China (1130) Australia (1100) Peru (770) U.S. (600)

Nickel (⫻1000 t) Russia (230) Canada (200) New Caledonia (130) Australia (120) Indonesia (90)

Aluminum (⫻1000 t) U.S. (3600) Russia (2900) Canada (2300) China (1900) Australia (1400)

Gold (t) South Africa (500) U.S. (320) Australia (290) Canada (170) Russia (130)

Silver (t) Mexico (2500) U.S. (1440) Peru (1950) Canada (1310) Chile (1150)

*t = tonnes

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 379
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 380

Not all sedimentary rocks form from fragments of rocks or

shells. As water flows over and under Earth’s surface, it can
dissolve substances called “salts” from the rocks. The salt you use
on your food is one of these salts. In fact, the reason the ocean is
salty is that rivers carry so much of these salts into the ocean.
Sometimes, bodies of water that contain dissolved salts dry up,
leaving salts behind and forming thick beds.
Another type of sedimentary rock is formed from organic, living
material. One of the most common examples is coal, an important
fossil fuel that comes from the decay of plant matter. Alberta has
always been an important producer of this source of fuel.
Figure 2.18 illustrates how coal is formed.

plant remains

Figure 2.18 Two hundred and

Peat begins to form.
seventy-five million years ago,
there was an extensive growth of
vegetation in the tropical climate
of ancient Alberta. Over time,
plant debris was trapped
between layers of sediment. The lignite (brown coal)
increasing pressure has since
compressed this debris, first into
peat, then lignite (brown coal),
then bituminous coal, and finally
into anthracite.
bituminous coal

anthracite
(hardest coal)

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed. The word
“metamorphic” is a combination of two Greek words: “meta” means
change, and “morph” means form. These rocks started out as
igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks. The intense heat
and pressure deep below Earth’s surface changed their appearance.
Figures 2.19 and 2.20 show examples of changes to sedimentary,
igneous, and metamorphic rocks caused by heat and pressure.

380 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 381

shale slate schist

Figure 2.19 Shale is a sedimentary rock that changes to slate if it is exposed to strong heat
and pressure. Slate is harder than shale. If slate is exposed to more heat and pressure, the
different kinds of mineral grains in it become larger and separate from each other. The rock is
then called schist [shist].

granite outcrop gneiss

Figure 2.20 Granite and gneiss contain the same minerals (quartz, feldspar, mica, and
¯ is a metamorphic rock
hornblende) but as you can see, the rocks look different. Gneiss [nīs]
that can form from the igneous rock, granite. Heat and pressure cause the mineral grains in
the granite to separate and flatten into the bands you can see in the photo on the right.

Over long periods of time, rocks are constantly undergoing

changes. For example, the sand on a beach may have once been
part of a large boulder.

IDENTIFYING CLASSES OF ROCK

Scientists spend much of their time collecting, organizing, and
trying to understand their data. Classifying is the grouping of
objects or events that have the same characteristics. When
geologists find a new rock or rock formation, the first thing they
need to do is to classify it.

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 381
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 382

Inquiry CLASSIFYING ROCKS

Activity The Question
What properties help you determine the class of rock?

The Hypothesis
Materials & Equipment Develop a hypothesis based on the above question.
• sample rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, and Rock Summary Table
metamorphic) Class of Rock Texture Colour
• magnifying glass igneous
basalt extremely fine grained dark grey to black
obsidian glassy usually black, sometimes reddish or
green
granite coarse to medium grain various: white to dark grey, pink, or red
sedimentary
sandstone coarse to medium varies
grained; layered
limestone fine grained usually white to dark grey
Figure 2.21 coal fine to medium grained brown to velvet black
Compare the
metamorphic
properties of your
rock samples with gneiss banded varies
the properties listed marble coarse grained usually white, but may have other
colours as veins
in this table.
slate banded usually medium to dark grey or black

Procedure
1 Before you begin, review the three classes of rocks. Are the rocks pictured
below typical examples of each class?

Figure 2.22 Obsidian [ob Figure 2.23 Coal is Figure 2.24 Marble, a
SID ē an] is an example of sedimentary rock. metamorphic rock, comes in
igneous rock. many colours.

2 Work with a partner or in a small group to identify the rock samples your
teacher gives you as either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
3 Use the Rock Summary Table to help you identify your rock samples (Figure
2.21). The summary will give you an idea of some typical characteristics for
each type of rock classification.

382 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 383

Collecting Data
4 Record your observations in the form of a chart such as the one below:

Sample Colour Texture Rock Group

Analyzing and Interpreting

5 Which samples did you classify as igneous?
6 Which samples did you classify as sedimentary?
7 Which samples did you classify as metamorphic?

Forming Conclusions
8 What physical property (or properties) did you find the most useful in
classifying rocks?

Applying and Connecting

Use a rock and mineral field guide to identify the names of your rock samples.
Organize your data in a chart similar to the one below:

Sample Name Colour Lustre Streak Hardness Other

Extending
Go on a rock-search field trip. Collect several rock samples, and using what you
have learned and a rock and mineral field guide, identify the samples you find.
Write a brief report of your trip. Explain in your report how you planned and
organized your field trip. Was your field trip successful? Did you find interesting
rocks? Plan a display for your rock samples.

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 383
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 384

re SEARCH GEOLOGY TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Geologists no longer wander the countryside on foot looking for
Alberta Oil and Gas
gold, iron, and other valuable minerals. Today, they rely on a
Oil and gas are
number of high-tech tools and techniques to find mineral ore
important fossil fuels.
Alberta produces bodies.
about 40% of all oil • Remote sensing—mapping of Earth’s surface from aircraft or
and gas in Canada. orbiting satellites. By examining rock formations, soil types, and
• Where are the major vegetation in aerial images, geologists can infer possible locations
oil and gas areas in of valuable mineral deposits hidden below the surface.
Alberta?
• Geophysical prospecting—using sensitive instruments to detect
• Is there a pattern to
their location? (Hint: mineral deposits hidden deep underground. For example, some
Look at the types of minerals, such as iron and copper, are magnetic and can be
rocks they are found detected with a magnetometer.
in.) • Geochemical prospecting—making chemical analysis of samples
• Why are the oil taken from the environment. Geologists look for evidence of traces
sands important to of metals that may indicate the presence of an ore body buried in
Alberta’s and a given area.
Canada’s economy?
• Exploration—drilling holes to verify an ore body’s existence. A
diamond-tipped drill bit is used to extract a cylindrical core of
rock that can be thousands of metres long!

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Using your own words, complete the following sentences:
a) Igneous rocks form when …
b) Sedimentary rocks form when ...
c) Metamorphic rocks form when …
2. Lava always forms igneous rock, but not all igneous rocks are
formed from lava.
a) What is lava?
b) If an igneous rock didn’t form from lava, from what did it
form?
3. What are some of the characteristics used to classify rocks from
each of the three different rock classes?
4. What are some of the methods geologists use to locate valuable
mineral deposits?

384 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 385

info BIT
2.3 The Rock Cycle
Encouraging
Weathering
In order for
weathering to occur,
rocks need to be
exposed to air and
water.
• Landslides remove
large areas of topsoil
and other surface
material.
• Avalanches of snow
loosen rock and soil
debris.
• Floods break down
river banks and
deposit material over
Figure 2.25 Water is an important element in the rock cycle.
a large area.

You recycle things all the time—cans, paper, and glass bottles. After
you throw them into the recycling bin, they are taken away, broken
down, and made into new products. Does that sound familiar?
You have learned about the three families of rocks and learned
how they can change in structure and appearance over time. Think
about how Earth recycles rocks:
• any rock that is heated may melt into magma and later form
igneous rock
• any rock that is exposed on Earth’s surface may be broken down
into sediments and later become sedimentary rock
The physical environments determine what kind of rock is formed.
If the environment changes, the rocks may eventually change into
different kinds of rocks.

Figure 2.26 When this house was

built, it had a fresh coat of paint
and sparkling windows. A family
moved in and grew up there.
Children played in the yard.
Flowers grew in the front.
Vegetables grew in the back. Fifty
years later, it looks like this. What
happened to it?

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 385
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 386

Rocks can be altered so much that they change classifications

(igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic). For example, an igneous
rock may be weathered, and its grains deposited to form a
sedimentary rock. Rocks can also be altered so that they become
another type of rock within the same classification. For example, as
you saw in Figure 2.19, schist is a metamorphic rock formed from
slate, another metamorphic rock. Geologists call this process of
change in rocks the rock cycle. Figure 2.27 is a model of this
process.

The Rock Cycle

Figure 2.27 Why
do you think the intense heat
rock cycle is a and pressure
useful model to
geologists?
pressure

Sedimentary Rock weathering

and erosion

Sediments

Metamorphic Rock
weathering
and erosion
melting

weat
hering and erosion

int
e ns
eh
eat
an dp
ress
ure

Magma (Liquid Rock) Igneous Rock

cooling

INVESTIGATING THE ROCK CYCLE

It takes nearly 1000 years for just 5 mm of soil to form. Soil is
mainly composed of two materials: rock and decaying organic
matter. The rock is in the form of stones, gravel, sand, silt, and clay
that eroded from the rock of Earth’s crust. The organic matter comes
from plants and animals.

386 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 387

THE ALBERTA STORY: INVESTIGATING THE CHANGING EARTH

What kind of rocks do you think you would find in your backyard?
Would you even find any rocks? Well, for the first 50 or so metres,
all you would probably dig up would be sand, gravel, stones, and
boulders. Below this material (called overburden), the story is
different.
The rocks that make up Alberta were laid down in layers over
hundreds of millions of years ago. The oldest layer, the
Precambrian Shield, is at the bottom. This layer is made of igneous
and metamorphic rocks that were formed between 544 and 4500
million years ago. It is the world’s oldest rock and underlies all of
Alberta. However, it is only exposed in the northeast corner,
covering about 3% of the province. Eighty-seven percent of
Alberta’s landscape lies over the Interior Plain. This wedge-shaped
piece of land is sandwiched between the Canadian Shield and the
Rocky Mountains. (It also extends across Saskatchewan and
Manitoba.) The plain is made up of various layers of sedimentary
rock that are between 544 million and 1.5 million years old.

Rocks in Your Backyard

Figure 2.29 Dinosaur

Provincial Park
Badlands—The Badlands,
located in Dinosaur
Provincial Park, is a
dramatic example of
sedimentary rock layers.
Glaciers eroded the rocks
into these unusual
features about 15 000
years ago.

Figure 2.30 Rock Slide

in the Mountains—Huge
rock slides sometimes
Figure 2.28 Pelican Rapids—Most of occur in the mountains
Alberta’s metamorphic rocks lie hidden because of erosion. They
beneath the surface. Pelican Rapids, in the may also be triggered by
northeast corner of the province, is one area earthquakes.
where these outcroppings can be seen.

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 387
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 388

Inquiry SORTING OUT THE SOIL

Activity The Question
What is the rock material in soil composed of?

Materials & Equipment

• samples of soil (from sandy
to black loam)
• magnifying glass
• 1.5-L jars, one for each soil
sample
• millimetre ruler
Figure 2.31 This soil is
• sheets of white paper, one not as rich in organic
for each soil sample matter as black loam
• scoop garden soil.

Procedure
1 Examine each of the soil samples. If necessary, add a little water to the dry
samples so that all samples seem to have the same amount of moisture.
2 Pick up a little of each soil in your fingers and record how many lumps it
contains (many, few, or none). Also record whether the soil feels smooth or
gritty. Wash your hands after handling the soil.
3 Add enough of each soil sample to fill 1/4 of a separate jar, then almost fill
the jar with water. Stir the contents well to break up all the clumps. Let stand
overnight or until the particles have settled to the bottom.
4 Meanwhile, take a small scoop of one soil sample and spread it out as a very
thin layer on a sheet of white paper. Use the magnifying glass to examine the
soil. Look for rock fragments in your sample, and describe their grain size
according to the following classification. Repeat step 4 for each soil sample.

Rock Size of Particle

Sample
= 20 mm stone larger than 20 mm
= 3 mm
= 2 mm
gravel about 3 mm to 20 mm

= 0.2 mm sand smaller than 2 mm, but visible without a magnifying glass

silt smaller than 0.07 mm, only visible through a magnifying glass
Figure 2.32 Use this scale to
clay smaller than 0.004 mm, only visible through a microscope
estimate the size of particles in
your soil samples.

5 Observe the water and soil mixtures in the jars. Draw a diagram of each
sample to show the different layers and the different-size particles in each.
Indicate the colour of the water that remains above each settled sample.

388 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:50 PM Page 389

Collecting Data
6 Use a chart, such as the one below, to record your observations:

Sample/Location Colour Lumpiness Feel Type of Rock Particle

stone gravel sand silt clay

Analyzing and Interpreting

7 How do the soil samples differ in the amounts of different sizes of sediments
they contain?
8 What are some of the characteristics of the different kinds of rock material in
your soil samples (colour, shape, lustre, etc.)?
9 In the jars of soil and water, which size of sediment settled to the bottom
first?
10 Which size of sediment settled last?
11 What colour was the water above the settled sediment? If it wasn’t
colourless, what do you think created the colour?
12 What material, other than rock fragments, do you think the different soil
samples contain?
Figure 2.33 Gravel
Forming Conclusions
13 Write a summary paragraph describing what you learned about the
composition of soil in this activity. Use data from your observations to
support your description. Illustrate your description with drawings.

Applying and Connecting

The shape of a grain of sand can often tell you how much it has been moved
around. For example, wave action will remove sharp edges faster than other
forms of weathering. Soft minerals are more easily broken down than hard
Figure 2.34 Sand
minerals. What inferences can you make about how long your rock particle
samples have spent in soil? How do you think the rock grains got in your soil
samples?

Extending
Use a rock and mineral field guide to try to identify the minerals in your sand
samples. (Hint: You will need to examine your rock fragments with a magnifying
glass or hand lens.)

Figure 2.35 Clay

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 389
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:51 PM Page 390

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. What does the rock cycle tell us about how rocks are formed?
2. The picture at left, Figure 2.36, shows the footprint left behind
by one of the astronauts who landed on the moon about 30 years
ago. This footprint looks exactly the same today as it did when
it was made. What does this tell you about the rock cycle on the
moon?

Figure 2.36
and

Careers Profiles Geologist

Nancy Chow studies coral reefs, but not the kind

found in tropical destinations like the Bahamas or
the Red Sea. She studies coral reefs found in
Manitoba, Alberta, and the interior of Australia!
These coral reefs existed 380 million years ago
when large parts of North America and Australia
were covered in water. Nancy is a geologist who
analyzes the sedimentary rock layers formed by
these ancient reefs.

In the Field
Nancy spends about a quarter of her time in the
field. The rock layers she studies often lie deep Figure 2.37 Nancy Chow investigating sedimentary rock layers
underground, buried by thousands of years of
sedimentation. To get at the underlying rock, drill
core samples are taken. She takes careful notes to
keep track of where each sample came from. 1. What can geologists learn about
Earth’s surface when they study rock
Does Nancy Chow Like Her Job? formations?
“It’s been great for me,” she says. “I’ve travelled to 2. What types of businesses might use
Australia to work on spectacular rock exposures. the services of geologists?
I’ve been to the Caribbean to look at modern reefs.
I have no complaints!”

390 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:51 PM Page 391

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. How are rocks and minerals related?
2. Describe four properties of minerals that are used for
identification. How is each different?
3. Review the rock samples you examined at the beginning of
subsection 2.1 (Mission Control, This Is ...). Use a rock and
mineral field guide to classify these rocks as either igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic.
4. Why do some igneous rocks have bigger mineral grains than
other igneous rocks?
5. A metamorphic rock is a changed rock. What did it change
from? What changed it?
6. Kathy was on a bus that drove past a steep hillside of bare rock.
“Look,” she said to her friend, “sedimentary rocks!” How did
she know?
7. Why can two rocks look very different even though they are
made of the same minerals?
8. Write a paragraph explaining the rock cycle.
9. What is the Precambrian Shield, and why do you think it is of
interest to geologists?
10. Describe a rock formation found in Alberta.

Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

On
Performing successful experiments is often the result of having a
clear hypothesis. Think back to the experiments you did in this
section.
1. Did each experiment prove its hypothesis?
2. Which hypothesis did you have to revise as a result of the data
you collected?
3. If you did have to revise a hypothesis, why do you think it
wasn’t correct or accurate or complete enough in the first place?

The Rock Cycle Describes How Rocks Form and Change over Time 391
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:51 PM Page 392

3.0 Landforms provide evidence of

change.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• continental drift
• plate tectonics
• mountain building

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe evidence and
identify patterns of
continental movement
• interpret evidence for the
Theory of Plate Tectonics
• investigate and interpret
patterns of mountain building
• interpret the structure and The Rocky Mountains
movement of fold and fault
mountains The Sawback Mountain Range is in the Rocky Mountains of
Alberta. The rocks that make up the mountains were originally
deposited in stages on the sea floor hundreds of millions of years
ago as flat-lying layers. You can still see the layers in this
photograph, but they are no longer flat. How would you describe
them? What forces do you think pushed these layers skyward?
How long ago did it happen? Could it happen again?
Earth is a planet in constant motion and change. You have
already seen how weather and water wear the surface features of
rocks down; how rocks can be transformed from one form into
another. But there are even greater forces on the planet that affect
its surface. Intense heat from deep inside Earth creates volcanoes
that gush lava. Huge plates moving across its surface cause
earthquakes that shake and split the ground. Mountains are
pushed upward toward the sky. Science is only now beginning to
understand these powerful forces that shape our Earth.

392 For Web links relating to 3.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:51 PM Page 393

info BIT
3.1 Continental Drift
Looking for Evidence
When you watch TV or a mystery movie, do you try to solve it What do you notice
along with the detective? Detectives look for clues in the about the coastlines of
connections between events and between characters. Who was near South America and
the scene of the crime? Who had a motive? Investigating Earth’s Africa? Do they have
structure is like solving a mystery. Just as detectives do, scientists anything in common?
look for patterns and connections in their observations as they try
to solve the mystery of Earth’s surface.

CONTINENTS ON THE MOVE

In 1910, the German scientist Alfred Wegener [VAY guh nur]
noticed something interesting about the shapes of the continents
that could be seen on a map of the world—just as you might have
observed. He noticed that the outlines of the continents looked as if
they could fit together. He developed a hypothesis that all the
Satellite view of South
continents had at one time been joined together in a single land America and Africa
mass that he named “Pangaea” [pan JEE uh], meaning “all lands.”
He hypothesized that since the time of Pangaea, the continents have
slowly drifted apart. Geologists today refer to this idea as
continental drift.

Arctic Ocean

North Europe
America
Asia

India
Africa
Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean

South
America Indian Ocean
Glossopteris fossils Australia Figure 3.1 The super
Glacial deposits continent: Pangaea
Folded mountains
Coal deposits

Antarctica

Glossopteris Fossils—These were plants that resembled ferns. They lived about
250 million years ago. Their seeds could not have travelled across the ocean.
Folded Mountains—Similar mountain formations were found on different continents.
Glacial Deposits—Deep scratches in the rocks show that glaciers once covered this land.
Coal Deposits—Ancient tropical forests produced these coal deposits, which seem to
have once been connected.

Figure 3.2 Wegener supported his theory of continental drift with these four pieces of
evidence. Do you see how he came up with his theory?

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 393

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:51 PM Page 394

re SEARCH But to convince others to accept his theory, Wegener needed

evidence. So he studied the specific types of rock formations on
Researching each continent as well as other geological evidence. He also looked
Continental Drift at land formations, such as mountain ranges, to see if they were
Find out more about similar from continent to continent. What he found was startling in
Wegener’s theory of view of what scientists at the time believed about Earth. Fossil and
continental drift. (Ask rock evidence suggested that some tropical continents had
your librarian for help previously existed in polar regions!
in finding print and Wegener did more than try to just explain the amazing fit of the
media resources.) continents. He even offered an explanation for how mountains
• Use geology and form. Wegener thought that when drifting continents collided, their
geography
edges crumpled and folded, forming mountains. Unfortunately, he
textbooks to find an
could not provide an explanation for the force that caused the
example of a
continents to drift over Earth’s surface.
geological formation
of rock and/or fossil Many geologists thought then that Earth was slowly cooling and
evidence that shrinking, so the science community rejected his idea. Scientists at
supports Wegener’s the time believed that mountains formed when the crust wrinkled
theory. like the skin of a dried-up apple. For nearly half a century, from the
• Use the map of 1920s to the 1960s, most scientists paid little attention to his idea
Pangaea (Figure 3.1) of continental drift. Then, new evidence about Earth’s structure led
to help you decide scientists to reconsider and later accept Wegener’s bold theory.
what evidence to
look for.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. a) What was Wegener’s theory of continental drift?
b) What were the three types of evidence Wegener used to
support his theory?
c) Why did most scientists reject Wegener’s theory of
continental drift?
2. If the “shrinking apple” theory for mountain formation were
correct, explain where you think mountains would be found on
Earth’s crust.

394 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:51 PM Page 395

info BIT
3.2 Plate Tectonics
The Active Earth
Have you ever dropped a hard-boiled egg? If so, you may have Where plates collide
noticed that the eggshell cracked in an irregular pattern of broken with each other is
pieces. Earth’s solid outer shell, or lithosphere, is much like a usually a location that
cracked eggshell. It is also divided into large, irregular pieces. has either active
volcanoes or
DEVELOPING A NEW THEORY occasional
earthquakes. Can you
Since Wegener’s time, scientists have studied major features on the think of any places in
continents and ocean floors. Advances in technology have helped Alberta or the rest of
them learn more about the composition and structure of Earth’s Canada that
surface, its crust, and its inner structure. Earlier in this unit, you experience either of
learned about seismic waves from earthquakes. Using seismographs, these events?
scientists have been able to study the structure of the crust and the
mantle. This information has helped them develop a new theory to
explain many of the major features on Earth’s surface.
Technology development for exploring the oceans has also been
helpful to scientists studying Earth. Advances in sensing
technology using sound waves have enabled scientists to map the
ocean floors in detail. Deep-sea submersible vehicles have carried
scientists to parts of the ocean floors where they have been able to
observe geological processes in action. Robotic submersibles
controlled from the surface have added even more to our
understanding of the deepest parts of the oceans.
As scientists collected more and more information about Earth,
they plotted the positions of features such as mountains, deep-
ocean valleys, earthquakes, and volcanoes. When they looked at
these features on a map of Earth, they noticed an interesting
pattern.

