EXPERIMENTAL STRESS
ANALYSIS
UNIT -1
EXTENSOMETERS AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
STRAIN GAUGES
What is a strain gauge ?
A strain gauge may be defined as any instrument
or device that is used to measure the linear
deformation over a given gauge length.
Accurate measurement of very small strains and
displacements is very difficult.
Since the strains or displacements to be
measured are too small, some kind of
magnification of their effects is necessary.
The strain gauges may be classified based on
the type of magnification system used.
Classification of strain gauges
1. Mechanical
2. Optical
3. Interferometric type
4. Electrical strain gauges
5. Magnetic
6. Acoustical
7. Pneumatic
8. Scratch type
9. Photostress gauge
Characteristics of a strain gauge
Gauge length
Sensitivity
Range
Accuracy of repeatability
Factors to be considered for the selection of a
strain gauge
Readability
Ease of mounting
Operator skill
Weight
Cost
Frequency response
Types of Mechanical strain gauges
1. Wedge and screw magnification
2. Simple mechanical lever magnification
3. Compound magnification system
4. Compound lever magnification
5. Magnification by rack and pinion
6. Combined lever, rack and pinion
magnification
Wedge and screw magnification
Wedge gauge is a wedge shaped scale
graduated along its longer side
Wedge gauge can be used to measure a
change in length of about 0.05 mm
Professors Easton Hodgkinson and W. C.
Unwin used this method of measurement
in about 1856.
Howard strain gauge
This strain gauge was developed by J. E. Howard about 1888
It was used for measurement of strain in actual structures.
The magnification was accomplished by a screw micrometer
It measures the relative motion of two coaxial tubes
Each tube is provided with a conical contact point.
The contact points were inserted in prepared holes on the
structure
Simple mechanical lever magnification
Capp’s multiplying divider is a type of simple
mechanical lever magnification
extensometer
Capp’s multiplying divider
The gauge length of Capp’s divider is 5 cm
The strain magnification is 10:1
For this gauge large space must be
available over the test area
The pointed ends of the short levers are
held manually in gauge marks made on
the specimen
Compound magnification system
The Berry strain gauge
Berry strain gauge consisted of a frame
with two conically pointed contact points.
One point was rigidly fixed to the frame
while the other was pivoted from the
frame
The movable contact point is linked with
a lever arm, which alone magnified the
strain about 5:1.
A screw micrometer was used to
measure the motion of the arm
Measurements of strain to the nearest
0.005 mm can be made.
Tinius Olsen strain gauge
The Olsen Special Extensometer, is a very compact and
convenient
instrument for laboratory use.
Combining a lever and a Dial Indicator, the strain in the 2-in.
gage length may be read to the nearest 0.0025 mm
The lever, visible at the left inside the case, serves also as a
knife-edge contact.
A fixed knife-edge is provided at the right. It contacts the
side
of the specimen opposite to the lever contact and is spaced
a distance of 5 cm.
Thus the knife contacts, acting on opposite sides of the
specimen, should give an average of the strain values on the
two sides with only one gage reading.
A cantilever spring acting on the specimen opposite to each
knife-edge provides the necessary mounting force and
contact pressure.
Compound lever magnification
Huggenberger tensometer
Frame C supports the lever system. It
includes the fixed-contact point ‘a’.
rhomb ‘b’ acts as a part of the lever
system and as a contact point.
Rhomb ‘b’ is integral with the arm ‘h’. Its
rotation, resulting from the motion ∆l,
magnifies the motion and transmits it,
through link ‘i', to the pointer ‘g’.
The readings taken from scale ‘z’ are
converted to actual strain values by
application of the multiplication factor,
Porter Lipp Gauge
Porter Lipp Gauge
Porter Lipp Gauge is an instrument using
compound levers for strain measurement.
The mounting and operation are very similar
to the Huggenberger.
Specifications
Gauge length = 25 mm
Magnification = 300 (approx.)
Accuracy = 0.0005 mm
Range = 0.01 mm
Dimensions: Length = 44.5 mm
Breadth = 50.8 mm
Depth or Thickness = 15.8 mm
Advantages:
Compactness and extremely light weight
High magnification
It has a self-contained scale
Rugged in construction and can be used
under adverse conditions
Disadvantages:
Natural frequency of this gauge is low.
Hence any structural vibration will cause
the reading questionable
Size of the gauge limits the application
Magnification by Rack and Pinion
A most important class of instruments,
using rack and pinion(gear) magnification
for measuring small displacements
accurately is the dial indicator or dial gauge.
Advantages
- compactness
- ease of application
- accuracy.
Some instruments use dial indicators in
combination with lever systems
COIL
SPRING
SPRING
RACK
PINION
SPINDLE
Dial indicator
Dial indicator consists of a rack and pinion
The pinion or gear is actuated by rack cut in the
spindle
The spindle follows the motion to be measured
The spring applies a force on the spindle to
maintain uniform and positive contact on the part
The other end of the pinion is attached to a light
weight pointer
The pointer shows the reading on a graduated
scale.
A small coil spring is used to minimize the lost
motion during measurement
Combined Lever, Rack & pinion
Magnification
Whittemore strain gauge
Whittemore strain gauge
It consists of two frame members ‘A’
A contact pointer ‘C’ is attached to one
end of each frame
The angle of the contact point is 45°
The other end of each frame is attached
to fulcrum plate ‘B’
The contact points are inserted into the
drilled holes on the specimen
The displacement on the specimen is
tranferred to the dial indicator through
the frames which act as levers.