Figure 3.3 Look at these two landforms (to the left is the east coast of Cape Breton, Nova
Scotia; to the right are cliffs near Lagos, Portugal, on the Atlantic Ocean). Can you imagine
that they were once connected, as suggested by Wegener?

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 395

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 396

Inquiry EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, AND P L AT E T E C T O N I C S

Activity The Question
Where in the world do earthquakes occur? Where in the world do volcanoes
occur? Is there a pattern?

Earthquake Activity The Hypothesis

Place Magnitude Develop a hypothesis based on the earthquake and volcano data given on this
page.
Kobe, Japan 7.2
Anchorage, Alaska 9.2
San Francisco,
California 7.7
Southern Chile 9.5
Los Angeles,
California 6.7
Western Iran 7.7
Mexico City 8.1 Figure 3.4 Arenal
Tokyo-Yokohama, Volcano, Costa Rica
Japan 8.2
Guatemala 7.5 Procedure
Peru 7.9 1 Mark on a world map the location of the volcanoes and earthquakes listed in
the charts to the left.
Volcano Activity 2 Review subsection 1.2, Sudden Earth Events.
3 Note any patterns you observe on your map.
Name Place
4 Indicate on your map the principal mountain ranges in the world.
Arenal Costa Rica
Krakatoa Java, Analyzing and Interpreting
Indonesia
5 Work with a partner or small group and brainstorm possible reasons for your
Mount Pele Martinique observations. Choose one of the reasons that you think best explains your
Mount Pinatubo Philippines observations. Does your reason fit your hypothesis? Do you need to revise
Mount Ruapehu New Zealand your hypothesis?
Mount St. Washington,
Helens United States Forming Conclusions
Mount Tambora Sumbawa, 6 Write a brief report that supports your hypothesis.
Indonesia
Mount Vesuvius Naples, Italy Applying and Connecting
Paricutin Paricutin, Compare your report with others in the class. What similarities do you find? What
Mexico differences do you find? If necessary, revise your hypothesis to reflect what you
Surtsey Island Iceland have learned from the other reports.

Extending
Research other volcanic and earthquake activity and mark their locations on your
map. Are these new locations in the same regions as the other volcanoes and
earthquakes?

396 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 397

INTERPRETING THE PATTERNS

Scientists noticed that volcanoes and earthquakes tended to occur in
the same areas around the world. They also noticed distinctive deep
valleys under the oceans, usually near the edges of continents.
These valleys are called trenches. And they noticed long underwater
mountain ranges called ridges.
The mountain range in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean was an
important piece of evidence in the development of the new theory to
explain Earth’s surface structures. This mountain range is called the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The rock at its top was younger than the rock
on the surrounding ocean floor and the edges of the continents.

New Ocean Crust mid-ocean ridge

new ocean
crust
forming

vement plate mo lithosphere

plate mo vement

magma

Figure 3.5 Deep under the water, new crust is forming continuously
from lava at mid-ocean ridges.

Figure 3.5 shows what is occurring at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Magma rises from deep within Earth and flows out at the ridge. On
either side of the ridge, scientists found that the farther rock is away
from the top of the ridge, the older the rock is. This means
that the rock must be moving away from the ridge and toward the Figure 3.6 Water within the
continents. crust layer is superheated
Evidence showed that this sea floor spreading was taking place by hot magma just a few
in other areas as well. Did this mean that the planet was increasing kilometres below the
surface. This is called
in size? No, it isn’t because, in other areas, the sea floor is moving geothermal activity. When
down into the deep ocean trenches. Scientists now had strong water returns to the
evidence for their new theory. surface, hot springs like
• Most earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated in specific areas. this one are the result.
• There are large areas on Earth where few or no earthquakes
and volcanoes occur.

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 397

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 398

• The ocean floor is spreading away from mid-ocean ridges.

• The ocean floor is moving down into deep trenches on or near
the edges of continents.

THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

When all this evidence was pieced together, scientists suggested the
Theory of Plate Tectonics. According to this theory, the lithosphere
is broken up into large areas much like a cracked eggshell. These
areas are called plates. The plates usually carry both continental
and oceanic crust. All these plates are moving very slowly on a
semi-solid layer of crust.

ridges
trenches
earthquake areas
volcanoes
Figure 3.7 This map shows
the major features scientists
discovered when they
surveyed the ocean floors.
They found deep valleys
called trenches and
mountain chains called
ridges.

The following illustrations show what happens at the different

types of plate boundaries around the world. A boundary is the edge
where plates meet. Look at the map of The Plates of Earth (Figure
3.8) while you read these descriptions so you can see where they
are.

The Plates of Earth

Figure 3.8 Earth’s
lithosphere is broken up EURASIAN
NORTH PLATE
into many large and small AMERICAN
plates. The plates are all CHINA
PLATE
PLATE
solid rock, but they “float” PACIFIC
CARIBBEAN ARABIAN
PLATE PLATE
on the partly melted layer of PHILIPPINE
PLATE
PLATE COCOS
the mantle below the PLATE AFRICAN
PLATE
lithosphere.
FIJI PLATE
NAZCA SOUTH
PLATE AMERICAN
INDO-AUSTRALIAN
PLATE PLATE

ANTARCTIC PLATE

Converging Diverging Subduction Uncertain

Boundary Boundary Zone Boundary

398 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 399

Diverging Boundaries

volcano
ocean ocean

plate plate
molten
rock

convection convection
currents mantle currents Figure 3.9 A diverging boundary

A diverging boundary is one where two of Earth’s plates are moving

apart. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean is
an example of a diverging plate boundary. At this type of boundary,
lava flows from the ridge to form new oceanic crust. Sometimes,
volcanoes grow high enough that they are visible above the ocean’s
surface, like those that form Iceland.

Converging Boundaries
At converging boundaries, plates are moving toward each other.
Although plates move very slowly, they are so huge that we
experience the effects of their collision. We can feel the earthquakes
and see the mountains, including volcanoes, that grow up at or near
these boundaries. There are two kinds of converging boundaries.
One kind of converging boundary happens where a trench
forms. One plate carries oceanic crust, and the other one carries
continental crust. When the plates push together, the heavier,
thinner oceanic crust is forced down below the lighter, thicker
continental crust (see Figure 3.11). This process is called
subduction. As one plate grinds down past the other, earthquakes Figure 3.10 The San
rumble, and the continental crust wrinkles to form mountains. The Andreas fault is a crack in
oceanic crust moves lower and gets hotter and melts. This molten Earth’s crust that runs
along part of the west coast
rock rises in some places to form volcanoes.
of the United States.

ocean Mountains form. plate

plate
ocean trench
continental crust

Figure 3.11 Converging

boundary—at an ocean trench.
Which mountain range in Canada do
you think is formed by this process?

lithosphere
melting plate
oceanic crust

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 399

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 400

plate A
plate B The second kind of converging
boundary happens where two
plates with continental crust move
up against each other. They crush
together to form huge mountain
ranges. Which high mountain
range in Asia is being formed by
this process?
lithosphere continental crust

Figure 3.12 Converging

boundary—when two
continental plates collide
Transform Boundaries
The third type of boundary is called a transform boundary (Figure
3.13). Here, plates slide sideways past each other. But this sliding
doesn’t take place smoothly. The rocks bind and catch on each
other, causing earthquakes. You can find a transform boundary
re SEARCH along the west coast of the United States at the San Andreas fault
(Figure 3.10).
Hawaiian Islands
J. Tuzo Wilson
proposed an
interesting theory of
why the Hawaiian
islands formed.
• Find out how these
islands formed.
• Find out more about
J. Tuzo Wilson and
lithosphere
his work as a
scientist.
Figure 3.13 Transform boundary—when two plates slide

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Explain three pieces of evidence to support the belief that
Earth’s crust is slowly moving.
2. List the three types of plate boundaries.
3. Look at the map of The Plates of Earth (Figure 3.8). Do you think
South America is moving closer to or farther away from Africa?
4. If the South American and African Plates are diverging at a rate
of 2 cm/year, calculate how much wider the Atlantic Ocean will
be when you are 50 years old.

400 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 401

Experiment
ON YOUR OWN
PREDICTING CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Before You Start ... The Question

As you can see from your studies, scientists think that What will a map of the globe look like 100 million years
the continents once formed one large land mass called from now, assuming the continents move apart at the
Pangaea. They believe that the continents have been current rate? (See Toolbox 2 to review The Inquiry
slowly drifting apart at the rate of about 10 cm a year. Process of Science.)
Figure 3.14 shows the possible positions over the last
200 million years. Design and Make Your Model
1 The map below shows the continental plates and
Continental Drift the direction they are moving.

Longitude
Today 180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
80 80

60 NORTH 60
EURASIAN
AMERICAN PLATE
40 PLATE 40
CARIBBEAN
20 PLATE 20
PACIFIC
PACIFIC PLATE ARABIAN AND PLATE
0 AFRICAN 0
NAZCA SOUTH PLATE INDIAN
200 million years ago 20 PLATE AMERICAN PLATE 20
PLATE
40 40
ANTARCTIC
60 PLATE 60
L at de
it u de 80 80 Latitu
180 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Longitude

Figure 3.15 Direction of continental drift today

2 Create a plan of how you will use the map

180 million years ago
information to build a model map of the planet.
List the materials and equipment you will need.
Show your plan to your teacher for approval.
3 Make your model. Be prepared to explain and
defend your model and how you developed it to
your class.
4 Compare your model with others in the class. How
successful were the other models? Were many
100 million years ago models similar to yours?

Figure 3.14 The changing positions of the continents

over the last 200 million years

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 401

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:55 PM Page 402

3.3 Mountain Building

Think about Alberta’s landscape. There is a tremendous diversity of
mountains, plateaus, valleys, and rolling hills. Now think of the
landscape where you live. What are some of the dominant features
on it? What’s the highest point of land in your area? Would you call
it a mountain? Why or why not? Have you ever visited the Rocky
Mountains? Describe in words or a drawing your impression of
mountains.

WHAT IS MOUNTAIN BUILDING?

A mountain is part of Earth’s surface that is much higher than the
land around it. A mountain range is a series of mountains. The
Rocky Mountains extend from the north in the Yukon territory,
through the United States and into southern Mexico, making it one
of the longest mountain ranges in the world. In Alberta, the Rocky
Mountains straddle the border with British Columbia. These
mountains are the result of several processes that geologists call
mountain building.
In subsection 3.2, you learned that Earth’s crust is not one
smooth piece of rock. It is made of several plates that fit together
like a giant jigsaw puzzle, and that are in constant motion.

Figure 3.16 The Canadian Rockies

near Pincher Creek, Alberta

402 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 403

You also have learned that mountains form in places where these info BIT
plates collide. For example, the land mass we call India is currently
pressing into southern Asia. We have evidence of this as there are Mountain Trivia Quiz
many earthquakes in this region in places like Turkey, Azerbaijan, • What is the highest
Armenia, and other countries that border northern India. Evidence mountain in the
of this movement is also seen from the ever-growing Himalayas. world?
(Mt. Everest, in the Himalayas, is about 50 cm higher than it was • What is the highest
40 years ago—and it’s still growing!) Alberta’s Rocky Mountains mountain in Canada?
formed in much the same way over 200 million years ago, but the • What is the highest
building stopped after about 140 million years. mountain in Alberta?
Mt. Columbia 3747 m
BUILDING THE MOUNTAINS: AN ALBERTA STORY Mt. Logan 5920 m
Mt. Everest 8850 m
Nearly 500 million years ago, Alberta had a much different climate Answers:
than it does now. It was tropical. The border that is now shared
with British Columbia was on the coast of a warm, shallow sea.
The shallow sea was constantly being filled with sediments.
They flowed over the land and carried all sorts of debris, depositing
it in layers on the coast. Over time, these layers of sediment created
a pile that was 10–15 km thick. Rivers and streams that drained
into that ancient sea carried with them a great deal of sand, mud,
and gravel. These sediments were deposited in thick layers on the
sea floor, reaching depths of up to 15 km.

Figure 3.17 Five hundred

million years ago, Alberta had
no mountains, just flat land at
large deltas Rivers bring
the edge of a warm shallow sea.
F l a t ,

sand and
minerals to
S h a l

the ocean.
B a
l o w

rr
en

shallow sea shelf

S e

La
a

d
n

Shoreline changes
several times.

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 403

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 404

Figure 3.18 Mt. Temple was

formed at the leading edge
of the collision between the
North American Plate and
the Pacific Plate. It was here
that sedimentary rocks were
first stacked on top of each
other like a wedding cake.

After more than a billion years of sediment deposition, the

collision of two plates occurred. The North American Plate,
carrying what is now Alberta, collided with the edge of the Pacific
Plate. The force of this collision had two major effects. It forced the
denser oceanic crust of the Pacific Plate downward below the
lighter continental crust of the North American Plate, as you can
see in Figure 3.19.
At the same time, the pressure of the two plates ramming
against each other forced the sediments on the edge of the North
American Plate to fold and break. Some of these sediment layers
were pushed so hard that they separated and slid over top of each
other. The continuing pressure moved them more than 250 km east
of where they were originally deposited. Mount Rundle in Banff
was formed in this way. This folding, breaking, sliding, and piling
created the Rocky Mountains.

The continental plate, which is thicker and lighter,

rides over the oceanic plate. Farther back, it
buckles under the stress.

Rocky Mountains
Alberta
shallow sea

The oceanic plate,

which is thinner and
heavier, slides under
the continental plate.

Figure 3.19 How the Rocky Mountains were formed

404 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 405

THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FOLD AND FAULT MOUNTAINS

Have you ever seen interesting shapes or landforms when you drive
in a car? Many Canadian roads travel through some amazing places
that can leave you wondering: “How did it get to look like that?”
When mountains are built, they undergo several processes that
result in the final formations that we see today. For example, as a
result of the collision between plates, all of the sedimentary rocks
in the present Rocky Mountains felt compression forces. These
forces caused the sedimentary rocks to bend and break. Folding and
faulting are the results. The bends in these rock beds are called
folds. Large cracks in the rock beds also formed. Faults occurred
wherever the rocks on either side of a crack moved. Most
mountains were created by a combination of folding and faulting.
There are two kinds of folds found in rocks:
• an anticline or an upfold in the rock
• a syncline or a downfold in the rock

Figure 3.21 An example

Figure 3.20 An example of a syncline fold
of an anticline fold

anticline syncline anticline

info BIT
An Ancient Limestone Reef
Deep below the surface of southern Alberta are fossil
remains of sea animals that lived millions of years ago.
These ancient limestone reefs contain oil and gas.

This piece of limestone shows the

fossilized remains of ancient sea animals.

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 405

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 406

Inquiry F O R M I N G F O L D E D M O U N TA I N S
Activity The Question
How can mountains form by folding?

The Hypothesis
Materials & Equipment Form or develop a hypothesis that you think best predicts what will happen.
• 5 rectangular strips of
Procedure
modelling clay, each a
different colour but the 1 Place one piece of modelling clay on your desk. Lay the other pieces one by
same size one on top of each other to form a pile.
• 2 pieces of wood, each 2 Put a block of wood at each end. Place the clamp so that the modelling clay
10 cm ⫻ 8 cm ⫻ 8 cm and the blocks of wood are between the clamps.
• bar clamp, longer than 3 One person holds both ends of the
50 cm clamp as another person slowly
closes the clamp.
4 Stop when the clamp is half
closed.
5 Clean up after you have completed
the activity, and wash your hands.

Collecting Data
6 As you slowly close the clamp,
stop from time to time to record
your observations in words and
Figure 3.22 Step 2 diagrams. Figure 3.23 Step 3

Analyzing and Interpreting

7 Is the clay folded into an anticline or a syncline? or both?
8 What does the clamp represent in this model?
9 What does the modelling clay represent in this model?
10 What happens to the modelling clay as you close the clamp?
11 Why doesn’t the clay break from the pressure of the clamp?

Forming Conclusions
12 Write a summary statement that answers the question: “How do mountains
fold?” Include a diagram with your answer.

Applying and Connecting

Look through the photographs on pages 392 to 405 and identify examples of
anticline and syncline folding.

Extending
Find other pictures in magazines that show these two types of folding. Use these
pictures to create a poster describing and explaining this folding.

406 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 407

WHERE DOES THE FOLDING HAPPEN?

The clay you used in the previous activity may seem much too soft
to be a good model for layered rocks. Rocks are hard. How can they
fold? Rocks can only fold after they have been softened by heat and
pressure within Earth’s crust. This heat and pressure allows the
rocks to bend without breaking. These conditions are most likely to
happen where powerful forces are at work in the crust.
Think about the Theory of Plate Tectonics that you studied
earlier in this section. Colliding plates provide the heat and
pressure needed to soften the rock. As the plates push against each
other, the rock “wrinkles” into folds and is forced upward.
Look back at the map of The Plates of Earth (Figure 3.8). What
two plates are colliding to form the Himalayas? If the Himalayas
keep rising at 1 cm per year, how much taller will they be in
1 000 000 years?

Figure 3.24 The

Himalayas are still
rising at a rate of
1 cm each year.

Figure 3.25 This fence was one straight piece

when it was built. Why do you think it now has
this gap?

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 407

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 408

re SEARCH MOUNTAINS WITH FAULTS

Another powerful Earth process that can build mountains is

Researching the
faulting. Earlier in this unit, you learned that earthquakes can
Rockies
sometimes happen at faults far from plate boundaries. Faults can be
Use library resources
so deep in the crust that we can’t see them. However, some faults
and the Internet to
research what major are visible on Earth’s surface. Have you ever noticed a fault? How
fault (or faults) is in could you tell it was a fault?
North America.

The Rocky Mountains—

were these mountains
built by a fault?

Figure 3.26 One place where faults are easy to find is in layered rock. Where is the fault in
this picture? What evidence do you see of movement along the fault?

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Describe how the Rocky Mountains were formed.
2. How does the Theory of Plate Tectonics explain why ancient
plant fossils found in Alberta rock represent a climate very
different from today?
3. You have been asked to join a scientific expedition to
investigate a remote mountain region in the Antarctic. Your
team wants to discover how these mountains formed. Describe
the evidence you will look for.

408 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 409

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. Describe the three types of plate boundaries.
2. Coal deposits have been found beneath the ice of Antarctica, but
coal only forms in warm swamps. Use Wegener’s theory to
explain how coal could be found so near the South Pole.
3. Explain why the rock of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is younger than
the rock found on the edge of the continents.
4. It has been suggested that we should dispose of our dangerous
waste materials near a converging plate boundary. What do you
think of this idea?
5. What would you expect to see when divergent boundaries occur
on land? Draw a diagram of the result.
6. a) Describe the difference between a fold and a fault.
b) Why do you think folded mountains contain faults?
7. During the building of the Rocky Mountains, the fault activity
resulted in very thick layers of rocks to be pushed on top of one
another. What do you think this additional weight did to Earth’s
crust? (Hint: Imagine what would happen if weights were piled
onto a floating raft.)
8. Using what you know about the formation of faults, explain
how mountain building can be compared with shovelling a
sidewalk after a snowstorm.

Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

On
The goal of scientists is to try to explain and interpret their
observations. These interpretations are recorded in the form of
scientific theories and models.
1. What theories did you learn about in this section?
2. What do you think are the differences between a scientific
theory and a model?
3. What should scientists do if they discover that a theory or
model doesn’t explain all their observations?

Landforms Provide Evidence of Change 409

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:56 PM Page 410

4.0 The fossil record provides evidence of

Earth’s changes over time.

Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• tracing evidence of geologic
change using fossils
• methods used to interpret
fossils
• geologic time
• understanding fossil evidence

Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe the nature and
formation of different kinds
of fossils
• explain and apply methods
used to interpret fossils
• describe different life forms
based on fossil records
• identify uncertainties in Dinosaur Provincial Park—These paleontologists are carefully digging out the skull of
interpreting fossil records Albertosaurus, a dinosaur that lived 75 million years ago.

Geologists can have a difficult time studying Earth’s history and

the events that occurred. Fortunately, they have “time capsules”
that they can use to give them a picture of life long ago. These
time capsules are called fossils. They are found in the sedimentary
rocks and can tell us a great deal about Earth’s past.
Perhaps you’ve been to a museum or gallery that has different
kinds of fossils on display. Was the fossil you saw an animal or a
plant? Could you tell what the organism could have looked like
when it was alive? Have you ever found a fossil in the field? What
would you do if you found a fossil? Describe with words and a
diagram your experiences with or knowledge of fossils.

410 For Web links relating to 4.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 411

info BIT
4.1 Tracing Evidence of Geologic Change
Dug Out of the
Using Fossils Ground
The word fossil is
Kathy and Roberto went on a field trip to a canyon in the originally from Latin,
mountains. There they found some fossils embedded in the meaning “dug out of
sedimentary rock layers. Below is a copy of a drawing they made of the ground.”
what they saw, and some of their comments. Think of what you Sedimentary rocks
know about sedimentary rocks, and answer the following questions that are exposed at
related to their comments: the surface are where
the majority of
Figure 4.1 Kathy fossils—usually marine
and Roberto made animals—are found.
these notes on their Limestone, sandstone,
field trip. and shale are the most
common types of
fossil rocks.

• How did Kathy and Roberto know that the fossils found in this
sedimentary rock used to live in a marine environment?
• How did they know the water was shallow at the time the
organism lived?
• What modern classification groups did Kathy and Roberto suggest
were found on their sample?

FOSSILS Figure 4.2 Trilobites lived

Fossils are traces of once-living things that are preserved in rocks. on the bottoms of oceans
300–600 million years ago.
They form when animals or plants die and sink to the bottom of a No trilobites exist today. If
body of water. There, they are buried by layers of sediments. This you found a rock with a
means fossils are the same age as the sedimentary rock in which trilobite in it, what could
they are found. you say about that rock?

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 411
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 412

Paleontologists [pāl lē on TOL e jists] are scientists who study

early life forms by interpreting animal and plant fossils. It’s a
profession that takes a great deal of patience. Most fossils have to be
carefully removed from the rock that surrounds them. Often, the
fossils that are found are not complete, consisting of only parts of
skeletons, shells, or other animal traces. Trying to make inferences
based on these bits and pieces can be very challenging.
However, these inferences, together with a growing body of
evidence, suggest that life on Earth has changed a great deal over
Figure 4.3 Sauropod
the past millions of years. The fossils that we find in younger rocks
vertebrae—the family of are sometimes similar to animals and plants we see today. But older
Sauropod dinosaurs were the rocks often contain fossils of animals and plants that are extinct (no
largest animals to ever live on longer exist). Many of these fossils don’t look like the plants and
Earth. They include
animals we see today. The trilobite in Figure 4.2 is a good example
Brachiosaurus (24 m long) and
Apatosaurus, or Brontosaurus as of an animal that once lived on the ocean floor, but became extinct
it was once called (21 m long). about 300 million years ago.

Figure 4.4 Fossil formation

1. When this fish died, 2. Sediment gradually
it drifted down to covered it.
the ocean floor.

3. Eventually, the sediment with the

fish inside it hardened into rock. 4. When you crack open the rock,
you find the impression of the
fish’s skeleton preserved.

412 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 413

BECOMING A FOSSIL
Not every living thing has the potential to become a fossil. In fact,
the whole process of turning into a fossil is a rare experience.
Furthermore, there is more than one way to become fossilized.
• Firstly, sediments quickly have to bury the original plant or
animal remains. A quick burial usually means scavengers and
other decomposers are not able to break the remains down
further.
• Sometimes, a cavity is created as the original organic form
decays. This cavity can then be filled by other sediments, which
eventually harden into rock.
• In other cases, a fossil can be formed when the original organism
is slowly replaced by mineral crystals.
Fossils may not just be the actual plant or animal. A trace fossil is a
cavity or track left behind by an organism (for example, a footprint).
Another type of fossil is a cast. Casts are the filled-in cavities left by
the original organic bodies.
Trees and other plants can also become fossils. These are
sometimes found in the form of petrified wood or remarkably
preserved as in the photograph below.

Figure 4.6 A paleontologist

carefully reveals an
Albertosaurus skull that’s
75 million years old.
Figure 4.5 Fifty million years ago, this
was just another leaf on a tree.

Studying fossils is one of the ways geologists and

paleontologists track changes in Earth’s geologic history. But how
do these fossils become preserved? Do all living things leave behind
fossilized evidence of their existence? Fossilization is a process that
can take thousands of years and only happens under certain
conditions. Animals with hard parts (bones, shells, etc.) are the
most common fossils. Fossils of earthworms and jellyfish have been
found, but they are rare.

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 413
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 414

re SEARCH TELLING TIME GEOLOGICALLY

The layers of sediment that have formed over millions of years are
Index Fossils
called strata. They provide important information about what
Paleontologists use
happened in the past.
particular fossils to
identify certain time From studying the kind of rock and the grain size in a layer of
periods. These are strata, geologists can gather information about the environment in
known as index which it formed. For example, if it’s limestone, this layer of rock
fossils. Using the was originally at the bottom of an ocean. If a layer of strata is very
Internet, your library, thick, it means that the environment remained stable for a long
or other resources, try period. A new, different layer forms when something changes in the
to identify index environment. For example, a rise in sea level would show up as a
fossils that can be change in sediments along the former shoreline. The shoreline
found in your area. sediments would be replaced by the type of sediments that form in
For example, why is deeper water.
the trilobite in
Figure 4.2 considered
an index fossil?

Figure 4.7 Mt. Rundle, Alberta—sometimes Figure 4.8 A changing rhythm of

there is no change for many millions of years sedimentary deposits caused these
in the type of material that is deposited. While different layers of shale to appear.
the bottom of this cliff was formed, the
sedimentary deposits remained the same.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Suppose you went to a quarry and found some fossils in
sedimentary rocks. Then you visited another quarry 5 km away
and found exactly the same kinds of rocks, containing the same
kinds of fossils. What could you say about the second set of
rocks you found?
2. If there were fossils in sedimentary strata layers, and they were
buried extremely deep (perhaps as much as 8 km beneath the
surface), what would happen to the fossils? Would the clearness
of their images change? Why or why not?

414 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 415

4.2 Methods Used to Interpret

Fossils
The fossil record found in rocks shows a sequence, but
not one based on size, habitat, or shape. Rather, the fossil
record shows a sequence of different life forms appearing
through time. For example, single-celled life forms
appeared before multi-celled life forms, plants before
animals, and invertebrates before vertebrates. Fossil
records show that older rocks contain increasingly
different organisms from those living today.
Have you ever looked at old pictures of your relatives
who have passed away and wondered what they were
like? Did they sound like you, do the same things, live in
the same area? Piecing together the past life of someone is
sometimes difficult because often there is no one around
to answer those questions.
The ability to reconstruct fossils based on knowledge Figure 4.9 Amber is fossilized tree sap
of current living things is an important part of that sometimes preserves trapped
understanding the history of life on Earth. The obvious insects like this mosquito. Genetic
challenge for paleontologists who study ancient life is material has been successfully extracted
from insects encased in amber.
that the animals and plants they are trying to study no
longer exist. Fossils do provide important pieces of
information. However, much of what science knows
about them is based upon inferences or educated guesses.

info BIT
limestone youngest layer 1
Geological Columns shale 2
Rock formations are deposited in layers from
the oldest on the bottom to the youngest at sandstone 3
the top. Paleontologists use these layers, or
shale 4
geological columns, to help determine the age
of the fossils they find. coal 5
sandstone 6
limestone 7

shale 8
Fossils found in layer 7 will be older than
those found in layers 1 to 6. sandstone oldest layer 9

Geological Column

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 415
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 416

STUDYING SEDIMENTARY LAYERS OF ROCK

In areas where the layers of sedimentary rock are deeply eroded,
geologists can study the fossil record over a large portion of Earth’s
history. The Grand Canyon is one of these places. Down at the
bottom of the canyon, where the oldest rock is found, there are no
fossils. Then, just one layer higher, many fossils of trilobites appear
(such as the one in Figure 4.2). As you travel up the canyon wall,
other fossils can be found that are more similar to those that exist
on Earth today.
The Red Deer River in central Alberta, through Drumheller and
Dinosaur Provincial Park, also has a vertical story to tell.

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

FOSSILS THROUGH TIME

Below are a series of photographs of fossils from the era in Earth’s history when
life began to become extremely diverse in a short period of time. This was
during the Cambrian period, about 515 million years ago.

Anomolocaris Hallucigena Opabina

Choose one of the fossils in Figure 4.10, and, like a paleontologist, try to answer Figure 4.10 These
the following questions based on these photographs. fossils are some of
the ancient creatures
• What do you think are the characteristics of this animal? found in the world-
• How did the animal move? famous Burgess
• Where did the animal live? Shale Fossil beds in
Yoho National Park,
• How large do you think the animal was?
British Columbia.
• What and how did this animal eat?
• Sketch a possible likeness of a relative for this creature.
• Suggest any possible related animals that might exist today. What new
questions can you ask about your animal?

416 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 417

FOSSIL BEDS
These are three-
dimensional models
of animals that once
lived in The Burgess
Shale Community
(Ayshella, left, and
Marella, right).

Figure 4.11 The Burgess Shale Community is a diorama

that illustrates the type of community in which these
animals may have lived. Western Canada has many other
fossil locations that help explain the history of life on
Earth. In fact, the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology
in Drumheller, Alberta, is one of the best places in the
world to meet the most famous of fossils—dinosaurs.

The Burgess Shale Fossil Beds have preserved the soft tissue of
many species, allowing scientists to study these specimens in
detail. Usually, scavengers, decomposers, and the passing of time
ensure that only the most durable parts of an organism are
preserved. Thanks to very fine sediments, a quick burial, and a lack
of life-giving oxygen for bacteria, these shale fossils look much the
same as they did half a billion years ago. So well preserved are the
fossils in the shale, that scientists have been able to determine what
final meal they had before they died!

THE ROYAL TYRRELL MUSEUM

The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology, located in the Badlands
Figure 4.12 Joseph Burr
area of Alberta, opened on September 25, 1985. It was named after Tyrrell
Joseph Burr Tyrrell, a geologist with the Geological Survey of
Canada.

info BIT
Earth Giants
So you think Tyrannosaurus rex is the biggest dinosaur vertebra measuring 1.2 m was found in an
dinosaur at 12 m? Or maybe you thought it was Argentine village. That means this creature was
Seismosaurus at 30 m or Supersaurus at between 35 m probably close to 50 m in length, or nearly half the
and 40 m? (That’s as tall as a 12-storey building.) length of a football field! And who is to say what the
Well, you would be wrong. In January 2000, a next dinosaur fossil find will reveal?

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 417
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 418

Figure 4.13 Skeleton of

Tyrannosaurus rex,
more than 12 m long,
on display in the Tyrrell
Museum’s “Dinosaur
Hall”

Figure 4.14 A paleontologist unearths new dinosaur remains on

one of the museum’s many summer digs.

re SEARCH In 1884, while studying coal deposits in the Badlands, he

discovered a 70-million-year-old dinosaur skull, later named
Researching Ancient Albertosaurus. The find sparked international interest in the area,
Life which turned out to be one of the richest sources of dinosaur bones
Canada has many in the world. The Alberta government recognized the area’s
locations where there importance and financed a major museum and research facility in
is ongoing research the Badlands.
on a variety of The Tyrrell Museum is one of the largest museums of
ancient life. Using the paleontology in the world. It displays more than 200 dinosaur
Internet, your library, remains, the largest number under one roof anywhere. Most of the
or other resources, dinosaurs on display were found in Alberta. As well as dinosaur
find some of these bones, the 11 200 m2 facility contains computer terminals where
projects and share visitors can design their own dinosaurs or play simulation games.
what you find with
Visitors can also watch from a special viewing area as technicians
the rest of the class.
prepare and preserve fossils for study and display. One can even
sign up to spend a day or a week working with paleontologists on a
real dinosaur dig!

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Scientists often try to determine if the fossilized animal they are
examining is related to a group of animals living today. What
things might they look for to help make this connection?
2. Do you think any fossilized animals are related to animals living
today? If so, how could that be possible?
3. If you found a piece of petrified wood and bones in the same
location, what could you say about the age of the two
specimens?

418 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 419

4.3 Geologic Time

Figure 4.15 An artist’s

view of life during the
age of dinosaurs (the
Mesozoic Era)

Virtually everything that humans do today is affected by time.

Classes, practices, meetings, departures, and arrivals are dependent
on knowing what time it is. Everyone knows what a week, an hour,
or a year feels like. But can you imagine a thousand years, a million info BIT
years, a billion years? Perhaps that’s why it’s so hard to understand
the history of life on Earth. How can anyone have a sense of what a Geologic Periods
half-billion years is like when 10 or 20 years seems like a long Some geologic periods
time? are named after areas
where rocks from that
LOOKING BACK INTO TIME period are well
exposed. For example,
All that science knows about the ancient past, it has learned from
the time period
rock and fossil records. Geologists have used this knowledge (some
Jurassic is named after
of which is not very exact) to organize Earth’s history into geologic Jura, a mountain
time intervals. These time periods are called eras. Geologists have range in France.
based these eras on the sequence of rock strata, with the oldest

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 419
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 420

layer being on the bottom, and the youngest layer on the top. This
sequence was established by identifying fossils and matching them
with sedimentary rock layers from all over the world. There are four
main divisions in these sequences. Each represents a major change
in the global environment and is characterized by different life
forms.
Scientists estimate that Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. The
following illustration (see Figure 4.16) is an artist’s representation
of what the stages of Earth’s evolution might have looked like.

circling gases Atmosphere gases form. rivers of red-hot lava

(4.6 billion years ago)

Earth today Surface water and first life solid rock crust
forms (3.8 billion years ago). (4 billion years ago)

Figure 4.16 One representation of the evolution of Earth

Observations by scientists of bodies in outer space and

geological evidence suggest that our planet was first a swirling
cloud of gas that had once been part of a newly formed sun. In
time, the outer layer began to cool. Massive eruptions of magma
from below this outer layer spread sheets of lava over the surface.

420 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 421

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Westlothiana lizziae
(Paleozoic era)

Brachiosaurus
(Mesozoic era)

Scyphozoan
medusae
(Precambrian era)

Homo habilis
(Cenozoic era)

Precambrian Era: 4600 to 600 Paleozoic Era: 600 to 225 Mesozoic Era: 225 to 65 Cenozoic Era: 65 millions of
millions of years ago millions of years ago millions of years ago years ago to present day
• formation of Earth • first reptiles • dinosaurs rule and then • appearance of most
• first simple organisms • first large land animals become extinct modern species
(bacteria) (amphibians—frogs) • first flowering plants • many more species of
• first soft-bodied animals • first insects • first birds and mammals mammals
(no vertebrae) • first large land plants • first grasses
• first fish with jaws • first human-like species
(about 2–3 millions of
Figure 4.17 The four eras of Earth’s history years ago)

re SEARCH
Dating Rocks and Fossils
Use your library resources and the Internet to search some of the methods geologists
and paleontologists use to date rock and fossil samples. For example:
• radioactive dating of certain elements, such as carbon and uranium
• examining the composition of dead organic material
Mammuthus primigenus
(Cenozoic era)

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 421
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 422

G i v e i t a TRY A C T I V I T Y

MEASURING TIME
Using a length of string, a long strip of tape, a length of wood, or any other
piece of material, construct your own geologic time scale. (See Toolbox 5 for a
review of measurement.)

• The beginning must read 4.6 billion years and extend to the present day.
• Use the chart below as a guide for your time line.
• When you have completed your time scale, bring it to a friend and explain
your scale and some of the events that took place.

Significant Dates in Earth’s History

Event Years ago
Glaciers cover most of Canada and United States 11 000
Earliest human relative 3 000 000 (about)
Dinosaurs disappear 65 000 000
Evidence of first birds 150 000 000
Evidence of first mammals 190 000 000
First dinosaurs 225 000 000
First amphibians 350 000 000
First large land plants 430 000 000
Earliest fish 500 000 000
The Burgess Shale fossils and the Cambrian explosion 515 000 000
Multicelled organisms 700 000 000
First evidence of life 3 500 000 000
Earth formed 4 600 000 000

UNDERSTANDING FOSSIL EVIDENCE

Fossils are the only evidence scientists have of early life forms.
Paleontologists use fossil evidence to help them develop theories
about prehistoric life. Fossils are rare, however. And fossils of
complete animals are very rare because the remains of animals
usually disappear long before they can become fossilized.
Because fossils are rare, paleontologists cannot always make
general statements about what life forms existed millions of years
ago. For example, a few fossils, such as Archaeopteryx [ar kee OP ter
iks], have impressions that look like feathers. But because so few of
these fossils have been found, paleontologists cannot say that all
similar creatures at that time had feathers. More evidence is needed.

422 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 423

Often when fossil remains are found, they are only broken
fragments. Reconstructing these fragments (see Figure 4.18) into a
full-size animal (Figure 4.19) takes skill and inferences based on a
knowledge of modern animal anatomy. Creating a life-like
illustration from these fossilized bones (Figure 4.20) requires
careful study of the bones, a knowledge of anatomy, and
imagination. Imagination is needed where we have no evidence; for
example, for the colour of the skin.

Fossil Inferences
Figure 4.19 Allosaurus skeleton after reconstruction—
Reconstructing a dinosaur skeleton requires a team of
experts with a wide range of knowledge. Scientists compare
the new bones they find to known dinosaur skeletons and to
the skeletons of modern creatures.

Figure 4.18 Allosaurus skeleton before

reconstruction—Reconstructing fossil
bones into a full-size skeleton is like
trying to put a three-dimensional puzzle
together without the picture on the box!

Figure 4.20 Completed Allosaurus—After the skeleton has been reconstructed, the next step is to put the
muscles on the bare bones. The arrangement of the different muscles is established by examining “scars” on
the bones where the muscles were once attached. Next, the skin is added. Fossilized skin impressions that
have been found suggest that dinosaur skin was scaly, similar to a reptile’s skin.

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 423
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 424

Y This at Hom A C T I V I T Y

T R e

MAKING A FOSSIL
Try making your own fossil mould and cast. You can use seashells or
other small objects that have an interesting texture to make your
fossil.
• Coat the outside of your seashell with petroleum jelly.
• Mix up about a cup of plaster of Paris and water in a small bowl so
that it looks like thick cream. Add food colouring, mixing well.
• Slowly pour the plaster mixture into a plastic cup until it is about
3 cm from the top. Press the seashell, greased side down, into the
wet plaster. Wash your hands after cleaning up. Leave overnight.
• Remove the shell the next day. The coloured plaster is the fossil
mould. Coat the entire surface of the plaster mould with petroleum
jelly.
• Mix up a new batch of plaster of Paris, but this time don’t add food
colouring. Pour the plaster onto the mould so that it fills the cup.
Wash your hands.
• The next day, carefully separate the two plaster pieces. Examine
the coloured mould and the white cast.
Figure 4.21 Pour the coloured plaster
• What is the difference between the two pieces? Which one, the mixture so that it is about 3 cm from
mould or the cast, looks more like your original seashell? the top.

CHECK AND REFLECT

1. Why do geologists divide the history of Earth into eras?
2. What changes on Earth occurred between 515 000 000 years ago
and 250 000 000 years ago?
3. During what era did dinosaurs become extinct? What other life
forms lived during this era?
4. The fossil record indicates plants appeared before animals did.
Do you think this could ever occur in reverse order? Explain
your answer.

424 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 425

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
1. What is a fossil and how is it different from a rock or mineral?
2. What kinds of information or data do paleontologists gather?
3. What information do the layers of sedimentary rock give
scientists who study fossil records?
4. If fossils are found on the side of a mountain at 2500 m, and
the same kind of fossil is found 30 km north at 1900 m, what
could be said about the strata they are found in? Could they be
the same? Would it be likely that more would be found along
the same layer? Explain your answer.
5. What can the study of life forms on Earth today tell us 23:59:59—In the last half
a second, humans arrive
about life forms of the past? 23:30— on the scene.
dinosaurs
6. What are some of the types of fossils found in Alberta? extinct
7. Why are inferences necessary when studying fossils?
8. What environmental influences could explain the
appearance of some life forms and the disappearance
of others? 6:00 a.m.—
first signs
of simple
9. What kind of life forms appeared in each of the four life
eras of Earth’s history?
10. Why do you think it took about one billion years
before the first life forms appeared on Earth? 13:00—first multicelled
organisms
11. Make a chart or another illustration that represents
the four major periods in Figure 4.22. Figure 4.22 Comparing the evolution
of life forms to a 24-h time clock

Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

On
So many of the discoveries and theories in science are the result of
the work of a great many people. Scientists have been working
co-operatively for over a hundred years to learn about and
understand Earth’s history.
1. Why do you think sharing knowledge is important in
understanding fossil records?
2. Why is it important when working in a group for everyone to
have a definite task to perform?

The Fossil Record Provides Evidence of Earth’s Changes over Time 425
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 426

S C I E N C E W O R L D

y
a
se d
S t u

What Happened to the Dinosaurs?

The Issue or even years. Without sunlight, much of Earth’s
Dinosaurs ruled Earth for 150 million years, then vegetation died off and the plant-eating dinosaurs
suddenly became extinct about 65 million years ago. starved to death. Without any prey to eat, the meat-
Many theories have been proposed: eating dinosaurs soon followed.
Is this the end of the dinosaur story? Not
• Small mammals ate the dinosaur’s eggs. according to other scientists. From the fossil
• A deadly virus caused a dinosaur plague. evidence, they have developed the theory that
• Vicious meat-eaters ate all of the plant-eaters and dinosaurs did not disappear completely—they
then starved to death themselves. evolved into birds. The skeletons of birds have many
• Hungry caterpillars devoured all of the dinosaur’s similar features to small predatory dinosaurs known
plant-based food supply. as theropods. A recent fossil find suggests that some
• Dinosaurs were hunted to extinction by aliens. theropods had feathers. However, one scientific study
Some of these theories are obviously more believable has suggested that this fossil is a fake. What is the
than others. Over the years, a growing amount of real answer?
evidence suggest two other theories. Evidence has led
many scientists to believe that 65 million years ago, a Go Further
giant meteor 10 km in diameter crashed into Earth. Look into the following resources to help you form
The impact created a crater over 100 km in diameter your own opinion about how dinosaurs became
and ejected enormous amounts of dust and debris extinct:
into the atmosphere. The cloud of dust encircled the • Look on the Web: Check out dinosaurs or
entire Earth and blocked out sunlight for months paleontology on the Internet.
• Ask the Experts: Try to find an expert such as a
paleontologist or an ornithologist (bird expert).
• Look It Up in Newspapers and Magazines: Look for
articles about the extinction of dinosaurs or the
origin of birds.
• Check out Scientific Studies: Look for scientific
studies about dinosaurs, theropods, or
Archaeopteryx.

In Your Opinion
• Which extinction theories seem most believable to
you? Why?
• Could more than one extinction theory be correct?
For example, if the meteor theory is true, does this
mean the bird theory must be false?
Did the impact of a giant meteor destroy the dinosaurs?

426 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 427

UNIT SUMMARY: PLANET EARTH

Key Concepts Section Summaries

1.0 1.0 Earth’s surface undergoes gradual and sudden changes.

• developing models • Earth is viewed as a layered planet. The main layers are the crust, the
• Earth models mantle, and the core. Only the crust has been investigated because Earth’s
• earthquakes other layers are many hundreds of kilometres below its surface.
• volcanoes • Earthquakes and volcanoes are examples of forces that take place within
• tools and techniques for Earth’s interior. These forces have the ability to suddenly and dramatically
studying Earth change Earth’s surface.
• the effects of water, wind, • Scientists use a variety of tools and techniques to investigate Earth’s forces.
and ice
• Wind, water, and ice are forces that slowly change Earth’s features.
• glaciers

2.0 2.0 The rock cycle describes how rocks form and change over time.
• Rocks are the hard structures that make up Earth’s crust. They are
• rocks and minerals
composed of minerals, substances that give rocks their distinctive
• classes of rocks: igneous,
characteristics, such as hardness and colour.
sedimentary, and
metamorphic • There are three classes of rocks that make up Earth’s crust: igneous,
• geology tools and sedimentary, and metamorphic.
techniques • Rocks are always being broken down and transformed into different forms.
• the rock cycle This process is called the rock cycle.
• describing and interpreting
• All three classes of rocks can be found in Alberta although sedimentary
local rock formations
rocks are the most common.

3.0 3.0 Landforms provide evidence of change.