Optical Strain Gauges
Optical strain gauges can be classified into two types
1. Instruments using the optical-lever principle
2. Instruments using mechanical levers.
In instruments using the optical lever, the lever consists of
a short mechanical arm holding a mirror which reflects a
beam of light.
The reflected beam is the other arm of the lever,
The angular movement of the reflected beam is measured at
a large distance from the pivot point of the system
Because of the law of reflection, the angular movement of
reflected beam is two times the angular movement of the
short mechanical arm.
The small movement of the short arm is magnified with the
help of a light beam.
Instruments Using the Optical-Lever-
Principle Single-Mirror System
An example of an optical strain gauge that
works on optical lever principle with single
mirror system - Martens extensometer
Martens Extensometer
There is a fixed arm. One end of the arm is a
fixed knife edge.
To the other end of the arm, a movable knife
edge with a mirror is pivoted.
A telescope is used to observe the reading
on a scale fixed opposite to the mirror.
Initially, before deformation, the mirror is
not tilted. Because there is no movement of
the movable knife edge.
The reading observed using the telescope is
‘0’ on the scale.
When the specimen elongates, the mirror
tilts due to the movement of the movable
knife edge.
A different reading say ‘S’ is observed
through the telescope.
‘S’ is the magnified value of ∆L on the
specimen.
The magnification M is given as
Acoustical Strain Gauge
Schaefer’s Acoustical Strain Gauge
Principle: Tensile force on a string decides the
frequency of vibration of the string and tone
produced during vibration
The strain gauge has measuring wire
stretched between the two supports. The
supports are attached to the specimen.
The length of the measuring wire is the
gauge length.
A magnetic pick-up is used to pull and
vibrate the wire. It also converts the
vibration into electric signal.
The electric signals are taken to a loud
speaker or headphone through an amplifier,
so that the tone of vibration can be heard.
The instrument also has a wire called
standard wire. Like the measuring wire, the
standard wire is also made to vibrate with
the help of a separate magnetic pickup.
The vibration tones of measuring wire and
standard wire are compared.
The tension on the standard wire can be
adjusted using a calibrated screw until the
tone of standard wire matches with that of
the measuring wire.
Selector contacts are provided to have a
number of measuring wires to be connected
to the circuit on the basis of selection.
Two switches are given to change over the
mode of magnetic pickup from vibrating
mode to signal pickup mode.
Specifications:
Gauge length : 150 mm
Calibration: 500 divisions of 0.000006 unit
strain each
Sensitivity: 0.0000012 unit strain
Range: 0.04 mm
Pneumatic Extensometer
The pneumatic extensometer consists of
1. Air supply unit connected to a differential
manometer
2. Extensometer with mechanical lever
system
3. Two orifices
Working Principle:
Air is supplied at constant pressure ‘H’
through two orifices placed in series.
The first orifice ‘G’ is larger and is called
nozzle.
The second orifice ‘S’ is smaller and is called
exhaust orifice.
‘h’ is the pressure difference in pressure
between the nozzle and the exhaust orifice.
The pressure difference ‘h’ is the function of
area ratio of the orifices.
Nozzle ‘G’ has a fixed area and the exhaust
orifice ‘S’ has variable area.
By knowing the pressure difference ‘h’, the
area of exhaust orifice can be determined.
The exhaust orifice ‘S’ is located between
the two levers.
One end of each lever is attached to a collar.
The collar is mounted on the test specimen
using two pointed screws.
The other end of the two levers spaced
apart at a fixed distance.
As the specimen varies in length, the
space between the two levers are
changed.
This in turn will change the exhaust
orifice area, which can be determined
from the value of ‘h’ read from the
differential manometer.
The theory behind the measurement
Theory behind the measurement
Assume the flow to be incompressible
Electrical Strain Gauges
An electrical strain gauge is a device in which the change
in length produces a change in electrical characteristics.
The electrical characteristic may be
Inductance
Capacitance
Resistance
The electrical strain gauges are classified as
Inductance or magnetic strain gauge
Capacitance strain gauge
Resistance strain gauge
Most important and widely used – Electrical resistance strain
gauge
Electric Inductance strain gauge
An electric-inductance gauge is a device in
which the mechanical quantity(strain or
length) to be measured produces a
change in the magnetic field.
It changes the impedance of a current-
carrying coil.
The impedance of a coil depends on its
inductance and on its effective resistance.
Either or both of these quantities can
change with strain or length being
measured.
Electric-inductance gauges can be
classified according to the method used for
varying impedance.
Classification:
Variable-air-gap gauges
Movable-core solenoid gauges
Eddy-current gauges
Magnetostriction gauges
Variable-air-gap gauges
Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is
varied by changing the air gap.
Movable-core solenoid gauges
Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is
varied by changing the position of the iron
core in the coil.
Eddy-current gauges
Losses in the magnetic circuit are varied by
changing the thickness or position of a high-loss
element inserted in the magnetic field.
Magnetostriction gauges
Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is
varied by changing the stress in the
magnetic core of the coil.
Electric Capacitance Strain Gauge
The flat plate capacitor can be used as
a strain gauge in one of the three possible
ways:
By changing the gap between the plates
By moving one plate in transverse
direction with respect to the other, so
that the area between the two plates can
be changed
By moving a body with dielectric constant
higher than air between the plates
Calculation of change in capacitance
The capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor can be computed as follows:
C = 0.00886*(k*A / h)
Where
C – capacitance (pF)
k – dielectric constant of the medium
between the two plates
A – cross sectional area of the plates
h – distance between the plates
Change in capacitance ∆C due to the
change in air gap ∆h can be calculated as