• The Theory of Plate Tectonics describes Earth’s surface as being broken up
• continental drift
into huge areas of rock called plates.
• plate tectonics
• mountain building • The continents and the ocean floors are carried on these plates. The plates
are slowly moving on the partly melted mantle.
• Mountains are formed as a result of plates colliding or rubbing together,
pushing up part of the plate.

4.0 4.0 The fossil record provides evidence of Earth’s changes over time.

• tracing evidence of • Fossils are traces or remains of past life preserved in stone. They have given
geologic change using scientists a picture of how life has evolved over the last three and a half
fossils billion years.
• methods used to interpret • Scientists use a variety of methods and tools to interpret fossil evidence.
fossils However, since fossil remains are often incomplete, much of what is known
• geologic time is based on inferences.
• understanding fossil • Geologists have divided Earth’s history into four periods, called eras.
evidence
• Determining what animals looked like from fossil records is often based on
inferences.

Unit Summary 427

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 428

PROJECT
EARTH MODELS AND S I M U L AT I O N S
Getting Started
In this unit, you have explored
the different processes that
create features on Earth’s
surface. Forces inside Earth,
such as the movements of
tectonic plates or movements
along faults, can create
mountains. Forces on Earth’s
surface, such as ice and wind,
can wear down and move
These mountains formed millions
mountains through weathering
of years ago. When they first
and erosion. For this project, formed, they were tall and jagged.
you can use what you’ve Now they are worn down and
learned about Earth’s processes. rounded. What processes do you
think could have changed them?
Think about the features
that you would include in a
display about the landscape in
your area. To help your thinking,
look at the pictures on this
page, and see if you can answer
the questions in the captions.
The features in these
pictures are just examples of
Rock formations and deposits can tell
what you might see. Your area us a great deal about a location’s
may be completely different. history. These salt flats are in Wood
You may not have any Buffalo National Park, Alberta. How
The Red River runs through the
mountains or deep valleys. Your would salt deposits end up far from
Badlands of southern Alberta. What do
the Pacific Ocean?
major features may be large you think happens to the soil when the
areas of flat fertile soil beside a river slows down or stops flowing?
large body of water. Or you may
have large grassy areas between
low rocky hills. Whatever the Your Goal
features in your area, you can Imagine that you are a designer who designs and builds models and
use this project to apply the simulations for science centres and other museums. Your community is
ideas about Earth that you building a new science centre. Your job is to provide a display that shows
developed in this unit. how the local features in your landscape began, and how they became the
way they are today.

428 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 429

What You Need to Know Steps to Success

You and your classmates are partners in Time Travel 1 With classmates, brainstorm answers and
Designs Inc., a company specializing in displays that questions that will help your team develop a plan
show the origin and history of features on Earth’s to build your model display.
surface. For your assignment, as described, you can 2 Design your model or simulation. Give the design
use any information you gathered as you worked to your teacher for approval before you start
through this unit. You will need to collect additional building it. Include in your design:
information about your local geology and geography a) a drawing of your model
from reference books, the Internet, and other b) a diagram showing how you will simulate the
resources. processes
Your company has found that the best way to c) a list of materials
develop these displays is for all the partners to work d) a procedure for building your model
together to determine which features to model and e) your schedule
simulate. Then you divide up the features among f) safety considerations
smaller teams. Each team is responsible for 3 Build your model or simulation according to the
modelling or simulating one feature. When they are design and plan that your teacher approved.
completed, all the features are combined in one large
4 Decide how you will explain your model or
display.
simulation to the rest of the class. You may want
to have different team members explain different
parts of the model or perform different parts of
the simulation.
CONTRACT
How Did It Go?
l statement of an agreement
This document is a forma 5 Write a report of the planning and building of
between your model. Share and compare it with the
Discovery Science Centre reports of other teams.
and or”)
(herein called “the Contract 6 Explain your model or simulation to your class.
Time Travel Designs Inc.
tures As you watch other teams, write down:
display showing major fea
To design and construct a
local area. a) what you liked best about their models or
of the community and its
simulations
The Contractor will:
b) any ideas or materials that you could have
tures to represent
• select the appropriate fea of the used for your model or simulation
on the origin and history
• research the information
7 Combine your model or simulation with those of
features lain
dels and simulations to exp
• design and construct mo your classmates to create the display. Invite other
public
the features to the general classes to see your displays.
agrees to provide the
Discovery Science Centre
for the display and the
Contractor with the space
materials to construct it.

Project 429
05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 430

UNIT REVIEW: PLANET EARTH

Unit Vocabulary 3.0

1. Write a short story about Earth’s crust 9. What evidence is there that the
using the following terms: continents are drifting farther apart?
Theory of Plate Tectonics 10. In a paragraph, explain the Theory of
deposition Plate Tectonics.
erosion
11. Describe the formation of the Rocky
sediments
Mountains.
earthquake
volcano
landscape 4.0
mineral
rock cycle 12. Why do scientists study fossils?
fossil 13. How is the age of a fossil determined?
Mesozoic Era 14. During what geologic era did life on
Earth first develop?

Check Your Knowledge

Connect Your Understanding
1.0
15. What do earthquakes and volcanoes
2. Describe the model scientists have have in common?
developed that explains Earth’s structure. 16. What model do geologists use to show
3. Describe the cause of an earthquake. how igneous, sedimentary, and
4. What is a volcano? metamorphic rocks are related?
5. Describe some of the forces that slowly 17. Could all rocks become sedimentary
change Earth’s surface. rocks? Why or why not?
18. If Earth’s plates are constantly moving,
why aren’t earthquakes occurring all of
2.0 the time along every boundary?

6. What are the differences between rocks

and minerals? Practise Your Skills
7. Briefly describe the three classes of rock
19. Can geologists predict where new
found in Earth’s crust.
earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain
8. What is meant by the rock cycle? ranges will occur? Explain your answer.
20. Why is it probable that scientists will
never have a complete understanding of
how all life forms evolved on Earth?

430 Unit E: Planet Earth

05_U7E_PlanetEarth_p346-431 12/14/06 5:57 PM Page 431

21. A space probe lands on an unknown Self Assessment

planet in another solar system. There are
Think back to the work you did in this unit:
many volcanoes but only a few large
bodies of water. Thick clouds of dust 24. Give an example where a number of
and water vapour cover the planet. people have contributed to the
Based on what is known about Earth, understanding of what Earth’s structure
what inferences can you make about this is like.
planet? its composition? its rock 25. Describe a subject area in the study of
formations? the presence of life forms? Earth where scientific evidence must be
22. You’re looking at earthquakes in and interpreted using inferences.
around the eastern and western regions 26. What is one idea, subject, or issue in this
of northern India over the last 25 years. unit that you would like to explore in
Major earthquakes of a Richter more detail?
magnitude greater than 7 have caused
tremendous damage. Why are they
occurring, and what could your Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
prediction be over the next 25 years? On
23. The fossil skull’s upper jaw (see below)
has 14 teeth, and the lower jaw was 27. Turn back to the Focus on the Nature of
missing. (A dime to the left of the skull Science on page 351 of this unit. Use a
gives an idea of the fossil’s size.) What creative way to demonstrate your
inferences can you make about what this understanding of one of the questions.
creature looked like? 28. What experiments did you do that
helped you understand some of the
characteristics of our planet?
29. Describe a possible situation where
using precise scientific language and a
classification system would be important
in identifying a newly discovered rock
formation.
30. Describe the process involved in
developing a theory or a model that best
explains a natural phenomena.
31. Describe a situation where working in a
group was important in completing a
task or experiment.
32. Why do you think it is important that
only qualified people be allowed to
remove fossils from the ground?

Unit Review 431

06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:05 PM Page 432

TOOLBOX

Toolbox 1 Safety in the Laboratory

Toolbox 2 The Inquiry Process of Science
Toolbox 3 The Problem Solving Process for
Technological Development
Toolbox 4 The Decision Making Process for
Social and Environmental Issues
Toolbox 5 Measurement
Toolbox 6 Writing Reports
Toolbox 7 Graphing
Toolbox 8 Diagrams
Toolbox 9 Visual Organizers
Toolbox 10 Researching Topics

432
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:05 PM Page 433

T OOLBOX 1

SAFETY IN THE L A B O R AT O RY

Safety Wins
You have probably seen some of the hazard symbols below on
products at home. They are a warning that many substances
can be harmful or dangerous if handled improperly.
Each hazard symbol can come in either a yellow triangle
(which means “caution”), an orange diamond (which means
“warning”), or a red octagon (which means “danger”).
Here are some of the more common symbols.

Flammable Hazard: Materials could Corrosive Hazard: The material may

ignite (catch on fire) if exposed to corrode (“eat away at”) clothing, skin,
flames, sparks, or friction. or other materials.

Explosive Hazard: The materials or Biological Hazard: Be alert to the

equipment could explode. possibility of poisoning or infection
from microscopic and other organisms.
Toxic Hazard: The material is very poi-
sonous and could have immediate and Electrical Hazard: Be alert to the
serious effects. possibility of an electric spark or shock.

Here are some other

symbols you might see on
the materials you use in compressed gas dangerously reactive material oxidizing material poisonous and infectious
causing immediate and
your classroom. These serious toxic effects
symbols are called
Workplace Hazardous
Materials Information
System (WHMIS) symbols.
They are placed on
flammable and biohazardous corrosive material poisonous and infectious
hazardous materials used at combustible material infectious material causing other toxic effects
job sites and school
laboratories.
Can you identify the symbols that are similar to the household symbols
above? Discuss with your teacher what some of the other symbols mean.

Continued on next page ➝

Toolbox 1 433
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:05 PM Page 434

T OOLBOX 1

䡵 Report any safety concerns you 䡵 Make sure you close the
have, or hazards you see (such containers of chemicals
as spills) to your teacher. immediately after you use them.
䡵 Handle all glassware carefully. If 䡵 Make sure that any water or wet
you see broken glass, ask your hands are kept away from
teacher how to dispose of it electrical outlets or sockets.
properly. 䡵 When you have finished an
䡵 Never smell any material or experiment, clean all the
substance directly. Instead, equipment before putting it away.
gently wave your hand over Be careful with hot plates and
it to bring its vapours toward equipment that have been heated
your nose. as they may take a long time to
䡵 Never take chemicals directly cool down.
from the container. Transfer a
small amount to a labelled beaker
and take your sample from it.
Common-Sense Safety Checklist This will prevent contamination of
Your teacher may have safety chemicals and possible reactions.
instructions to add to the list below. 䡵 Symbols are used throughout
Discuss or note your ideas about why this book to tell you when to use
each of these is an example of safety equipment and when
common-sense safety. caution is needed in performing
an acitivity.
䡵 Learn to recognize the warning
symbols shown on the previous
page.
䡵 Keep your work area uncluttered 䡵 Heat solids and liquids only
and organized. in heat-resistant glass beakers
and test tubes.
䡵 Know the location of fire
extinguishers and other safety 䡵 When you heat test tubes, make
equipment. sure that the open end is Say “Yes!”
pointing away from you and
䡵 Always wear safety goggles and
anyone else in the room. to Safety
any other safety clothing as Are you willing
䡵 When heating a substance, make to
✔ follow the safety instru
requested by your teacher or this
book. sure the container does not boil
dry. ctions
outlined by your
䡵 If you have long or loose hair, tie teacher and this
䡵 Follow your teacher’s instructions book?
it back. Roll up long shirt
sleeves. to safely dispose of all waste ✔ keep an eye open for
materials. possible
䡵 Don’t wear any jewellery when hazards and re
port them
doing laboratory activities. 䡵 Always wash your hands well immediately?

䡵 Inform your teacher if you have

with soap, preferably liquid soap, ✔ show respect and conc
after handling chemicals or ern for your
any allergies or medical own safety and
other materials. the safety of yo
classmates and ur
conditions. teachers?

434 Toolbox 1
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:05 PM Page 435

T OOLBOX 2

T H E I N Q U I RY P R O C E S S OF Hints
SCIENCE • Answers may lead to additional questions.
New questions often lead to new hypotheses and
Scientists are always asking a lot of questions. They experiments. Don’t be afraid to ask questions, or to
are always inquiring. They want to understand why re-think the ones you’ve already asked.
the things they observe, and wonder about, happen. • Science grows when scientists ask questions, answer
Experiments are important tools scientists use to them, and are willing to question those answers.
help them answer their questions. Scientific knowledge is always growing and changing.
When scientists plan experiments, they usually follow a
simple set of steps.

Step 1 Ask a cause-and-effect question.

Step 1
Asking questions is easy. Asking questions that lead to
reliable answers is more challenging. That’s the reason
scientists are especially fond of asking cause-and-effect
Step 2 questions. Here are a few examples.
• How does the concentration of laundry detergent in
wash water affect the cleanliness of clothing?
Step 3 • How do different temperatures affect the growth of
seedlings?
• How does the amount of moisture affect the growth of
Step 4 mould on bread?
Notice how the causes—the detergent, temperature, and
moisture—are things that are changeable. For example,
Step 5 you can have different concentrations of detergent,
different temperatures, and different amounts of moisture.
Causes are manipulated or independent variables. They are
Step 6 factors that you change when you investigate a cause-and-
effect question.
The results are changeable, too. For example, some
clothes may become cleaner than others, or not clean at
Step 7 all. Some seedlings may grow better than others, or some
might not grow at all. Some bread samples may have lots
of mould, some may have less, and some might not have
any. Results are responding or dependent variables. They
change because of the manipulated variable.
When you ask a cause-and-effect question,
you should include only one manipulated
variable in your question. This allows you to
see the effect of that variable on the responding
variable.

Continued on next page ➝

Toolbox 2 435
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:05 PM Page 436

T OOLBOX 2

Step 2 Restate the question in the form of a • What materials and equipment will you need for the
hypothesis. experiment? For the seedling experiment, the materials
would include seedlings, soil, growing pots or
A hypothesis is a way of restating a cause-and-effect
containers (same size), water and a watering can, a light
question so that it gives a reasonable, possible answer.
source, a thermometer, and a ruler or other measuring
Basically, a hypothesis is an intelligent guess at the
device.
solution to a problem or question. It is usually in the form
of an “If ... then” statement and states the relationship • How will you conduct the experiment safely? For the
between the manipulated and responding variables. seedling experiment, some of the safety factors you
Here are hypotheses for the questions outlined in Step 1. should consider include putting the seedling pots in a
• If the concentration of the detergent is high, then place where they would not be disturbed, washing your
clothing will become cleaner. hands after handling the materials, and making sure you
don’t have any allergies to the soil or seedlings you use.
• If the temperature is decreased, then the seedlings will
not grow as well. • How will you record the data you collect? You could
divide your seedlings into groups (e.g., three seedlings
• If the amount of moisture is increased, then the bread
for each temperature) and grow each group at a certain
will get mouldier.
temperature. You would keep track of how much each
seedling in a group grew over a specified amount of
time (e.g., four weeks) and calculate the average for the
Hints group.
A hypothesis is an early step in the experiment-
planning process. Your hypothesis can turn out to
Step 4 Carry out the procedure and collect
be “right,” but it doesn’t always. That’s what
data.
the experiment is for—to test the hypothesis.
Depending on the kind of experiment you have planned,
you may choose to record the data you collect in the form
of a chart or table, a labelled sketch, notes, or a
combination of these. For example, a good way to record
Step 3 Develop a procedure to test the
the seedling data would be in tables like the one below
hypothesis fairly.
(one for each week of the experiment).
When you develop a procedure, you need to ask yourself
some questions. Here are some questions you should think
Week 1: Height of Seedlings Grown at Different Temperatures
about. These questions are answered for the seedling
example. Temperature Height of Height of Height of Average height
seedlings seedling 1 (cm) seedling 2 (cm) seedling 3 (cm) (cm)
• Which manipulated variable do you want to investigate? grown at (°C)
For the seedling experiment, the manipulated variable is 20
temperature.
15
• How will you measure this variable (if it is measurable)?
10
You can measure temperature with a thermometer.
• How will you keep all other variables constant (the
same) so they don’t affect your results? In other words,
Hints
how will you control your experiment so it is a fair test?
To control the seedling experiment, these variables Analyzing the data you collect is the only way you
should be kept constant: the amount of light the have to assess your hypothesis. It’s important that
seedlings receive; the amount and temperature of water your record keeping be organized and neat.
applied to the seedlings; the kind of soil the seedlings
are planted in.

436 Toolbox 2
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 437

T OOLBOX 2

If your data don’t support your hypothesis, there are

two possible reasons why.
• Perhaps your experimental plan was flawed and needs
to be re-assessed and possibly planned again.
• Perhaps your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be
re-assessed and modified.
For example, if the seedlings did not grow as well in cooler
temperatures, the hypothesis could be a good one. If the
seedlings grew better in the lower temperatures, you would
have to re-think your hypothesis, or look at your
experiment for flaws. Do certain seedlings grow better at
lower temperatures than others? Do different types of soil
have more of an effect on growth than temperature? These
are some of the questions that could be asked after doing
the seedling experiment. Every experiment is different and
will result in its own set of questions and conclusions.

Step 5 Analyze and interpret the data.

Scientists look for patterns and relationships in their data. Hints
Often, making a graph can help them see patterns and
relationships more easily. (Turn to Toolbox 7 for more • If you don’t have in-class time to repeat your
about graphing.) experiment several times, you could ask your
A graph of the seedling data would show you if there teacher about scheduling after-school time.
were a relationship between temperature and growth rate. • You could also enlist the help of your
classmates. If other scientists get the same
results, the conclusions are usually reliable. If
Hints not, the hypothesis must be modified.

If you have access to a computer, find out if it has

the software to help you make charts or graphs.

Step 7 Communicate the procedure and

results of the experiment.
Scientists always share the results of their experiments
Step 6 Form conclusions based on the data, with other people. They do this by summarizing how they
and compare them with the hypothesis. performed the first six steps. Sometimes, they will write
Usually, this is fairly straightforward. Either your data out a formal laboratory report stating their purpose,
will support your hypothesis or they won’t. Either way, hypothesis, procedure, observations, and conclusions.
however, you aren’t finished answering your cause-and- Other times, they share their experimental results verbally,
effect question. using drawings, charts, or graphs. (See Toolboxes 6, 7,
If your data support your hypothesis, you need to and 8 for hints on how to prepare your results.)
repeat your experiment several times to see if you get the When you have finished your experiment, ask your
same results over and over again. Doing your experiment teacher how he or she would like you to prepare your
successfully many times is the only way you and other results so you can share them with the other students in
scientists can have faith in your data and your conclusions. your class.

Toolbox 2 437
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 438

T OOLBOX 3

want a thrill, but you find that most people are not
T H E P R O B L E M S O LV I N G P R O C E S S comfortable crossing the bridge and don’t get to enjoy one
FOR TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT of the nicer areas of the park. You wish there were a way to
make the bridge more stable so more people would use it.
When you plan an experiment to answer a cause-and-effect
That is the situation or context of the problem.
question, you follow an orderly set of steps. The same is
true for designing a prototype that solves a practical
Step 2 Identify the specific problem to be
problem.
solved.
When people try to solve practical problems, they
When you understand a situation, you can then define the
usually follow a simple set of steps.
problem more exactly. This means identifying a specific
task to carry out. In the situation with the bridge, the task
Step 1
might be to build a new bridge or add support to the
existing bridge.
••••

Step 3 Identify criteria for a successful

Step 2
solution to a problem.
You have defined the problem and now you must look for
solutions. But how will you know when you have found the
••••

Step 3
best possible solution? Before you start looking for
solutions, you need to establish your criteria for
Identify criteria for a successful solution determining what a successful solution will be.
to a problem.
One of your criteria for success in the bridge example
•••

Step 4
would be the completion of a stable bridge. The criteria you
choose do not depend on which solution you select—
whether to reinforce the old bridge or build a new bridge.
In this case, whatever the solution, it must result in a
•••

Step 5
stable bridge.
When you are setting your criteria for success, you
must consider limits to your possible solutions. For
example, the bridge may have to be built within a certain
••••

Step 6
time, so rebuilding completely may not be possible. Other
limitations could include availability of materials, cost,
number of workers needed, and safety.
If you are building a product or device for yourself, you
•••

may set the criteria for success and the limitations

Step 7
yourself. In class, your teacher will usually outline them.
Communicate the procedure
and results of your design.

Hints
Always consider safety. This includes safe handling
Step 1 Recognize a human need.
and use of materials and equipment, as well as being
This involves recognizing what the problem is. For aware of possible environmental impacts of your ideas.
example, suppose you observe that a rope bridge across a Discuss with your teacher and fellow students how
ravine at a local park is very unstable and swings back and your solution might affect the environment.
forth when crossed. This might be fine for people who

438 Toolbox 3
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 439

T OOLBOX 3

Step 4 Generate a list of ideas, possible Step 6 Test, evaluate, and modify (if
solutions, materials, and equipment. necessary) the model or prototype.
Brainstorming, conducting research, or both, are key Testing lets you see how well your solution works. Testing
components of this step. When you brainstorm, remember also lets you know if you need to make modifications. Does
to relax and let your imagination go. Brainstorming is all it meet all the established criteria? Does it solve the
about generating as many ideas as possible without problem you designed it for?
judging them. Record your ideas in the form of words, Invite your classmates to try your product. Their
mind maps, sketches—whatever helps you best. feedback can help you decide what is and isn’t working,
Conducting research may involve reading books and and how to fix anything that needs fixing. Perhaps the
magazines, searching the Internet, interviewing people, or stabilizing wires on the bridge model could be anchored
visiting stores. It all depends on what you are going to elsewhere. Maybe more wires could be added.
design.
One idea for the rope bridge would be to anchor the
bridge with strong rope or thick metal wire to large rocks Hints
or to the hillside at either end of the bridge. Sketches and
For every successful invention or product, there
diagrams would help to generate different ideas for the
are thousands of unsuccessful ones. Sometimes it’s better
bridge design.
to start over from scratch than to follow a design that
doesn’t meet its performance criteria.
Hints Here’s an old saying you’ve probably heard: “If at first
Humans have been inventors for tens of thousands you don’t succeed, try, try again.” Remember, there can be
of years—so take advantage of what has already many possible solutions to a practical problem.
been developed. When you’re solving a problem, you
don’t have to “reinvent the wheel.” See how others
have solved the same problem before and use their
efforts as inspiration. You can also look for ways to Step 7 Communicate the procedure and
“build upon” or improve on their ideas. results of your design.
Inventors and engineers create things to meet people’s
needs. When they make something new, they like to show
Step 5 Plan and construct a working model it to other people and explain to them how it works.
or prototype. Sometimes they will use a carefully drawn diagram of the
Choose one possible solution to develop. Start by making a new device and write about how they performed the first
list of the materials and equipment you will use. Then make six steps. Other times, they will show the device to people
a working diagram, or series of diagrams, on paper. This and explain verbally how it works and how they built it.
lets you explore and troubleshoot your ideas early on. Your Your teacher will tell you how to prepare your results so
labels should be detailed enough so that other people you can exhibit the new device you make.
could build your design. Show your plans to your teacher
before you begin construction work.
A simple model of the bridge could be made to show
how and where components such as stabilizing wires
could be added.

Hints
If things aren’t working as you planned or imagined,
be prepared to modify your plans as you construct your
model or prototype.

Toolbox 31 439
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 440

T OOLBOX 4

THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS Step 1 Recognize the issue needing a

decision.
F O R S O C I A L A N D E N V I R O N M E N TA L This involves recognizing that an issue exists. An issue is a
ISSUES controversy that needs to be resolved. It may have more
than one possible solution, but the chosen one is usually the
People can have many different viewpoints or perspectives one that satisfies the most people. For example, suppose
about social and environmental issues. This usually means you and your friends want to have some trees in a public
that an issue has more than one possible solution. Scientific park cut down in order to make space for a playing field.
and technological information can be used to increase our Some members of your community feel that the trees should
understanding of an issue and help resolve it. be preserved for the birds that nest there. The local
When people try to make a decision or reach a environmental specialist says that when it rains, the trees
consensus about an issue, they need to use a decision protect a nearby stream by reducing run-off, so they should
making process. Here are the steps in one possible process. be left standing. Other people say that your idea of building
a playing field is too expensive.

Step 1 Step 2 Identify the viewpoints related to the

issue.
Recognize the issue needing a decision. The viewpoints expressed in the example in step 1 are
••••

recreational (you and your friends), ecological (people who

CHART
Step 2 wish to leave the trees as they are), and economic (people
who think that the cost would be too high).
Identify the viewpoints related to the issue. People often evaluate issues using one or more
••••

viewpoints. Some of these viewpoints are:

Step 3 • Cultural: interest in the customs and practices of a
particular group of people
Conduct research on the issue and the • Ecological: interest in the protection of the natural
different viewpoints.
environment
•••

Step 4 Change list of • Economic: interest in the financial aspects of the situation
alternatives if • Educational: interest in acquiring and sharing knowledge
Generate a list of alternative solutions. further research or and skills
other viewpoints • Esthetic: interest in the beauty in art and nature
suggest it.
•••

• Ethical: interest in beliefs about what is right and wrong

Step 5
• Health and safety: interest in physical and mental well-
being
Analyze the consequences for each alternative.
• Historical: interest in knowledge dealing with past events
Change any of the
••••

above steps if • Political: interest in the effect of the issue on

Step 6 governments, politicians, and political parties
necessary.
• Recreational: interest in leisure activities
Reflect and decide on the best course of action. • Scientific: interest in knowledge based on the inquiry
process of science (Toolbox 2)
•••

Step 7 Modify your • Social: interest in human relationships, public welfare, or

decision based on society
Communicate your findings. new information. • Technological: interest in the design and use of tools and
processes that solve practical problems to satisfy
peoples’ wants and needs (Toolbox 3)

440 Toolbox 4
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 441

T OOLBOX 4

Step 3 Conduct research on the issue and moderate (2), low (1), or none (0). Duration is considered
the different viewpoints. short term (S) if it is less than 50 years or long term (L) if
it is longer than 50 years. Ask how many people will
You will be able to suggest an appropriate solution to an
benefit from the alternative and how many will be affected
issue only if you understand the issue and the different
negatively. Make sure to consider health and safety.
viewpoints. It’s important to gather unbiased information
For the playing field example, you could analyze the
about the issue itself and then consider the information
consequences of each alternative solution in a table like the
provided by people with different viewpoints.
one shown below.
Develop specific questions that will help to guide your
research. Questions for the playing field issue might be: Analysis of Consequences: Alternative 1—
• How many people will use the playing field? Build the playing field in the park.
• Is there another more suitable site for the playing field? Consequence Importance Likelihood of Duration
• What kind of birds nest in these trees? Could they nest (3,2,1,0) occurrence (S,L)
elsewhere in the area? (3,2,1,0)
• What is run-off and why is it a problem? Trees cut 2 3 1

• What would be the full cost of building the playing field Run-off 3 3 S
(including the cost of removing the trees)? Birds move 2 to 1 3 1
Playing field well 2 2 possibly 1
Conducting research may involve interviewing people, used
reading books and magazines, searching the Internet, or Development 3
2 to 1 1
making a field trip. It is important to evaluate your sources and maintenance
of information to determine if there is a bias and to cost

separate fact from opinion. In this step, you are trying to

gain a better understanding of the background of the issue, Step 6 Reflect and decide on the best course
the viewpoints of different groups, the alternative solutions, of action.
and the consequences of each alternative. Evaluate your decision making process to ensure that each
step is completed as fully as possible. Consider the
Step 4 Generate a list of alternative consequences of the alternative solutions and how people
solutions. will respond to each one. Then decide on what you think is
the best course of action.
Examine the background of the issue and the viewpoints in
order to generate a list of alternative solutions.
Brainstorming can be a useful component of this step. Use Step 7 Communicate
your research to help guide your thinking. your findings.
Examples of possible alternatives for the issue in step 1 Communicate your findings in
might be as follows: an appropriate way. For
• Cut the trees and build the playing field. example, you may prepare a
• Leave the park as it is. written report, a verbal
• Find another more suitable location. presentation, or a position
• Modify the plan in the existing park. for a debate or a public
hearing role-play. Defend
Step 5 Analyze the consequences for each your position by clearly
alternative. stating your case and
presenting supporting
Decide how you will measure the risks and benefits for the
evidence from a
consequences of each alternative solution. You may decide
variety of sources.
to examine the importance, likelihood, and duration of each
possible consequence. The importance of the consequence
and the likelihood of its occurrence can be ranked high (3),

Toolbox 4 441
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 442

T OOLBOX 5

Volume
MEASUREMENT
The volume of something tells you the amount of space
Observations from an experiment may be qualitative that it takes up (occupies). Common units used to measure
(descriptive) or quantitative (physical measurements). volume include litres (L) and millilitres (mL). Remember,
Quantitative observations help us to describe such things 1 mL equals 1 cm3.
as how far away something is, how massive it is, and how At home, you often use a measuring cup to determine
much space it takes up. Here are some types of the volume of something. At school, you usually use a
measurements you might come across every day. graduated cylinder. Here, “graduated” means a container
that has been marked with regular intervals for measuring.
Length For example, a measuring cup, a beaker, and a
Length tells you thermometer are all graduated.
• how long or short something is
• how far or near something is
• how high or low something is
• how large or small something is
Common units used to measure length include millimetres
(mm), centimetres (cm), metres (m), and kilometres (km).
All these units are based on a single standard: the metre.

CHECK IT YOURSELF
Which length unit would you use for each of the
following? Why?
• the height of a table
• the depth of a lake
• the width of a dime
• the length of a skating rink
• the distance from Kitchener, Ontario, to Kamloops,
British Columbia
When you add a liquid to a graduated cylinder, the top of the
• the distance from Earth’s core to its surface
liquid is curved near the sides of the cylinder. This curve is
called a meniscus. To measure the liquid’s volume properly,
you need to observe the liquid’s surface from eye level so you
Hints can see the flat, bottom portion of the curve. Ignore the sides.
When you use a ruler, tape measure, or metre-
stick, always start from the 0 measurement point,
not the edge of the measuring tool. CHECK IT YOURSELF
1 Which of the following tools could you use to
measure volume? Why?
• a spoon
• a test tube
• a balance
2 How could you transform an empty can into a
volume measuring tool? Describe, step-by-step, how
When you use a measuring tool such as a ruler, look directly in you would do it.
line with the measurement point, not from an angle.

442 Toolbox 5
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 443

T OOLBOX 5

Mass and Weight A triple beam

In science, the mass of an object and its weight mean balance has a single
different things. The mass of something tells you the pan. You place the
amount of matter it has. The weight of an object is the object you are
measure of the force of gravity acting on it. We use mass measuring on the pan.
more often in science. Common units used to measure You adjust the masses
mass include grams (g) and kilograms (kg). on the beams until the
You usually measure mass with a balance. Your beam assembly is
classroom probably has an equal arm balance or a triple level. Then, you add up
beam balance like the ones shown here. the mass equivalent
The equal arm balance and triple beam balance values of the beam
basically work in the same way. You compare the mass of masses from the
the object you are measuring with standard or known scales on the beam.
masses (or their mass equivalent values on the triple You can use a
beam). spring scale to
measure weight, which
is the force of gravity
acting on an object.
A spring scale is
spring scale
sometimes called a
force meter. A spring
scale measures force in newtons.
A spring scale has three main parts: a hook, a spring,
and a measuring scale. The hook at the end is used to
attach the object to the scale. The spring pulls on the
object. As the spring pulls, the pointer moves along the
measuring scale.
equal arm balance
To measure the weight of an object, first hang the
An equal arm balance has two pans. You place the spring scale from a clamp on a retort stand. Then hang the
object whose mass you want to know on one pan. On the object from the hook of the spring scale. Once the pointer
other pan, you place standard (known) masses until the stops moving, record the measurement.
two pans are balanced (level). Then, you just add up the
values of the standard masses. The total is the mass of the
object you are measuring. CHECK IT YOURSELF
1 The object on the triple beam balance is a water-
filled beaker, so the balance is measuring the
mass of the water plus the mass of the beaker.
What if you wanted to measure just the mass of
the water in the beaker? Describe, step-by-step,
how you would do it.
2 How would you measure the mass of an apple?
How would this be similar to and different from
measuring the mass of a pile of salt?
triple beam balance

Continued on next page ➝

Toolbox 5 443
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 444

T OOLBOX 5

Estimating Sometimes, it’s useful to estimate the measurement of

When you estimate, you use your mind to guess the an object before you actually measure it. You might do this
length, volume, or mass of an object. Sometimes, you can to help you decide which units of measurement and which
estimate by comparing one object with another object that measuring tool to use. In other cases, you might not be
has known measurements. For example, if you are asked to able to measure an object at all. In this case, an estimate of
estimate the volume of your drink, you could estimate by its length, volume, or mass might be the best you can do.
comparing it with a large jar of mayonnaise in your fridge Try to estimate the measurements of the items listed
(which has its volume marked on the label). below. Include the measurement units that you think
should go with your estimates. Then, measure them to see
how close your estimates were to the real values. Did you
choose the correct measurement units? If you don’t have
some of these items in your classroom, check at home.

Object Length
estimate actual value
(cm) (cm)

pencil
height of your
teacher’s desk
length of your
classroom

Object Mass
estimate actual value
(g) (g)

this textbook
banana from
someone’s lunch
piece of chalk

For a large object or distance, you might divide it up Object Volume

into portions in your mind and guess the length, volume, estimate actual value
or mass of one portion. You then multiply that guess by (mL) (mL)
the number of imaginary portions to estimate the amount of water
measurement of the whole. poured into an
empty jar
marker cap
drink thermos

444 Toolbox 5
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 445

T OOLBOX 6

Tell readers why you did the work.

WRITING REPORTS
Use a heading such as “Introduction” or “Purpose” for this
Toolbox 2 shows you how to plan a science experiment. section. Here, you give your reasons for doing a particular
Toolbox 3 shows you how to do technological design, and experiment, designing and making a particular product, or
Toolbox 4 shows you how to use a decision making considering a specific issue. If you are writing about an
process for social and environmental issues. This toolbox experiment, tell readers what your cause-and-effect
will help you write a report so you can communicate the question is. If you designed a product, explain why this
procedure and results of your work. product is needed, what it will do, who might use it, and
Here is a list of things you should try to do when who might benefit from its use. If you were considering an
writing your science reports. issue, state what the issue is and why you have prepared
• Give your report or project a title. this report about it.
• Tell readers why you did the work.
• State your hypothesis or describe the design challenge.
State your hypothesis or describe the design
• List the materials and equipment you used.
challenge.
• Describe the steps you took when you did your
experiment, designed and made your product, or If you are writing about an experiment, use a heading such
considered an issue. as “Hypothesis.” Under this heading you will state your
• Show your experimental data, the results of testing your hypothesis. Your hypothesis must indicate the relationship
product, or the background information on the issue. between the manipulated and responding variable.
• Interpret and analyze the results of your experiment. Remember, your hypothesis is your guess at the solution
• Make conclusions based on the outcome of the to a problem or question. Your hypothesis makes a
experiment, the success of the product you designed, or prediction that your experiment will test.
the research you did on an issue. If you are writing about a product you designed, use a
heading such as “Design Challenge.” Under this heading,
you will describe why you decided to design your product
Give your report or project a title.
the way you did. Explain how and why you chose your
Write a brief title on the top of the first page of your report.
design over other possible designs.
Your title can be one or two words that describe a product
you designed and made, or it can be a short sentence that
Continued on next page ➝
summarizes an experiment you performed.

Toolbox 6 445
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 446

T OOLBOX 6

List the materials and equipment you used.

This section can come under a heading called “Materials
and Equipment.” List all the materials and equipment you
used for your experiment or design project. Your list can
be in point form or set up as a table or chart. Remember to
include the exact amounts of materials used, when
possible (for example, the number of nails used in building
a model or the volumes and masses of substances tested
in an experiment). Include the exact measurements and
proper units for all materials used.
Also include diagrams to show how you set up your
equipment or how you prepared your materials. Remember
to label the important features on your diagrams. (See
Toolbox 8 for drawing tips.)

Describe the steps you took when you did your Interpret and analyze the results of your
experiment, designed and made your product, experiment.
or researched an issue. Interpret and analyze the data you collected in your
Under a heading called “Procedure” or “Method,” describe, experiment. Calculations, graphs, diagrams, charts, or
in detail, the steps you followed when doing your other visual aids may be needed. (See Toolbox 7 for
experiment, designing and making your product, or graphing tips.) Explain any calculations or graphs that you
considering an issue. If you made a product, describe how used to help explain your results.
you tested it. If you had to alter your design, describe in
detail how you did this. Make conclusions based on the outcome of the
experiment, the success of the product you
Show your experimental data, the results of designed, or the research you did on an issue.
testing your product, or the background This last section of your report can be called
information on the issue. “Conclusions.” In one or two paragraphs, explain what
Give this section a heading such as “Data,” “Observations,” your tests and experiments showed, or what decision you
or “Background Information.” In this section, you should made as a result of your research.
show the data or information you collected while If you did an experiment, explain if your results were
performing the experiment, testing your product, or predicted by the hypothesis. Describe how you might
researching an issue. In reporting about an issue, use only adjust the hypothesis because of what you learned from
a summary of the essential information needed for a reader doing the experiment, and how you might test this new
to understand the issue and different viewpoints about it. hypothesis.
Use tables, diagrams, and any other visual aids that If you made a product, explain if your design did what
show the results of your tests. If you performed your it was supposed to do, or worked the way it was supposed
experiment a few times, give results for each trial. If you to work. If you changed the design of your product, explain
tested different designs of your product, give results for why one design is better than another.
each design. Describe the practical applications your product or
experiment might have for the world outside the
classroom.
If you considered an issue, explain why you made the
decision that you did. Briefly summarize the supporting
evidence for your decision. If necessary, explain how your
decision responds to different viewpoints on the issue.

446 Toolbox 6
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 447

T OOLBOX 7

EVIDENCE
GRAPHING Temperature of Water in Container A and Container B
Science and technology often involve collecting a lot of Time (s) Temperature (˚C) Temperature (˚C)
numerical data. This data may be recorded in tables or of water in of water in
Container A Container B
charts. Sometimes, however, it’s difficult to see if there are
0 51 0
any patterns in the numbers. That’s when it’s useful to 30 45 7
reorganize the data into graphs. Graphs help to interpret 60 38 14
data collected during an experiment. 90 33 20
120 30 22
A graph is similar to a picture or diagram that shows 150 29 23
more easily how numbers are related to one another. You 180 28 24
have probably drawn a lot of graphs over the years in your 210 27 25
studies of mathematics, geography, and, of course, science 240 26 26
270 26 26
and technology. 300 26 26

Creating Line Graphs

Line graphs are good for exploring data collected for many ANALYSIS
types of experiments. Using line graphs is a good way to Temperature of Water in Container A and Container B
analyze the data of an experiment that are continually
changing. For example, here are some data collected by a
group of students investigating temperature changes. They container A
poured hot water into a large container (container A) and
cold water into a smaller container (container B). After
recording the starting temperatures in each container, they
placed Container B inside Container A and took
measurements every 30 s until there were no more container B
temperature changes.
Here are the data they collected shown as a chart and
as a line graph. On the graph, they put the manipulated
variable—time—on the x-axis, and the responding
variable—temperature—on the y-axis.
CHECK IT YOURSELF
1 The axes are the two number lines that run horizontally
and vertically. Which is the x-axis and which is the
y-axis? Which axis is used for the manipulated
variable? Which is used for the responding variable?
2 Why would you use a sharp pencil and a ruler to draw
the axes and plot the graph lines?
3 How was the scale for each axis chosen?
4 How was each point on the graph plotted (placed on
the graph)?
5 Why were the graph lines drawn where they are?
6 Is there anything missing or anything else you would
add to this graph?

Continued on next page ➝

Toolbox 7 447
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 448

T OOLBOX 7

Creating Bar Graphs

Bar graphs are useful for showing relationships between
separate sets of data. For example, the chart below shows
the monthly average precipitation (both snow and rain) for
a city in Canada. Compare the data in this chart with how
they “look” when they are reorganized in the form of a bar
graph. On the graph, they put the manipulated variable—
month—on the x-axis, and the responding variable—
precipitation—on the y-axis.

Month Average
Precipitation (mm)
January 50.4
CHECK IT YOURSELF
February 46.0 1 Which axis is used for the manipulated
March 61.1 variable? Which is used for the responding
April 70.0 variable?
May 66.0 2 How was the scale for each axis chosen?
June 67.1
3 The yearly average precipitation for this city is
July 71.4
761.5 mm. How would you modify the bar
August 76.8
graph to include this additional information?
September 63.5
October 61.8
November 62.7
December 64.7
Creating Circle (Pie) Graphs
Average Precipitation A circle graph is useful when you want to display data that
are part of a whole. For example, in this circle graph, the
“whole” is Earth’s total land area. The “parts” are the
approximate percentages of land made up by each
continent.

Percentage of Earth’s Land Area

Hints
Scales for bar graphs are often rounded off
to the nearest whole number.

448 Toolbox 7
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 449

T OOLBOX 7

Hints Compare the data in this chart with how they “looked”
when they were organized in the form of a circle graph on
You might consider using a computer to the previous page. Which can you interpret more easily and
draw your circle graphs. Some computer more quickly?
drawing programs allow you to use different
colours for the different sections of your
Continent Percentage of
graph, making it easier to read.
Earth’s Land Area
Asia 30%
Africa 20%
North America 16%
South America 12%
Antarctica 10%
Europe 7%
Australia 5%

CHECK IT YOURSELF
1 How were the angles in the circle graph
determined? Use the Hints information
below if you would like some help to start.

Hints
• The angle at the centre of a circle is 360˚.
• To calculate the percentage for Antarctica, for
example, you need to determine what 10% of
360˚ is. 10% is the same as 10/100, which is
the same as 0.1. So 0.1 ⫻ 360˚ = 36˚.

2 How could you use this information to

hand-draw your own circle graph?

Toolbox 7 449
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 450

T OOLBOX 8

A Simple Sketch (Front View)

DIAGRAMS
Have you heard the saying, “a picture is worth a thousand
chimney
words”? In science, a picture can be worth even more. A splint
carefully done diagram can help you express your ideas,
record important information, and experiment with
designs.
Four types of diagrams you can use include: a Simple candle
Sketch, a Technical or Scientific Diagram, an Orthographic
(Perspective) Diagram, and a Computer-Assisted Diagram
box
(CAD). Examples of each type of diagram are shown. A
side view and a top view for a simple sketch are also
shown. These different views can be made for each type of
drawing. TOOLS OF THE TRADE
Practise making the four types of diagrams on your
You will need the following equipment for each type
own.
of diagram.
Hand-drawing tools
• a sharp pencil or mechanical pencil
• a pencil sharpener or extra leads
• an eraser
• a ruler
For simple diagrams
• blank, white paper
For technical and orthographic diagrams
• blank graph paper
For computer-assisted diagrams
• blank diskette
• access to computer and software

A Simple Sketch (Side View)

This photo shows the set-up of an experiment. Practise

drawing it using one or several of the diagram types
presented here. What labels would you include?
Would your labelling choices change depending Hints
on the style of diagram you make?
If you’re going to use your
diagram to help you design a
structure, include a top, side,
and front view.

450 Toolbox 8
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 451

T OOLBOX 8

A Technical Diagram

REMEMBER!
top view
• Give your diagram a title at the top of the page.
• Use the whole page for your diagram.
• Include only those details that are necessary, keep them
simple, and identify them by name.
• If you need labels, use lines, not arrows. Place your
labels in line with the feature being labelled, and use a
ruler to keep your lines straight.
• Don’t use colour or shading unless your teacher asks
you to.
• Include notes and ideas if the sketch is a design
for a structure or an invention.
front view side view

A Simple Sketch (Top View) Hints

You can use the squares of your graph paper to
make the scale of your orthographic diagram accurate.
For example, suppose that each square stood for 1 cm. If
what you’re drawing is 14 cm long, you would use
14 squares to represent its length.

A Computer-Assisted Diagram

An Orthographic (Perspective) Diagram

10
cm

cm
10 18
cm

Hints
Hints One advantage of using a computer is that
Use graph paper to help you with the details of your you can easily change your work. After saving
diagram if you don’t have a ruler handy. your original, practise making changes and
moving the image around.

Toolbox 8 451
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 452

T OOLBOX 9

VISUAL ORGANIZERS Concept Map

Many people find it helpful to view, share, gather, organize, Concept Map for Green Plants
and explore information in the form of pictures or
diagrams. You have probably learned and used several of
the techniques shown here. Try out the ones that are less
familiar to you. You may find that some help you open up
your thinking in new and creative ways.

Venn Diagram

Cats Dogs
Cats
and
hiss and meow Dogs snarl and bark
superb night animals superb sense of
furry
vision like to smell A concept map, or a mind map, is a kind of web diagram
play
more independent less independent with many uses. For example, you can use it to:
• review something you already know
• gather information about something you don’t know
• explore new ways of thinking about something
This is often used to compare two things. To use a • outline plans for an essay, a song, an experiment, a
Venn diagram, ask yourself questions such as: design challenge, a science project, and multimedia
• What things do I want to compare? presentations
• What do they have in common? To use a concept map, ask yourself questions such as:
• In what ways are they different? • What is the key idea, word, question, problem, or issue
to build the map around?
• What words, ideas, objects, or questions come to mind
Hints when I think about the item at the centre of my map?

You can use Venn diagrams to compare more

than two things. Try it and see!
Hints
If you have access to a computer, find out if it
has the software to help you make your visual
organizers.

452 Toolbox 9
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 453

T OOLBOX 9

Tree Diagram Note Taking Chart

A note taking chart helps you understand how the material
you are reading is organized. It also helps you keep track
of information as you read.
Your teacher will assign several pages for you to read.
Before you begin reading, look at each heading and turn it
into a question. Try to use “how,” “what,” or “why” to
begin each question. Write your questions in the left hand
column of your chart. Leave enough space between each
question so that you can record information from your
reading that answers your question.
For example, you may be assigned several pages about
the scientific meaning of work. These pages contain the
following headings:
Tree diagrams allow you to see how things originate or • The Meaning of Work
how larger things can be broken down into their smaller • Calculating Work
components. Tree diagrams also allow you to organize or • Energy and Work
group concepts and things. Knowing about the parts of
something helps you to better understand the concept or Here’s what a note taking chart might look like for this
thing you are studying. reading:

Comparison Matrix Questions from Answers from

Headings Reading
Characteristics
What is the meaning of – work is done when a
can needs can can
move food communicate breathe the word “work”? force acts on an
object to make the
goat X X X X
Things to Compare

object move
tree X – If there’s no
movement, no work is
rock
done
person X X X X – just trying to push
something isn’t
work—it’s only work
This is often used to compare the characteristics or
properties of a number of things. To use a comparison
if the object moves
matrix, ask yourself questions such as:
How do you calculate
• What things do I want to compare?
work?
• What characteristics will I choose to compare?
• How are the things I’m comparing similar and
how are they different? How are energy and
work related?

Hints
A comparison matrix can be useful for brainstorming.

Toolbox 9 453
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 454

T O O L B O X 10

• When you settle on an idea for your topic, write it down.

RESEARCHING TOPICS Try to explain it in a couple of sentences or a short
Research involves finding out something about a topic or paragraph. Do that for each of your two or three topic
subject. That means going to certain resources that will ideas.
give you accurate information. Information can be found • Have your teacher approve your topics. Now you’re
just about anywhere: from your home bookshelves to the ready to go!
public library, from asking experts to looking on the The next thing you have to do is settle on one topic.
Internet. Here are the steps you need to follow when you (Remember, you should start your research with two or
do your research. three topic ideas.) One way to help you decide is to
determine how easy it will be to find information on your
Choosing a Topic
topic.
In some situations your teacher may give you the topic to
• Use some of the resources listed on the next page to do
research. Other times, you will have to select one of your
your research.
own. If you have trouble coming up with a topic, try
• If you can’t easily find at least four references for a
brainstorming ideas either by yourself or with a group.
topic, consider dropping it and going on to the next
Remember, when you brainstorm, there are no right or
idea.
wrong answers, just “ideas.” Here are some brainstorming
suggestions to get you started:
• List two or three general topics about science that Hint
interest you. Sometimes topics are too broad in scope or
• For each topic, write down as many words or ideas that too general to make good research reports
relate to that topic. They don’t have to be directly (for example, “transportation” instead of just
connected to science. (Just spend a few minutes.) “bicycles”). Try rewriting your topic to narrow
• Share your list with others and ask them to suggest its focus.
other possibilities.
• Now you have to “filter” your idea list to find a topic to
research. In other words, go through your ideas until
If all the topics are easy to research, then you’ll need some
you find two or three that interest you. To help you
other criteria to help you decide.
narrow your idea list, try grouping similar words or
• Which of your topics interest you the most?
ideas, modifying what you’ve written, or even writing
• Which topic is not being researched by many students
down a new idea. Sometimes, too, working with other
in your class?
people will help to focus your thoughts.
• Which topics interest you the least? (Eliminate them.)

Which Topic Should I Choose? How Hard Will It Be to Find Information?

“How does product design “How do gears improve the How Camera Lenses How Mirrors Are Used in
help sell a product?” performance of a bicycle?” Are Manufactured Some Optical Devices

454 Toolbox 10
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 455

T O O L B O X 10

Once you’ve finally chosen your topic, you might want to Searching Tips
work with other students and your teacher to:
• finalize its wording Finding Information at Your Library
• make sure it matches the project or assignment you are Library computer catalogues are a fast way to find books
doing on the subjects you are researching. Most of these
electronic catalogues have four ways to search: subject,
Finding Information author, title, and key words. If you know the author or title
There are many resources that you can use to look up of a book, just type it in. Otherwise, use the subject and
information. Here is a suggested list. You’ll find some of key words searches to find books on your topic.
these resources:
• in your school
• in your community (such as your public library)
On-line Library Catalogue
• on the Internet
Choose one:
• in CD-ROM encyclopedias and databases Subject Author (last name, first name) Title (leave out A, An, The, etc.) Key Word

Resource ✓ Details Type of Materials:

Language:
Books Publication Date:

CD-ROMs Choose one type of numerical search:

Call Number ISBN
Community
Professionals or Experts
Encyclopedias
• If you’re doing a subject search, type in the main topic
Films you are researching. For example, if you’re searching for
Government Agencies information on solar energy, type in “solar energy.” If
(local, provincial, and there are no books on that topic, try again using a more
federal) general category, like “renewable resources,” or just
Internet Sites “energy.”

Journals • If you’re doing a key words search, type in any

combination of words that have to do with your topic.
Laser Disks
For the solar energy example, you could type in words
Library Catalogue such as: “renewable energy sun solar panels.” Using
Newspapers several key words will give you a more specific search.
Using only one or two key words, like “sun” and
Non-profit Organizations
“energy,” will give you a more general search.
Posters
Videos
Hint
The library may also have a way to search for magazine articles. This is
called a periodical search. It’s especially useful for searching for information
on events and/or discoveries that have taken place recently. Ask your librarian
how to do a periodical search.
Also, your library will probably have a reference section where all the
encyclopedias are kept. There you may find science and technology,
environmental, or even animal encyclopedias, as well as other reference books.

Continued on next page ➝

Toolbox 10 455
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 456

T O O L B O X 10

Web search results

1 - 10 of 478 results most relevant to solar energy > Canada
Finding Information on the Internet
Next 10 > | Hide Summaries | Sort by date | Ungroup results
On the Internet, you can use searching programs, called Contacting Any Company Inc. (Solar Energy Cell, Module,
search engines, to search the Internet on just about any and Off-Grid, renewable...
Any Company Inc. is a Canadian company based in ,
subject. To find a search engine, ask your teacher or click Alberta, which develops world class solar cells, solar modules,
and complete solar...
on the search icon found at the top of your Internet 100% Date: 7 Sep , Size 10.0K,
http://www.anycompany/contact/contactus.htm
browser. Here are some suggestions on how to search the Find similar pages | Grouped results from www.anycompany.com

Internet:
• Once you reach a search engine Web page, type in key
Before You Start!
words or phrases that have to do with your topic. For
Check with your teacher to find out what your school’s
solar energy, you could type in “solar energy,” “solar
policy is about acceptable use of the Internet. Remember
panels,” “renewable resources,” or any combination of
to follow this policy whenever you use the Internet at
these and other similar words.
school. Be aware as you use the Internet that some Web
sites may be strongly biased toward a specific point of
You are here: Home > Search view. If you are looking for scientific or technical
information, educational or government Web sites are
Search the Web: Advanced Search
solar energy generally reliable.

Automotive Computers Health

Business Education Internet
Careers Entertainment Kids & Family Recording Your Information Sources
Communications The Good Life News
Personal Finance An important part of researching a topic is keeping track of
Shopping
Sports where you obtain information. As you do your research,
Travel you are reading through or viewing a variety of different
What’s New
sources. Some may be in print, such as magazines and
books. Others may be electronic, such as Web sites and
CD ROMs. And others may be visual, such as videos and
photos. No matter what sources you use, you should keep
• The search engine will display a list of Web pages it has
track of them.
found that have these words or phrases somewhere in
With this information, you can easily go back and check
them. Click on any Web page on the list that looks
details. You can also use it to help you respond to any
interesting.
questions about the accuracy or completeness of your
• Quite often you will get a long list of possible Web
report. Your record of information sources should include
pages to look at. You may need to make your search
at least the following basic information:
more specific. This can be done by adding other key
• title or name of the source (e.g., if you read a chapter of
words to your search. For example, if you were looking
a book, you would write down the book’s title; for a Web
for solar energy examples in Canada and used the key
site, you would include the address)
word “solar energy,” you may want to do a second
• author’s name, if known
search of these results with the key word “Canada”
• publisher (e.g., for a Web site, this would be the name
added.
of person or organization who has put up the site)
• Don’t forget to record the addresses of any interesting
• date of publication
Web pages you find. Why not work with a friend? One
• pages consulted
person can record the addresses of Web pages while
the other person searches on the computer. Or you can When you prepare your report, your teacher may want you
save it as a bookmark. Your Internet browser allows you to list your information sources in a specific format. Check
to save Web pages for easy future access. Check with what this format will be before you begin your research so
your teacher or librarian to find out how to save and that you can collect the details you need to complete your
organize your bookmarks. reference list later. You may want to do your own research
on formats for such reference lists or bibliographies.

456 Toolbox 10
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 457

G L O S S A RY

A capillary action movement of liquid up a narrow

abiotic refers to the non-living things in an tube; happens when attraction of liquid particles
ecosystem to each other is less than their attraction to the
active transport the process in which large walls of the tube
particles cross the cell membrane; active carbon cycle the circulation and recycling of
transport requires energy carbon in nature
adaptation a change in an organism that makes it carnivore animal that feeds on other animals or
suited to a particular environment animal parts
aesthetics the pleasing appearance or effect that cellular respiration the process in which cells
an object has because of its design break down sugar particles into carbon dioxide,
arch curved structure used in bridges and water, and energy
gateways Cenozoic era 65 millions of years ago to present
arch bridge bridge supported by an arch or a day
series of arches central heating system method of transferring
ash fine, burnt particles from a volcanic eruption thermal energy from a single, central source
through a network of pipes, ducts, and vents
B centre of gravity imaginary point in an object
basic needs the needs of water, energy, food, where the downward force of gravity acts; for
oxygen, and suitable living conditions of all example, point at which a ruler is balanced on
living things your finger
beam flat structure supported at both ends chemical fertilizer a nutrient mix made from
chemicals
beam bridge bridge supported by a beam or
several beams chemical weathering when water in the air
combines with chemical substances in the air
bedrock layer of solid rock beneath the loose
rock fragments chlorophyll the green pigment in the
chloroplasts that captures the sun’s energy for
biodiversity the number of different species in an
photosynthesis
environment
chloroplasts the structures in plant cells that
bioinvasion accidental or planned introduction
carry out photosynthesis
of a non-native species into a community
classifying grouping of objects or events that
biological control a technology for controlling
have the same characteristics
pests in which the natural predators of the pest
are introduced into an environment to reduce cleavage the split of a mineral into two smooth
their population size surfaces
biological weathering wearing away of rocks by climax community generally stable community
living things that has a wide range of species; the temporary
end of succession
biotic refers to the living things in an ecosystem
cogeneration technology of producing two or
boiling point temperature at which a substance
more forms of energy from a single energy
changes from liquid state to gas state
generator
boundary edge or location where plates meet
colour property used to classify and identify
C rocks and minerals
column solid, upright support structure in the
cantilever structure that is supported at only one
shape of a cylinder
end or point; for example, as found in a
cantilever bridge, such as Stoney Trail Bridge

Glossary 457
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 458

commensalism the relationship where one D

species benefits, and the other species neither decomposer living thing that breaks down dead
benefits nor is harmed animals and plants or animal and plant wastes
community all populations of different species deformation a change of shape in any structural
living and interacting in the same place component, or in the structure itself, because the
competition involves more than one living thing material is unable to resist the force acting on it;
trying to reach the same goal for example the shape of an empty can
complementary forces two or more forces acting deposition process of eroded materials being laid
on an object at the same time down or deposited by wind, water, and ice
compression force that acts to squeeze an object diffusion the movement of particles from an area
or push parts within an object together of high concentration to an area with a low
concentration the number of particles of one concentration
substance in a certain volume of another diverging boundary edge or location where the
substance continental plates are moving apart
condensation change of state from gas to liquid DNA the genetic material of living organisms;
by removing heat energy DNA is an acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid
conduction flow of energy between substances dynamic load moving or changing force acting
that are in contact on an object; for example, downward force of
conductor material that allows heat energy or cars moving over a bridge
electricity to flow easily
consumer living thing that relies on other living E
things for food earthquakes tremblings or vibrations of the
continental drift Alfred Wegener’s hypothesis, ground, caused by the sudden release of energy
now accepted, of the movement of continental that has slowly been building up in Earth’s crust
land masses; at one time all continents were ecological footprint a measurement of the
joined together in a single land mass, called amount of materials and energy each person uses
Pangaea every day
contract decrease in volume; matter contracts ecosystem a place on earth where living things
when heat energy is removed interact with other living and non-living things
convection flow of heat energy that involves endangered describes a species that is so rare
moving liquid or gas particles that it is in danger of disappearing, or becoming
convection current pattern of moving liquid or extinct
gas particles when heat energy is transferred to a environmental management the process of
substance balancing the needs of humans with the needs of
converging boundaries edge or location where the environment
continental plates come together epicentre point on the surface directly above the
corrugation forming a material into wave-like focus
ridges or folds; for example, as found in eras geologic time intervals; based on the
corrugated cardboard sequence of rock strata and the different life
crop rotation the practice of planting a different forms
crop in a particular field each year erosion the process that moves soil from one
crust layer that covers the surface of Earth where place to another
all living things are found expand increase in volume; matter expands
cutting a cut piece of a plant that is used to when heat energy is added
reproduce that plant; cuttings usually have a part exploration drilling holes to verify an ore body’s
of the stem and a few leaves existence
cycle circulation of matter in nature; repeating
pattern of growth or actions

458 Glossary
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 459

external force force applied to an object by G

something else; for example, a person sitting on a gas exchange the process by which carbon
chair dioxide and oxygen move in and out of the plant
extinct describes a species that no longer exists gene tiny piece of material in a cell’s nucleus;
anywhere on Earth each gene in a cell is responsible for the
extrusive rock igneous rock that was formed inheritance of certain traits or characteristics
from lava cooling on Earth’s surface genetic engineering process in which single
genes are added to a plant’s genetic material
F
geochemical prospecting making chemical
faults large cracks in the rock; most mountains analysis of samples taken from the environment
were created by a combination of folding and geologists scientists who study the interior and
faulting surface of Earth
flexibility the ability of a material to be bent geophysical prospecting using sensitive
under force repeatedly and not fail; for example, instruments to detect mineral deposits hidden
a foam cushion has flexibility deep underground
fluvial landforms landforms created by running geothermal activity water that is heated by hot
water magma a few kilometres below the surface;
focus first place that the rocks break below the produces hot springs and geysers
surface in an earthquake geothermal energy thermal energy remaining
folds bends in rock layers; most mountains were deep inside Earth
created by a combination of folding and faulting girders long structure in the form of a hollow
food chain pathway of energy flow from one rectangular prism (also known as a box beam)
living thing to another in an ecosystem glacier moving mass of ice and snow
food web link-up of all possible food chains in GMO an organism whose traits have been
an ecosystem changed by changing its DNA; GMO is an
force a push or pull that tends to cause an object acronym for genetically modified organism
to change its movement or shape; force is grafting a technology to reproduce plants that
measured in newtons; an example of force would involves attaching part of one plant to a second
be pushing a scooter plant
forced-air heating type of central heating system
in which air, heated by burning fuel in a furnace, H
travels through ducts to registers in different hardness measure of a mineral’s hardness
rooms according to Mohs scale of hardness; harder
fossils traces of once-living things that are mineral leaves a scratch on the softer one
preserved in rocks heat energy energy that flows from matter at a
fracture mineral breakage into rough and uneven higher temperature to matter at a lower
surface temperature
frame structure structure consisting of a rigid heating system method of providing and
arrangement of parts joined together; for controlling thermal energy in indoor
example, a skeleton environments
freezing point temperature at which a substance herbicide a chemical that kills unwanted plants
changes from liquid state to solid state herbivore animal that feeds on plants or plant-
friction the force that results when the surface of like living things
one object moves against the surface of another hot-water heating type of central heating system
object; for example, force of your running shoe in which water, heated by burning fuel in a
rubbing on the gym floor furnace, is pumped through a network of pipes
function the use or purpose of a structure; for leading to radiators
example, the function of a thermos is to keep a
drink cool on a hot day

Glossary 459
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 460

humus partly decomposed material from plants L

and animals that once were living lamination process of gluing layers of material
hydroponics a technology for growing plants in together to create a strong bond; for example, as
which the plant roots are placed in a nutrient found in plywood
solution instead of soil landslides sudden and fast movements of rocks
and soil down a slope
I
lava molten rock that flows out of a volcano
I-beam beam that has a cross-section in the shape life cycle the stages that an organism passes
of an I; for example, some types of curtain rod through in going from one generation to the next
igneous rocks rocks that form from hot, molten lithification process of loose sediments turning
rock to stone
index fossils fossils used to identify a particular lithosphere upper part of the mantle that
time period or era includes the crust
infrared waves waves of radiant energy that living resources those living things that can be
transfer heat energy used to meet human needs
inner core the central layer of Earth believed to load external force acting on an object; load can
be solid with a temperature about 7000°C; about be measured as weight
1250 km thick
local heating system method of providing
insulator material that does not allow heat thermal energy for one small area only
energy or electricity to flow easily
lustre the way the surface of a mineral looks in
Interior Plain a wedge-shaped area of land the light
extending from the Canadian Shield to the Rocky
Mountains; most of Alberta, and part of M
Saskatchewan and Manitoba, lies in this area
magma molten rock inside Earth
internal force force that one part of a structure
managed living resource a living resource that is
exerts on other parts within the same structure;
being used by humans to meet our needs
for example, tension on a stretched elastic
mantle first layer that makes up the interior of
intrusive rock igneous rock formed from magma
Earth; about 2900 km thick
that cooled and hardened beneath the surface
margin of safety the limits within which the
irrigation the practice of applying water to crops
safety aspects of a structure are considered to be
island succession formation of a new community acceptable; for example, a road sign stating 50
on newly created land km/h
mass amount of matter in an object (usually
J
measured in grams and kilograms)
joint the place at which two or more components
mechanical weathering when rock is broken
of a structure are joined together; joints may be
apart by physical forces, such as water or wind
fixed or movable; for example, a hinge
melting point temperature at which a substance
joule unit for measuring energy; it takes 4.18 J to
changes from solid state to liquid state
raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C
Mesozoic era 225 to 65 millions of years ago
K metamorphic rocks rocks that have been
changed because of intense pressure and heat
kinetic energy energy of movement; particles that
within Earth’s interior
make up matter have kinetic energy
mineral particles particles in soil that come from
rock that has been broken down
minerals pure, naturally occurring solid
materials that are the building blocks of rock; all
rocks are made of minerals

460 Glossary
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 461

model idea of something that can’t be fully ovule the female part of a seed plant that joins
known or seen; a way of demonstrating an object with the male part to produce a seed; ovules are
or a concept that is difficult to picture in its real usually found inside an ovary
form
Mohs scale of hardness ten minerals ranked in P
order of hardness paleontologists scientists who study early life
monoculture the practice of growing only one forms from animal and plant fossils
type of crop in a large area Paleozoic era 600 to 225 millions of years ago
mountain part of Earth’s surface that is much parasitism the relationship where one species
taller than the land around it benefits and the other species is harmed
mountain building process of creating mountains particle model of matter model that explains the
mountain range series of mountains behaviour of solids, liquids, and gases; it states
mutualism the relationship where both species that all matter is made up of tiny moving
benefit particles that attract each other and have spaces
between them
N performance requirements conditions that a
native plant a plant that occurs naturally in an structure, once it is built and in operation, must
environment; non-native plants were brought to meet to show it is performing to certain
an environment by humans standards
natural living resource a living resource that has pesticide chemicals that are poisonous to insects
not been changed by humans and takes care of photosynthesis process by which plants use light
itself energy, carbon dioxide, and water to make their
newton unit for measuring force; 1 N equals the own food
amount of force needed to hold up a mass of 100 pioneer species first species to be established in
g (1 N = 100 g) a certain habitat
nutrient component of food that supplies energy plates continental and oceanic crust
or building material to a living thing ploughing the practice of cutting into soil and
turning its top layer over
O pollen the male part of a seed plant that unites
offspring the products of reproduction; i.e., the with the female part to produce a seed; pollen is
individuals produced by parents produced by either flowers or male cones
omnivore animal that feeds on both animals and pollination the process in which male and
plants female parts of a plant join to produce a seed
organic fertilizer a mixture of nutrients prepared pollinator an organism that carries pollen from
from natural sources such as animal or plant one flower to another
waste population all individuals of one species living
organic particles particles in soil that come from in a certain place at the same time
plants and animals that have died: humus is pores tiny openings in the cell membrane of
composed of organic particles plant cells; allows certain substances to move in
organism(s) living thing and out of the cell
osmosis in cells, the movement of water across Precambrian era 4600 to 600 millions of years
the cell membrane ago
outer core liquid section of the central layers of Precambrian Shield rock formation formed
Earth; about 2200 km thick between 544 and 4500 million years ago;
ovary a protective structure on a seed plant that underlies all of Alberta, though it is only exposed
contains the ovule; ovaries are often in the centre in the northeast corner of the province
of a flower or on a female cone predation animal that gets its food by killing and
eating other organisms

Glossary 461
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 462

prey organism that is hunted by predators seed plants those plants that make seeds
primary succession formation of a new seismic waves shock waves caused by an
community in what was once a barren habitat earthquake
producer living thing at the beginning of a food seismogram printout of a seismograph
chain capable of making its own food seismograph device that detects the waves of
properties features that a material or object has energy that spread through the earth from the
focus of an earthquake
R selective breeding a technology for producing
radiant energy energy transferred from a heat new varieties of an organism that involves
source by waves choosing parents with desired traits in order to
radiation flow of energy in the form of invisible produce offspring with these traits
waves shear force that acts to push parts that are in
refrigerant liquid that evaporates at a very low contact with each other in opposite directions;
temperature, used in a refrigerator for example, scissors cutting paper create a shear
remote sensing mapping of Earth’s surface from force
aircraft or orbiting satellites shell structure structure with a solid outer
rhizomes stems that grow underground stems surface (which may be rounded or flat in shape)
and produce new plants and a hollow inner area; for example, a styrofoam
Richter scale scale developed by Charles Richter cup
that measures the magnitude of an earthquake; soil earth material composed of rock particles
scale starts at 0, and each increase of 1 means an and decaying organic matter
increase of 10 times the amount of ground solar array arrangement of solar cells in panels
motion that are connected, and then positioned to
ridges mountain chains that rise from the ocean capture and store the sun’s energy in low-voltage
floor batteries
rock cycle process by which rock is changed solid structure structure made of a solid piece (or
from one class to another solid combination of pieces) of strong material;
runners long stems that grow along the soil of for example, a cement pad
the surface and produce new plants species living things of the same kind that are
R-value number that indicates the ability of an able to reproduce
insulating material to stop or limit transfer of static load weight of a structure; for example,
heat energy weight of a bridge
strata layers formed by sediment over millions of
S years
scavenger organism that feeds off the remains of streak colour of the powder that a mineral leaves
dead animals that are killed by other consumers behind when you rub it across a rough surface
secondary succession formation of a new structural failure breakdown of a structure due
community in a destroyed or greatly changed to the external and internal forces acting on it;
community for example, collapse of a bridge
sediment silt, sand, mud, and gravel carried by structural fatigue weakening of a structure due to
flowing rivers the external and internal forces acting on it
sedimentary rocks layers of rock that form when structural stability the ability of a structure to
small pieces of rock are carried by water or wind maintain its position even when it is being acted
and settle or sink down in water onto the rocks on by forces; being balanced, difficult to topple
below them over
sedimentation process of sediments being structural strength the capacity of a structure to
deposited on surface features support both the load of its own materials plus
any additional load applied to it

462 Glossary
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 463

structural stress occurs when external and threatened describes a species whose numbers are
internal forces act on a structure and gradually declining
weaken it trait a characteristic of an organism
structure any object that provides support; a transform boundary edge or location where
structure may be made up of one or more parts, continental plates slide along beside each other;
and it may be large or small; for example, a chair earthquakes are caused when plates bind
is a structure transpiration the plant process that pulls the
subduction collision between the oceanic and water up from the roots
continental plates where the dense, heavy ocean trenches deep valleys on the ocean floor
plate slides below the lighter continental plate truss framework of beams that form triangles; for
succession a predictable pattern of change in the example, your force pulling an elastic
make-up of an ecosystem truss bridge bridge supported by trusses
suckers new plants that are produced from the
roots of the parent plant U
surveyor’s level device that measures minute unintended consequences results of an action that
changes in the angle of the ground’s slope were not predicted or planned
suspension bridge bridge having its roadway
hung from large cables supported between tall V
towers variety a group of organisms of the same species
sustainable can be maintained or continued; that has specific characteristics that can
capable of being used indefinitely, often referring distinguish it from other varieties of that species
to the use of resources vegetative reproduction reproduction of seed
symbiosis the relationship between species where plants that does not involve the production of
at least one species benefits seeds
symmetry balanced arrangement of mass on volcano opening in Earth’s crust through which
opposite sides of a line or plane, or around a solid and molten rock, ash, and gases escape
centre or axis volume amount of space occupied by matter;
millilitres (mL) and litres (L) are common units of
T volume
temperature a measurement of the average kinetic
energy of the particles in a substance W
tension force that stretches and pulls apart an water cycle the natural circulation of water from
object; for example, your force pulling an elastic the surface of Earth to the atmosphere and back to
Theory of Plate Tectonics the idea that the the surface again
continental crust is broken up into large areas weathering process that wears down rocks and
called plates; all plates are moving very slowly in other objects
various directions weight the amount of force that gravity exerts on
thermal conductivity ability of a material to an object on earth
transfer heat by conduction wind air in motion
thermal energy total kinetic energy of the
particles in a substance Y
thermal expansion expansion of a substance yield the amount of useful plant material
caused by an increase in thermal energy produced per plant, or per area planted in a
thermostat device to control temperature; it particular crop
automatically switches a heating or cooling
system on or off according to the temperature
setting

Glossary 463
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 464

I NDEX

A seismologist, 373 cuttings, 115

abiotic factors, 9, 10, 39, 44 syrup producer, 132 cycle of matter, 45
active transport, 106 volcanologist, 373
adobe, 277 winter sportswear designer, 188
D
aesthetics, 274 carnivores, see consumers
decomposers, see consumers
Albertosaurus, 418 cast, 413
deposition, 363
amphibian die-offs, 76 cell membrane, 106, 107
diffusion, 106
anticline, 405 cell wall, 106
concentration, 106
arches, 330 cellular respiration, 30, 104
dinosaurs, 426
argon, 216 Celsius, 200
dumps, 21
ash, 360 centre of gravity, 286
chlorine, 197
chloroplast, 104, 106 E
B
classifying rocks, 381 E. coli, 32
bedrock, 366
clay soil, 141 Earth’s interior
biodiversity, 164
clearcutting, 84 crust, 355, 356
biological control, 162
climax community, 63 inner core, 355
biotic factors, 9, 10, 39
coal, 240 mantle, 355
boundary, 398
coal deposits, 393 outer core, 355
boundaries converging, 399, 400
cogeneration, 248 earthquakes, 357, 358, 359, 397
diverging, 399
combination structures, 268 ecological footprint, 78, 82
transform, 400
commensalism, see symbiotic ecosystem, 4, 9, 15
bridges relationships changes in, 56
arch, 291 community, 11 bioinvasion, 56
beam, 290 compression, see force, internal competition, 56, 57
suspension, 291 conduction, 209, 233 predation, 56, 60
truss, 290 conductor, 211 weather, 56, 60
bulbs, 114 cones, 101 energy flow, 36, 38
Burgess Shale Fossil Beds, 417 conifers, 111 human impacts on, 20, 67, 69
consumers pioneer species, 62
C carnivores, 28, 38, 39 succession, 62
decomposers, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, endangered species, 69
calcite, 370
42
caloric theory, 181 energy source options, 244
herbivores, 28, 38, 39
Candida albicans, 32 energy users, 246
scavengers, 31, 38
capillary action, 103 home, 246
continental crust, 399, 400
carbon cycle, 45 industry, 248
drift, 393, 401
carbon fibres, 332 transportation, 247
contraction, 205, 206
career profiles environment, sustained
convection, 213, 216, 231 management
architect, 322
currents, 213, 216 of, 166
building inspector, 333
corms, 114 epicenter, 359
ethnobotanist, 47
corrugation, 330 eras, 419
geologist, 390
COSEWIC, 74 Cenozoic, 421
naturalist, 47
crop rotation, 147, 148 Mesozoic, 421
plant pathologist, 159
culture, 182 Paleozoic, 421
roller-coaster designer, 333
Precambrian, 421

464 Index
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 465

erosion, 129, 363 G human structure

wind, 363 gas exchange, 107 frame structure, 319
evaluating designs, 334 genes, 158 bones, 319
expansion, 205, 206 genetic engineering, 158, 159 cartilage, 319
extinct species, 69 genetically modified organisms, ligaments, 319
Extravehicular Mobility Unit, 177 168 joints, 320
geologic time scale, 421 muscles, 320
geological columns, 415 skin, 321
F
geologists, 354, 358, 361, 413 tendons, 320
Fahrenheit, 200
geology tools humus, 141
fastening, method of, 332
exploration, 384 hybrid power, 245
faults, 405, 408
geochemical prospecting, 384 hydro-electric power, 242
feldspar, 370
geophysical prospecting, 384 hydroponic system, 155
fertilizers, 144, 146
remote sensing, 384
chemical, 146
geothermal activity, 397
organic, 146 I
energy, 223
fiberglass, 332 index fossils, 414
glacial deposits, 393
flowers, 101 infrared waves, 217
glacier, 366
fluvial landforms, 365 insulation, 233
Glossopteris fossils, 393
focus, 358 insulators, 211, 216
grafting, 115
folded mountains, 393 Interior Plain, 387
grains, 369, 377
folds, 405 International Space Station (ISS),
green living, 252
food chain, 35, 42 176
greenhouses, 155
web, 39, 42 irrigation, 145
growth chamber, 170
force, 264, 281
direction, 281
J
external, 285 H
joints, 313, 315, 318, 320
internal, 296 heat, 182, 183, 198, 199, 200, 203
bonding of, 315
compression, 297 effect of, 203
fixed, 315
shear, 297 energy, 191, 198
movable, 315
tension, 297 loss, 234
joule, 182
location, 281 transfers, 209, 212, 216, 217
magnitude, 281 conduction, 209
forces, complementary, 298 convection, 213 K
fossil, 410, 411, 412, 413, 415, 422, radiation, 217 kinetic energy, 193, 194, 198, 199,
423 heating systems, 230 200, 217, 231
fuel, 228, 240, 380 central, 230 krypton, 216
environmental costs, 241 forced-air heating, 230, 231
societal costs, 241 hot-water heating, 230, 231
L
records, 415, 419 local, 230
lamination, 330
Frank Lake, 5 heating technology, 184, 185
landfills, 23
friction, 313, 314 herbicides, 161
landslides, 365
herbivores, see consumers
lava, 360, 378
hornblende, 370
leaves, 101
life cycle, 109

Index 465
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 466

lithosphere, 355 hardness, 372 photosynthesis, 29, 30, 104

living resources, 133 luster, 371 plants
managed, 133 streak, 371 adaptations, 118
natural, 133 model, 353 needs of, 122
living things, basic needs of, 12, 13 Mohs scale of hardness, 372 selective breeding, 156, 158
load, 288 monoculture, 164 structure, 101
dead, 289 mountain, 402 uses of, 131, 132
dynamic, 289 building, 402 yields, 151, 154
live, 289 range, 402 plates, 398, 399, 404, 405, 407
static, 288 mutualism, see symbiotic plowing, 147
loam soil, 142 relationships pollen, 111
pollination, 111
pollinators, 111
M N
population, 11
magma, 360, 378, 385, 397 native plants, 135
pores, 106
mass, 285 natural gas, 240
Precambrian Shield, 387
materials newton, 284
predators, 164
commercial properties nitrogen oxides, 247
prey, 60
aesthetics, 309 nuclear energy, 242
producers, 28, 29
availability, 309 fission, 242
cost, 309 nucleus, 106
consumer demand, 309 nutrients, 12, 42 Q
disposal of waste, 309 quartz, 370
effect on environment, 309
O
physical
oceanic crust, 399 R
brittleness, 309
organic particles, 141 radiant energy, 217, 220
compression, 309
organism, 19, 129 radiation, 217
ductility, 309
adaptation, 19 recycling, 23
hardness, 309
osmosis, 103, 107 refrigerant, 232
plasticity, 309
ovary, 111 reservoirs, 242
resistance to heat, 309
overburden, 387 resources, non-renewable, 239,
resistance to water, 309
ovule, 111 240, 242
tensile strength, 309
oxygen, 30 renewable, 239, 242
matter
rhizomes, 114
gas state, 194
Richter scale, 359
liquid state, 194 P
ridges, 397, 398
solid state, 194 paleontologists, 412, 413
rock cycle, 386
melting point, 192 Pangaea, 393
rocks
mercury, 197 parasitism, see symbiotic
extrusive, 378
mica, 370 relationships
igneous, 377, 378, 380, 385
mineral particles, 141 particle model of matter, 193, 196,
205 intrusive, 378
minerals, 369
Pemberton potatoes, 71 metamorphic, 377, 380
properties of,
peregrine falcon, 74 sedimentary, 377, 379, 380, 385,
cleavage, 371 387, 405, 416
colour, 371 pesticides, 161
fracture, 371 petroleum, 240

466 Index
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 467

roots, 101, 103 strength, 264 trace fossil, 413

runners, 114 stress, 303 traits, 158
R-value, 234 structures, 264 transpiration, 103
aesthetics, 274, 275 tree structure materials, 321
characteristics, 273 bark, 321
S
deformation, 310 heartwood, 321
sanitary landfills, 23
flexibility, 310 phloem, 321
scavengers, see consumers
frame, 265, 266 sapwood, 321
sediment, 377, 379, 380, 385, 387,
function, 269 vascular cambium, 321
405, 416
function and design, 270, 272 trenches, 397, 398, 399
sedimentation, 365
human built, 276 trusses, 330
seed plants, 99
load performance requirements, tubers, 114
life cycle, 110
294 Tyrannosaurus rex, 417
seeds, 101
margin of safety, 325
seismic waves, 358
shell, 265, 267
seismogram, 361 U
solid, 265, 266
shear, see force, internal unintended consequence, 163, 164,
stiffness of, 303
soil, 139, 144, 145, 147, 386 166
strength of, 303
clay, 141 uranium, 242
succession, primary, 63
loam, 142
secondary, 63
sandy, 141
suckers, 114 V
solar array, 228
sulfur, 197 variety, 158
energy, 224, 227, 228
surveyor’s level, 361 vegetative reproduction, 114
costs and benefits, 228
symbiosis, 16 volcanoes, 357, 360
heating, active, 226
symbiotic relationships
passive, 225
commensalisms, 16
species, 11, 158 W
mutualism, 16, 17
stems, 101, 103 water, boiling point, 192
parasitism, 16, 17
strata, 414 condensation, 192
symmetry, 287
structural components, 302 cycle, 45
syncline, 405
arch, 302 freezing point, 192
beam, 302 weathering, 363
cantilever, 303 T biological, 364
column, 303 temperature, 198, 199, 200 chemical, 364
girders, 302 tension, see force, internal incremental, 363
I-beam, 302 theory of plate tectonics, 398, 407 mechanical, 363
joining, 313 thermal conductivity, 233 weeds, 161
truss, 303 efficiency, 225 wetland, 5
structural designs, factors affecting energy, 198, 200, 222, 223, 224, wind energy, 241
climatic conditions, 326 232
earthquake risks, 327 energy, alternatives, 241
terrain conditions, 327 expansion, 205
structural failure, 303 thermogram, 234
fatigue, 303 thermometer, 200, 202
safety, 326 thermostat, 229, 230, 231
stability, 264, 306 threatened species, 69

Index 467
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 468

PHOTO CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The publisher wishes to thank the following sources for photographs,
illustrations, and other materials used in this book. Care has been taken to
determine and locate ownership of copyright material used in this text. We will
gladly receive information enabling us to rectify any errors or omissions in
credits.

Photography
Cover Corel Stock Photo Library/Unit Opener pp. 2-3 Gary Vestal, Tony Stone
Images/ p. 4 Victoria Hurst, First Light/ p. 5 Ducks Unlimited Canada/ p. 6 Ducks
Unlimited Canada/ p. 7 (bottom left) Brian Milne, First Light/ p. 7 (bottom right)
G. Black, First Light/ p. 8 David Sieren, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 9 (top right) Corel
Stock Photo Library/ p. 9 (centre) Trevor Bonderud, First Light/ p. 10 Jean L.
Bruneau, Valan Photos/ p. 11 (top left) Ivy Images; (top right) PhotoDisc, Inc.; (all
bottom ) Parks Canada/Banff National Park/ p. 11 (bottom centre) / p. 11 (bottom
right)/ p. 12 (top) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 12 (centre) Ian Tomlinson,
Spectrum Stock/Ivy Images/ p. 12 (bottom) Ray Boudreau/ p. 13 (top centre)
Kennan Harvey, Tony Stone Images/ p. 13 (bottom, left and right) Corel Stock
Photo Library/ p. 14 AP/Wide World Photos/p. 15 Bill Ivy, Ivy Images/ p. 16 (top)
Andrew Syred/Tony Stone Images/ p. 16 (bottom) R.F. Ashley, Visuals Unlimited/
p. 17 (top) G. Soury/Jacana Publiphoto/ p. 17 (bottom) Grambo, First Light/p. 19
(bottom left) Science Vu, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 19 (bottom centre) D. Cavagnaro,
Visuals Unlimited/ p. 19 (bottom right) Greg Gorel, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 21 V.
Wilkinson, Valan Photos/ p. 22 Ray Boudreau/ p. 23 (top right) J. A. Wilkinson,
Valan Photos/ p. 23 (bottom left) S. C. Delaney, US Environmental Protection
Agency/ p. 24 Dan Gotshall, Visuals Unlimited/p. 26 J. Dudak, First Light/ p. 27
(top right) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 28 Norman R. Lightfoot, Ivy Images/
p. 29 (top left, centre and right) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 31 Bill Ivy, Ivy
Images/ p. 32 (top right) Biophoto Associates, Photo Researchers/ p. 32 (top left)
Dr. Linda Stannard, UCT/Science Photo Library, Photo Researchers/ p. 32 (centre
right) Manfred Kage, Spectrum Stock/Ivy Images/ p. 32 (bottom left) Dr. Kari
Lounatmqa, Photo Researchers/ p. 32 (bottom right) Dr. Jeremy Burgess, Science
Photo Library, Photo Researchers/ p. 34 (top left) Ron Erwin, Spectrum Stock/Ivy
Images/ p. 34 (top right, centre left) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 34 (centre and
bottom right) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 34 (bottom left) Bill Ivy/ p. 37 J.
Edmond, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 38 Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 40 Ray
Boudreau/ p. 43 (top left) Thomas Kitchin, First Light/ p. 43 (top right) Ken Cole,
Animals Animals/ p. 43 (middle left) R. Degginger, Animals Animals/ p. 43
(middle centre) John D. Cunningham, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 43 (middle right)
Gary Meszaros, Visuals Unlimited/p. 43 (bottom left) John D. Cunningham,
Visuals Unlimited/ p. 43 (bottom centre) Brokaw, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 43
(bottom right) Robert Lankinen, First Light/ p. 47 (top centre) The Jack Miner
Migratory Bird Foundation/ p. 47 (top right) Kenneth Love, National Geographic
Society Image Collection/ p. 47 (bottom left) Dr. Nancy Turner/ p. 47 (bottom
centre) Dawn Loewen/ p. 55 Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 58 (top) A. & M. Shah,
Animals Animals/ p. 60 (bottom) Dave Reede, First Light/ p. 61 (top right) D.

468 Acknowledgements
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 469

Wiggett, First Light/ p. 62 (left) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 62 (centre) Rick
Frishman, Tony Stone Images/ p. 62 (right) Phil Degginger, Tony Stone Images/
p. 63 (from top to bottom) Corel Stock Photo Library/ W. Cody, First Light/ Corel
Stock Photo Library/ Norman Piluke, Spectrum Stock/Ivy Images/ p. 64 Breck P.
Kent/ p. 66 Tom Ellison, First Light/ p. 67 Doug Wilson, First Light/ p. 72 (top
left) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 72 (top centre) H1/Fonds Hydro-Québec,
Centre d’archives Hydro-Québec/ p. 72 (top right) F5/Fonds Société d’énergie de
la Baie James, Centre d’archives Hydro-Québec/p. 72 (bottom) Steve
McCutcheon, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 73 William Taufic, First Light/ p. 74 Richard
Thom, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 75 Lynn Stone, Animals Animals/ p. 77, H.
Dempsey and Parks Canada/ p. 76 Richard La Val, Animals Animals/ p. 84 Bill
Brooks, Masterfile/ p. 86 (top left) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 86 (top right)
Winston Fraser, Spectrum Stock/Ivy Images/Unit Opener pp. 92-93 Gary
Holscher, Stone/ p. 94 Paul Smith, Take Stock Inc./ p. 95 Cpl. Doug Desrochers,
Canadian Forces/ p. 96 (left) Paul Smith, Take Stock Inc./ p. 96 (right) Hal
Horwitz, Corbis, Magma/ p. 97 (left) D. Griffith, First Light/ p. 97 (centre) Chris
Bruun, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 97 (right) Gary Holscher, Stone/ p. 98 Ray Boudreau/
p. 99 (left) Ray Boudreau/ p. 99 (top right) Bill Ivy/ p. 99 (centre right) Nada
Pecnik, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 99 (bottom right) Patrick Johns, Corbis, Magma/
p. 100 Ray Boudreau/ p. 102 (left) Ray Boudreau/ p. 102 (top right) Bob Clay,
Visuals Unlimited/ p. 105 Ray Boudreau/ p. 106 Ray Boudreau/ p. 108 Ray
Boudreau/ p. 109 (top left) David Schaeffer, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 109 (top right)
Kelvin Aitken, First Light/ p. 110 (all) Ray Boudreau/ p. 111 Jon Bertsch, Visuals
Unlimited/ p. 113 CORBIS/ p. 114 (top left) John D. Cunningham, Visuals
Unlimited/ p. 114 (top centre) R. Calentine, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 114 (top right)
International Bloembollen Centrum Hillegom, Holland/ p. 114 (right centre and
bottom) Wally Eberhart, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 115 (left) Inga Spence, Visuals
Unlimited/ p. 115 (top and bottom right) Ray Boudreau/ p. 116 (top left to right)
Bill Ivy/ Brian Calkins, Mach 2 Stock/ Brian Stablyk, Take Stock Inc./ Bill Ivy/
David L. Brown, Mach 2 Stock/ David Matherly, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 116
(bottom left) Visuals Unlimited/ p. 116 (bottom right) Gary Braasch, Corbis,
Magma/ p. 120 (top) SuperStock/ p. 120 (bottom left to right) Marten Bot, Mach 2
Stock/ Wally Eberhart, Visuals Unlimited/ Gordon Hartley, Mach 2 Stock/ Bill
Ivy/ p. 121 (top) SuperStock/p. 121 (bottom) Ray Boudreau/ p. 122 (bottom left)
Francis/Donna Caldwell, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 122 (bottom right) Link, Visuals
Unlimited/ p. 123 Ray Boudreau/ p. 124 (top) Mark Gibson, Visuals Unlimited/
p. 124 (bottom) Ed Lallo, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 125 (left) SuperStock/ p. 125 (centre)
John D. Cunningham, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 125 (right) Al Harvey, The Slide
Farm/ p. 126 John Salus, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 127 (top left) Bill Ivy/ p. 127
(clockwise starting with deer) Corel Stock Photo Library/ S. Dalton, Photo
Researchers Inc./ G.&R. Grambo, First Light/ Fritz Polking, Visuals
Unlimited/ Al Harvey, The Slide Farm/ SuperStock/ p. 128 Ray Boudreau/ p. 130
(left) Bert Krages, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 130 (right) R. Watts, First Light/ p. 131
(top) Richard Hamilton, Corbis, Magma/p. 131 (bottom left) Michael Boys,
Corbis, Magma/ p. 131 (bottom centre) Bill Ivy/ p. 131 (bottom right) Valan
Photos/ p. 132 (top) David Schaefer, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 132 (bottom including
inset) courtesy Warren Bard/ p. 133 (top left) Dean Conger, Corbis, Magma/
p. 133 (top right) Leslie Degner, Take Stock Inc./ p. 134 (top) © Wayne

Acknowledgements 469
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 470

Lankinen/Valan Photos/ p. 134 (bottom) Mike Ridewood/Canadian Press CP/

p. 135 (top) Bill Ivy/ p. 135 (bottom) Glenbow Archives, Calgary, Canada (NA-
1982-2)/ p. 136 Andy Sacks, Stone/ p. 137 Bruce Hands, Stone/ p. 138 Henry
Kalen, Ivy Images/ p. 139 (top left) Gilbert L. Twiest, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 139
(top right) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 139 (bottom left and centre) Corel Stock
Photo Library/ p. 139 (bottom right) Paul Smith, Take Stock Inc./ p. 140-142 Ray
Boudreau/ p. 143 (left) SuperStock/p. 143 (right) Glenbow Archives, Calgary,
Canada (NA-1831-1)/ p. 144 Kenman Ward, Corbis, Magma/ p. 145 Al Harvey,
The Slide Farm/ p. 146 Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 147 Glenbow Museum NA-
57-26/ p. 148 Chris Harris, First Light/ p. 149 (top left) PhotoDisc, Inc./ p. 149
(top right) Angus McNee, Take Stock Inc./p. 149 (bottom left) Andrew Farquhar,
Take Stock Inc./ p. 149 (bottom right) Dawn Goss, First Light/ p. 150 Ray
Boudreau/ p. 151 (top) Oliver Strewe, Stone/ p. 151 (bottom left to right) Inga
Spence, Visuals Unlimited/ Caroline Commins, Ivy Images/ Al Harvey, The Slide
Farm/ Al Harvey, The Slide Farm/ p. 153 Ray Boudreau/ p. 155 Craig Popoff,
Take Stock Inc./ p. 156 (top left and right) Ray Boudreau/ p. 156 (bottom left)
Tony Maxwell, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 156 (bottom centre) W. Weber, Mach 2 Stock/
p. 156 (bottom right) Dan Roitner, Ivy Images/ p. 157 Ray Boudreau/p. 159 (top)
Canola Council of Canada/ p. 159 (bottom) courtesy Allan Kuzyk/ p. 160 (top
left) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 160 (centre right) S. McCutcheon, Visuals
Unlimited/ p. 161 (left) Canola Council of Canada/ p. 161 (right) SuperStock/
p. 162 Peter K. Ziminski, Visuals Unlimited/ p. 164 (left) Richard Kellaway, PC
Services/p. 164 (right) Todd Powell, Ivy Images/ p. 166 Dave Reede, Take Stock
Inc./ p. 167 (left) Brian Hay, Ivy Images/ p. 167 (right) SuperStock/ p. 170
PhotoDisc, Inc./ p.171 PhotoDisc, Inc./ Unit Opener pp. 174-175 R. Watts, First
Light/ p. 176 NASA/ p. 178 Ray Boudreau/ p. 179 NASA/ p. 180 Glenbow
Archives, Calgary, Canada (NA-1185-11)/ p. 182 Richard Kellaway, PC Services/
p. 183 (top) R. Brown, Ivy Images/ p. 183 (bottom) Sean Murphy, Stone/ p. 185
Ian Crysler/ p. 186 Ray Boudreau/ p. 187 The Image Bank/ p. 188 (top) Warren
Ward/ p. 188 (bottom) Neil Dunnigan/ p. 190 J. P. Danvoye, Publiphoto/ p. 191
(top left) Jack Vearey, Stone/ p. 191 (top centre) Arnulf Husmo, Stone/ p. 191 (top
right) Tom Mareschal, The Image Bank/ p. 191 (bottom) Ray Boudreau/ p. 193
Ray Boudreau/ p. 195 Ray Boudreau/ p. 197 (all) E.R. Degginger, Color-Pic,
Inc./p. 201 Ray Boudreau/ p. 202 (top left) Michael Holford Photography/ p. 202
(centre left and right) Ray Boudreau/ p. 204 Ray Boudreau/ p. 205 (left) Tom
Pantages/ p. 205 (right) Don Reid, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 206 Stratford Perth Archives/
p. 207 (top left) Larry Mishkar, PictureSmith/ p. 207 (top right) Thomas Moore,
First Light/ p. 207 (bottom left) Gilbert Duclos/p. 207 (bottom right) SunPac
Foods Limited/ p. 208 John Cancalosi, Valan Photos/ p. 209 V. Wilkinson, Valan
Photos/ p.210 Ray Boudreau/ p. 211 (from top to bottom) Sunbeam (Canada)
Corporation Ltd./ Ray Boudreau/ Philips Electronics Ltd./ p. 212 SuperStock/
p. 214 Ray Boudreau/ p.216 Manitoba Hydro/ p.218 Ray Boudreau/ p. 219 (left)
Sunstar, Take Stock Inc./ p. 219 (right) David Hanover, Stone/ p. 220 Nik
Wheeler, Corbis, Magma/ p. 222 Paul Chesley, Stone/ p. 223 (top left and right)
Corel Stock Photo Library/p. 223 (bottom left) Cameron Davidson, Stone/ p. 223
(bottom right) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 224 Joanne Neal/ p. 227 (centre left)
John Hulme, Eye Ubiquitous, Corbis, Magma/ p. 227 (bottom left) SuperStock/
p. 227 (bottom right) Bruce Hands, Stone/ p. 228 Randy Montoya, Sandia

470 Acknowledgements
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 471

National Laboratories/ p. 230 Tom Pantages/ p. 233 (left) David N. Doody, The
Stock Solution/ p. 233 (right) Robert W. Ginn, The Stock Solution/ p. 234 Alfred
Pasieka, Science Photo Library, Photo Researchers Inc./ p. 237 Roberts Awnings
and Signs/ p. 238 Todd Gipstein, Corbis, Magma/ p. 239 Francis Lepine, Valan
Photos/ p. 240 Ron Watts/First Light/ p. 240 (top diagram) adapted from
Statistics Canada, Canada Year Book, 1999, Catalogue No. 11-402, page 217.
Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of the Minister of
Industry, as Minister responsible for Statistics Canada. Information on the
availability of the wide range of data from Statistics Canada can be obtained from
Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its World Wide Web site at
http://www.statcan.ca, and its toll-free access number 1-800-263-1136./ p. 241
Keith Wood, Stone/ p. 242 (top) The Canadian Nuclear Association/ p. 242
(bottom) SuperStock/ p. 244 G. Peterson, Take Stock Inc./ p. 245 (top) Julie
Habel, First Light/ p. 245 (bottom) Tom Pantages/ p. 247 Ken Meisner, Take Stock
Inc./ p. 248 Tony Maxwell, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 250 CTH Smith, Take Stock Inc./
p. 252 Dakota Tranter/ p. 252 Joanne Neal/Unit Opener pp. 258-259 M.
Grandmaison, First Light/ p. 260 Canapress Picture Archives/ p. 261 Michael S.
Yamashita, Corbis/ p. 263 (left) Chris Hackett, The Image Bank/ p. 263 (centre)
SuperStock/ p. 263 (right) M. Grandmaison, First Light/ p. 264 SuperStock/
p. 265 (all) Ray Boudreau/ p. 266 (top) SuperStock/ p. 266 (second from top)
Gary Holscher, Stone/ p. 266 (third from top) G. Peterson, First Light/ p. 266
(bottom left) Helga Pattison, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 266 (centre) Steven Hunt, The
Image Bank/ p. 266 (centre right) Sunrise Medical Home Healthcare Group/
p. 266 (bottom right) Ron Erwin, Ivy Images/ p. 266 (bottom centre) Angus
McNee, Take Stock Inc./ p. 267 (centre) Harvey Steeves, Take Stock Inc./ p. 267
(bottom left) Natural Selection, First Light/ p. 267 (bottom centre) Kim
Stallknecht, Take Stock Inc./ p. 267 (bottom right) ScienceWorld, BC/ p. 268 (left
and right) SuperStock/ p. 269 (top) Henry Kalen, Ivy Images/ p. 269 (bottom)
Norman Hallendy, Tukilik Foundation/ p. 273 (top left) Roland Seitre-Bios,
Spectrum Stock/Ivy Images/ p. 273 (top right) SuperStock/ p. 273 (centre left) W.
Morgan, First Light/ p. 273 (centre right) Jeff Hunter, The Image Bank/ p. 273
(bottom left) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 273 (bottom right) G. K. & Vikki Hart,
The Image Bank/ p. 274 (top) Frank E. Johnson, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 274 (bottom)
SuperStock/ p. 275 (top) SuperStock/ p. 275 (bottom left and centre) Trek Bicycle
Corporation. Trek is a registered trademark of Trek Bicycle Corporation. ©2000
all rights reserved./ p. 275 (bottom right) Brompton Bicycle Ltd. England/ p. 276
(top) SuperStock/ p. 276 (centre left) Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Corbis/ p. 277 (top
left B+C) Alexander, First Light/ p. 277 (top right) Dallas & John Heaton, First
Light/ p. 277 (centre left) Zuckerman, First Light/ p. 277 (centre right) David
Samuel Robbins, Corbis/ p. 277 (bottom left) Gonzalo Azumendi, First Light/
p. 277 (bottom centre) W. Robert Moore, National Geographic Image Collection/
p. 277 (bottom right) Lindsay Hebberd, Corbis/ p. 278 (centre left) Terje Rakke,
The Image Bank/ p. 278 (centre) Norman Piluke, Ivy Images/ p. 278 (centre right)
Hugh Sitton, Stone/ p. 278 (bottom left) O. Johnson, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 278
(bottom right) Doug Wilson, First Light/ p. 280 (centre) Thomas Kitchin, First
Light/ p. 281 Ray Boudreau/ p. 283 Ray Boudreau/ p. 284 Corel Stock Photo
Library/ p. 285 (top) Canapress Picture Archives/ p. 285 (bottom) NASA/ p. 286
Ray Boudreau/p. 287 Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 289 Ray Boudreau/p. 290

Acknowledgements 471
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 472

(top) John Higginson, Stone/ p. 290 (bottom) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 291
(top) Oliver Benn, Stone/ p. 291 (bottom) Owen Franken, Corbis/ p. 291 (centre
right) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 294 Ian Biggar, Take Stock Inc./ p. 296 (top)
PhotoDisc, Inc./ p. 296 (bottom) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 299 (top) Ray
Boudreau/ p. 299 (bottom) Ron Watts, First Light/ p. 301 Ray Boudreau/ p. 304
Ray Boudreau/ p. 305 PhotoDisc, Inc./ p. 306 Mark Gallup, Take Stock Inc./
p. 309 Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation/ p. 310 (top) Ray Boudreau/
p. 310 (bottom) The Purcell Team, Corbis/ p. 312 Ole Tenold, Mach 2 Stock/
p. 313 Beth Wald, Aurora/ p. 314 (top) Walter Hodges, First Light/ p. 314 (centre)
Ole Tenold, Mach 2 Stock/ p. 314 (bottom left) ©Ronald Cantor/ p. 315 (top)
www.woodshopdemos.com/ p. 315 (bottom) Ron Watts, First Light/ p. 316 Ray
Boudreau/ p. 317 Provincial Archives of Alberta, PA4272-2/ p. 318 David de
Lossy, The Image Bank/ p. 319 Bill Ivy/ p. 322 (top and bottom) Stephen Wan, C.
W. Architects Ltd./ p. 322 (centre right) Jim Dow, Wood O’Neill O’Neill
Architects Ltd. Edmonton/ p. 323 Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 324 (left)
Elizabeth Kerr Private Collection/p. 324 (right) John P. Kelly, The Image Bank/
p. 325 (top) Canapress Picture Archives/ p. 325 (bottom left) Macduff Everton,
The Image Bank/ p. 325 (bottom centre left) Bill Ivy/ p. 325 (bottom centre) Alan
Marsh, First Light/ p. 325 (bottom centre right) Mike Robinson Photos/ p. 325
(bottom right) Mike Robinson Photos/ p. 326 Hydro-Québec/ p. 327 (top) Vince
Streano, Ivy Images/ p. 327 (bottom) Canapress Picture Archives/ p. 328 Ray
Boudreau/ p. 329 Ray Boudreau/ p. 333 (top) Corel Stock Photo Library/ p. 333
(centre) Zigy Kaluzny, Stone/ p. 333 (centre left) Alan Sirulnikoff, First Light/
p. 335 (all) Rocky Mountain Bicycles (Delta, British Columbia)/ p. 336 Bay
Generator Power Products Canada/ p. 338 (both) Peter Rankis, The Architects’
Circle (Toronto, Ontario)/ p. 340 (top left bkgd) Ray Boudreau/ p. 340 (top right)
Take Stock Inc./ p. 341 ©1992 Gordon Wiltsie, AlpenImage/ p. 343 Andrea
Pistolesi, The Image Bank/Unit Opener pp. 346-347 Corel Stock Photo Library/
p. 348 Darwin R.Wiggett, First Light/p. 349 (top) USGS, MSH-7-22-80/p. 349
(bottom) CD Picture Archive/p. 350 (top left) Corel Stock Photo Library/p. 350
(top right) Don Duckson, Visuals Unlimited/p. 350 (bottom left) Hartmann/Sachs,
First Light/p. 350 (bottom right) Phillip Norton, Valan Photos/p. 351 (left) Neil
Rubinowitz, Corbis/p. 351 (right) David Nunuk, Visuals Unlimited/p. 352
Raymond Gehman, Corbis/p. 354 Thad Samuels, ABELL, IT, National Geographic
Society/p. 356 Ray Boudreau/p. 357 Javier Cassella, CP Picture Archive/p. 359
Frederic Larsen, CP Picture Archive/p. 361 (top) K & M Krafft/Explorer/Photo
Researchers/p. 361 (centre) USGS, HVO/p. 361 (bottom) Kim Westerskov, Tony
Stone Images/p. 362 Roger Ressmeyer, Corbis/p. 363 (right) Peter Saunders, Mach
2 Stock Exchange/p. 363 (bottom) James R. Page, Valan Photos/p. 364 (top left)
Valenti, Tony Stone Images/p. 364 (right centre) Larry J. MacDougal, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 364 (bottom left) A.J. Copley, Visuals Unlimited/p. 364 (bottom
centre) James R. Page, Valan Photos/p. 364 (bottom right) Mark E. Gibson, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 365 CP Picture Archive/p. 366 Ole Tenold, Mach 2 Stock
Exchange/p. 368 (top) David Nunuk, First Light/ p. 368 (bottom) Ray
Boudreau/p. 369 NASA/p. 370 (top inset) Arthur R. Hill, Visuals Unlimited/
p. 370 (top background) Doug Sokell, Visuals Unlimited/p. 370 (left middle)
Manuel Sanches Calvete, Corbis/p. 370 (right inset) John D. Cunningham, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 370 (left bottom inset) Arthur R. Hill, Visuals Unlimited/p. 370

472 Acknowledgements
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 473

(bottom centre) Biophoto Associates, Photo Researchers, Inc./p. 370 (bottom left)
Albert Copley, Visuals Unlimited/p. 370 (bottom right) Corel Stock Photo
Library/p.371 (top three) Corel Stock Photo Library/p. 371 (bottom) John D.
Cunningham, Visuals Unlimited/p. 372 Corel Stock Photo Library/p. 373 (top) G.
Brad Lewis, Tony Stone Images/p. 373 (bottom) Roger Ressmeyer, Corbis/p. 374
Ray Boudreau/p. 375 (centre) John Cancalosi, Valan Photos/p. 375 (bottom)
Corbis, First Light/p. 376 (top left) BHP Diamonds Inc/p. 376 (right) Luscan/
p. 376 (centre) Cominco Ltd./p. 376 (bottom) Ray Boudreau/p. 377 Corel Stock
Photo Library/p. 378 (top left) D. Peebles, First Light/p. 378 (top right) Mats,
Icelandic Photo/p. 378 (bottom left) Albert J. Copley, Visuals Unlimited/p. 378
(bottom right) Tom W. Parkin, Valan Photos/p. 379 (left) Hugh Rose, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 379 (right) John D. Cunningham, Visuals Unlimited/p. 381 (top left)
Pam Hickman, Valan Photos/p. 381 (top centre) V. Wilkinson, Valan Photos/
p. 381 (top right) Tom W. Parkin, Valan Photos/p. 381 (centre left) V. Wilkinson,
Valan Photos/p. 381 (centre right) Albert J. Copley, Visuals Unlimited/p. 382
(left) Mark A. Schneider, Visuals Unlimited/p. 382 (centre) Arthur Hill, Visuals
Unlimited/p.382 (right) L.E. Frank, First Light/p. 385 (top) D. Wiggett, First
Light/p. 385 (bottom) Ian Davis-Young, Valan Photos/p. 386 (top left) Douglas
Peebles, First Light/p. 386 (top right) John Sohlden, Visuals Unlimited/p. 386
(bottom left) V. McMillan, Visuals Unlimited/p. 386 (bottom right) Douglas
Peebles, First Light/p. 387 (left) Halle Flygare Photos, Valan Photos/p. 387
(bottom) Frank Slide, First Light/p. 387 (right) R. Hartmier, First Light/p. 388
Brian Milne, First Light/p. 389 (all) Ray Boudreau/p. 390 (top) Corel Stock Photo
Library/p. 390 (bottom) Nancy Chow, University of Manitoba/p. 392 Al
Harvey/p. 393 Tony Stone Images/p. 395 (bottom left) Irwin R. Barrett, First
Light/p. 395 (bottom right) Larry J. MacDougal, First Light/ p. 395 (top) Richard
A. Cooke, Tony Stone Images/ p. 396 Andoni Canela, First Light/p. 397 Corel
Stock Photo Library/ p. 399 James Balog, Tony Stone Images/ p. 402 Larry J.
MacDougal, First Light/p. 404 Benjamin Rondel, First Light/p. 405 (left) Glenn
M. Oliver, Visuals Unlimited/p. 405 (right) Bill Beatty, Visuals Unlimited/p. 405
(bottom) Gary W. Carter, Visuals Unlimited/p. 406 Ray Boudreau/p. 407 (top)
Corel Stock Photo Library/p. 407 (bottom) USGS, Gilbert, G.K. no. 2485/p. 408
(left) George Herben, Visuals Unlimited/p. 408 (right) Albert Copley, Visuals
Unlimited/ p. 410 Larry J. MacDougal, First Light/p. 411 A. Kertstich, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 412 (top left) Doug Sokell, Visuals Unlimited/p. 413 (left) Albert J.
Copley, Visuals Unlimited/p. 413 (right) Larry J. MacDonald, First Light/p. 414
(left) Patrick Morrow, First Light/p. 414 (top right) Ron Watts, First Light/p. 414
(bottom right) Ross Frid, Visuals Unlimited/p. 415 Jeff J. Daly, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 416 (left) Ken Lucas/ Visuals Unlimited/p. 416 (centre) O. Louis
Mazzatenta, National Geographic Society/p. 416 (right) Albert J. Copley, Visuals
Unlimited/p. 417 Royal Tyrrell Museum/p. 418 (top left) Darwin Wiggett, First
Light/p. 418 (top right) J. McCabe, Royal Tyrrell Museum/p. 424 Ray Boudreau/
p. 428 (left & bottom right)) Darwin Wiggett, First Light/p. 428 (top right) William
J. Weber, Visuals Unlimited/p. 431 Martin Miller, Visuals Unlimited

Acknowledgements 473
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 474

Illustrations
Amid Studios 29, 33, 38, 41, 45, 46, 48 (top), 68, 90, 198, 283, 288, 290, 291, 330
(bottom)
Crowle Art 21 (middle centre), 30, 31, 60, 87, 292, 304, 311, 330 (top), 393, 398
(bottom), 401, 403
John Fraser 328, 412
Gefen Group, Knowledge Media Designs 372, 421 (centre)
Philippe Germain, 6, 9, 20, 27 (bottom), 36, 39, 73, 133, 292, 299, 320, 336, 353,
422
Bernadette Lau 37, 50, 52, 54, 419, 423
Stephen MacEachern/Quack 80, 81, 82, 282, 308, 313
Dave Mazierski 421 (top right background image)
Dave McKay 10 (middle background), 386 (background image), 388 (bottom left),
397, 398 (top), 421 (top right)
Paul McCusker 426
Josée Morin 69
Dusan Petricic 27 (top), 78–79, 270, 272, 274, 300
Neil Stewart/NSV 18, 262, 286, 297, 302, 303, 314, 315, 319, 321, 355, 358, 359,
360, 365, 377, 380, 399, 400, 404, 405, 411, 415, 420
Angela Vaculik 35, 42, 44, 44, 48 (bottom), 51, 56–57

474 Acknowledgements
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 475
06_G7TB_BM_p432-476 12/14/06 3:06 PM Page 476
GR 7_Science in Action_case cvr 12/14/06 3:34 PM Page 1

AUTHORS

Carey Booth
George Cormie
Dean Eichorn
Aubry Farenholtz
Josef Martha
Joanne Neal
Shelagh Reading
Lionel Sandner

ISBN 0-201-70756-X

9 780201 707564
www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction