PART 66 CAT B1/B2

MODULE 4 ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

TRAINEE NOTES

MODULE 4: ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

(CAT B1/B2)

WARNING
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information contained herein is as accurate

as possible at the time of issue, and is subject to ongoing amendments where necessary according to any

regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contained in this document is in variation with

other official journals and/or documents, the latter must be taken as the overriding document. The contents

herein shall not be reproduced in any form without the expressed permission of ADMAL AVIATION COLLEGE.

For Training Purposes Only Trainee Notes V1.0 dated 15.04.14

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FOREWORD

Your Course Notes

These notes have been prepared for Admal Eduation Sdn. Bhd. to provide a source of reference during your period of training.

The information presented is as correct as possible at the time of printing and is not subject to amendment action.

They will be useful to you during your training, but I must emphasise that the appropriate Approved Technical Publications must always be used
when you are actually working on the aircraft.

JERRY ANG
DCAM PART–66 PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
ADMAL AVIATION COLLEGE, MALAYSIA

For Training Purposes Only Trainee Notes V1.0 dated 15.04.14

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CONTENTS
Contents
4.1 Semiconductors 1
The Importance of Semiconductors 1
Electron Shells and Orbits 4
Silicon and Germanium Atoms 6
Atomic Bonding 8
Conduction in Semiconductors 10
Intrinsic Semiconductor 12
Semiconductor Current 13
N Type and P Type Semiconductors 14
The PN Junction 16
Formation of the Depletion Region 16
Energy Diagram of the PN Junction 18
Biasing the PN Junction 20
Effect of Barrier Potential on Forward Bias 22
Summary 25
Reverse Bias 26
Reverse Breakdown 28

4.1.1 Diodes 31
Diode Characteristic Curve 31
Germanium Diode 32
Silicon Diode 34
Temperature Considerations 36
Diode Symbol 38
Diode Packages 39
Diode Approximations 40
The Practical Diode Model 41
The Complex Diode Model 42
The DMM Diode Test Position 43
Packaging 45
Diode Applications 46
The Half-Wave Rectifier 47
Diodes in Series and Parallel 51
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Full Wave Rectifiers 53
Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier 54
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier 58
Three Phase Half Wave Rectification 60
Three Phase Full Wave Rectification 61
Power Supply Filters 62
Ripple Voltage 64
Surge Current in the Capacitor Filter 66
Filters 67
π-Type and T-type Filters 68
Diode Limiting and Clamping Circuits 70
Diode Limiters 70
Diode Clampers 78
Voltage Doubler 83
Voltage Tripler 84
Fly Wheel Diode 85
Zener Diodes 86
Power Dissipation in Zener Diodes 89
Effects of Temperature on Zener Voltage 90
Zener Voltage Regulation 91
Diodes - Light Emitting Diodes 95
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) 104
Diode Ratings 107
Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 109
Bi-Directional Triode Thyristors 114
Schottky Diode 119
Diodes - Varactor Diode 108
Varistor 121

4.1.2 Transistors 125

The Transistor 126
Solid State Devices 127
Bi-polar Junction Transistors (BJT‘s) 128
Transistor Action 130
Transistor as a Switch 134
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Transistor Operation Modes 137
Transistor as an Amplifier 148
Gain of a Transistor 149
AC Voltage Amplification (AV) 151
Power Gain (Ap) 152
Input and Output Impedances 153
Biasing a Transistor for an Amplifier 154
Common Emitter Amplifier 157
Common Base Amplifier 159
Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower) 160
PNP Circuits 162
Thermal Runaway 163
Multistage Amplifier 164
Transformer Coupled Amplifier 166
Directly-Coupled Amplifiers 167
Direct Coupling with Zener Diode Bias 168
Differentially Connected Amplifiers 169
The Darlington Pair 170
Classes of Amplification 171
Push-Pull Amplifier 176
Multivibrators 180
Flip-Flops 184
The Unipolar or Field Effect Transistor (FET) 186
Feedback in Amplifiers 192
Frequency Response and Bandwidth 194
Oscillators 195
Bipolar Transistor - Testing and Handling 197

4.1.3 Integrated Circuits 203

Categories of IC‘s 206
Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps) 207
Properties of Operational Amplifiers 208
Op-Amp Inputs 212
Common Rail + & - Volts 213
Input Offset Voltage 214
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The Input Resistance of an Operational Amplifier 215
The Output Resistance of an operational amplifier 216
The open-loop voltage gain 217
Feedback (Fb) 218
Gain 221
Inverting Amplifiers 223
Non-Inverting Amplifiers 224
Voltage Follower 225
Inverting Summing Amplifier 226
Op-amp as a Simple Voltage Comparator 227
Op-amp as an Integrator 228
Op-amp as a Differentiator 229
The Differential Amplifier 230
Basic Difference Amplifier 231
Other uses of Op-amps 232
Logic Circuits 233
The SR Flip-Flop 238
Clocked SR Flip-Flop 239
D Type SR Flip-Flop 240
JK Flip-Flop 241
Multivibrators using Op-amps 242

4.2 Printed Circuit Boards 245

Circuit Board Elements 247
Make Up Of PCBs 248
Circuitry 252
Circuit Board Configurations 255
Flexible Circuits 258
Component Types and Mounting Techniques 261
Circuit Board Packaging 263

4.3 Servomechanism 267

Open Loop and Close Loop 270
Practical Closed Loop Control System 273
Servomechanisms 274
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Performance of Servomechanisms 276
Response of a RFC Servo to a Step Input (Negligible Coulomb Friction) 281
Improvement of Transient Response 283
Control Response 293
Position Servo 294
Summary 297
Servomechanism Components 298
Simple AC Remote Position Servo System 302
Servomotor Construction 304
Servo Motor - Tacho Generator Assembly 308
Tacho Generator – Operation 309
Remote Indicating Synchronous Systems 310
Direct Current (DC) Transmission Systems - The Desynn System 311
Basic Desynn Transmission Systems 313
Testing the Desynn Systems 318
Micro Desynn 323
Slab Desynn Transmission 325
Alternating Current (AC) "Synchronous" Systems 326
AC Synchros 327
Standardisation of Synchros 328
Synchros 329
Torque Synchros 329
Control Synchros 337
Differential Synchros 341
Resolver Synchros 347
Slab Synchros 352
Synchrotels 353
Proximity Switch System 355
DC and AC Ratiometers 360
Inductor Pressure Gauge Circuit 369
Inductor Pressure Transmitter 370

Torque Transmission System 194

Typical Synchro Faults 195
Connections in Torque Synchros 196
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Torque Differential Transmitting System 197
Control Synchro System 198
Control Transmission System 200
Resolver Synchro Control System 201
Standardisation of Synchros 203
Explanation of Code 204
Synchros - Standard Reference Code 205
Proximity Switch System 206
DC and AC Ratiometers 211
Advantages of a DC Ratiometer 215
AC Ratiometer 216
Pure Resistance 217
Pure Inductance 218
Pure Capacitance 219
Inductor Pressure Gauge Circuit 220
Inductor Pressure Transmitter 222
AC Ratiometer 224

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4.1 SEMICONDUCTORS

4.1 SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction
The primary function of semiconductor devices in electronic
equipment is to control currents or voltages in such a way as to
To acquire a basic understanding of semiconductors, you must have
produce a desired end result. For example, diodes can be used as
some basic knowledge of atomic theory and the structure of
rectifiers to produce pulsating dc from ac. A transistor can be used
semiconductors. We will discuss the basic materials used in
as a variable resistance to vary the current in a heating element. Or
manufacturing both discrete devices, such as diodes and
an integrated circuit can be used to amplify and demodulate a radio
transistors and integrated circuits. We will introduce pn junctions, an
signal. All of these components are made of special materials known
important concept essential for the understanding of diode and
as semiconductors.
transistor operation. Also, other diode characteristics are introduced.
Semiconductor devices are extremely small, lightweight components
The Importance of Semiconductors
which consume only a small amount of power and are highly efficient
and reliable. The thermionic valves that were once widely used in
Semiconductors essentially serve as the basic building materials
practically all types of electronic equipment have been almost
which are used to construct some very important electronic
completely replaced by the newer and better semiconductor devices.
components. These semiconductor components are in turn used to
Let‘s consider some of the specific reasons for this significant
construct electronic circuits and equipment. The three most
transition from the use of thermionic valves to semiconductor
commonly used semiconductor devices are diodes, transistors, and
components in electronic equipment.
integrated circuits, however other special components are also
available.

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Advantages The small size of the solid-state component also makes it suitable for
use in portable electronic equipment. Although equipment of this
Components which are made of semiconductor materials are often type can be constructed with thermionic valves, such equipment
referred to as solid-state components because they are made from would be much larger and heavier. A typical transistor is only a
solid materials. Because of this solid-state construction, these fraction of an inch high and wide while a vacuum tube of comparable
components are more rugged than thermionic valves which are performance may be an inch or more wide and several inches high.
made of glass, metal, and ceramic materials. Because of this The small size also means a significant weight saving.
ruggedness, semiconductor devices are able to operate under
extremely hazardous environmental conditions. This ruggedness is Solid-state components are much less expensive than comparable
responsible for the reliability of solid- state devices. vacuum tube components. The very nature of a solid-state
component makes it suitable for production in mass quantities which
The solid-state construction also eliminates the need for filaments or brings about a high cost saving. In fact, a large number of solid-state
heaters as found in all thermionic valves. This means that additional components can be constructed as easily and quickly as a single
power is not required to operate the filaments and component component.
operation is cooler and more efficient. By eliminating the filaments, a
prime source of trouble is also avoided because the filaments The most sophisticated semiconductor devices are integrated
generally have a limited life expectancy. The absence of filaments circuits. These are complete circuits where all of the components are
also means that a warm up period is not required before the device constructed with semiconductor materials in a single micro miniature
can operate properly. In other words, the solid-state component is package. These devices not only replace individual electronic circuits
ready to the instant it receives electrical power. but also complete pieces of equipment or entire systems. Entire
computers and radio receivers can be constructed as a single device
Solid state components are also able to operate with very low no larger than a typical transistor. Integrated circuits have taken us
voltages (between 1 and 25 volts) while thermionic valves usually one step farther in improving electronic equipment through the use of
require an operating voltage of 100 volts or more. This means that semiconductor materials. All electronic equipment has benefited
solid state components generally use less power than thermionic from solid state components and particularly from the development
valves and are, therefore, more suitable for use in portable of integrated circuits.
equipment which obtains its power from batteries. The lower
voltages are also much safer to work with. Pocket-size radios, hand
held calculators, and small battery operated television receivers are
typical examples of devices which take advantage of highly efficient,
power saving components.

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Disadvantages Semiconductors have had a profound effect on the design and

application of electronic equipment. Not only have they greatly
Although solid-state components have many advantages over the improved existing equipment and techniques by making them better
thermionic valves that were once widely used, they also have and cheaper, but also they have permitted us to do things that were
several inherent disadvantages. First, solid-state components are not previously possible. Semiconductors have revolutionized the
highly susceptible to changes in temperature and can be damaged if electronic industry and they continue to show their even greater
they are operated at extremely high temperatures. Additional potential. Your work in electronics will always involve semiconductor
components are often required simply for the purpose of stabilizing devices. Examine this unit on semiconductor fundamentals carefully
solid-state circuits so that they will operate over a wide temperature and you will benefit from the resulting knowledge.
range. Solid-state components may be easily damaged by
exceeding their power dissipation limits and they may also be
occasionally damaged when their normal operating voltages are
reversed. In comparison, vacuum tube components are not nearly as
sensitive to temperature changes or improper operating voltages.

There are still a few areas where semiconductor devices cannot

replace tubes. This is particularly true in high power, ultra high radio
frequency applications. However, as semiconductor technology
develops, these limitations are gradually being overcome. Despite
the several disadvantages just mentioned, solid-state components
are still the most efficient and reliable devices to be found. They are
used in all new equipment designs and new applications are
constantly being found for these devices in the military, industrial,
and consumer fields. The continued use of semiconductor materials
to construct new and better solid-state components is almost
assured because the techniques used are constantly being refined
thus making it possible to obtain even superior components at less
cost.

THERMIONIC VALVE TRANSISTOR

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Electron Shells and Orbits

Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distanced from the
nucleus. Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in
more distant orbits. Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of
electron energies exist within atomic structure. Therefore, electrons
must orbit only at discrete distances from the nucleus.

Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a

certain energy level. In an atom, orbits are grouped into energy
bands known as shells. A given atom has a fixed number of shells.
Each shell has fixed number of electrons at permissible energy
levels (orbits). The differences in energy levels within a shell are
much smaller than the difference in energy between shells. The
shells are designated K, L, M, N and so on, with K being closest to
the nucleus. The concept is illustrated in the diagram, which shows
the K and L shells. Additional shells may exist in other types of
atoms depending on the element.

Valence Electrons

Electrons in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and
are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus.
This is because the force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases with
increasing distance from the nucleus.

Electrons with the highest energy levels exist in the outermost shell
of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the atom. This
outermost shell is known as the valence shell and electrons in this
shell are called valence electrons. These valence electrons
contribute to chemical reactions and bonding within the structure of a
material and determine its electrical properties.

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Ionisation

When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, for
example, the energy levels of the electrons are raised. When an
electron gains energy, it moves an orbit farther from the nucleus.
Since the valence electrons possess more energy and are more
loosely bound to the atom than inner electrons, they can jump to
higher orbits more easily when external energy is absorbed.

If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it can

actually escape from the outer shell and the atom's influence. The
departure of a valence electron leaves a previously neutral atom with
an excess of positive charge (more protons than electrons). The
process of losing a valence electron is known as ionisation and the
resulting positively charge atom is called a positive ion. For
example, the chemical symbol for Hydrogen is H. When it loses its
valence electron and becomes a positive ion, it is designated H+.
The escaped valence electron is called a free electron. When a free
electron falls into the outer shell of a neutral hydrogen atom, the
atom becomes negatively charged (more electrons than protons)
and is called a negative ion, designated H.

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Silicon and Germanium Atoms

Two types of semconductive materials are silicon and germanium.
Both the silicon and the germanium atoms have four valence
electrons. These atoms differ in that silicon has 14 protons in its
nucleus and germanium has 32. The diagram shows a
representation of the atomic structure for both materials.

The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while the
ones in silicon are in the third shall, closer to the nucleus. This
means that the germanium valence electrons are at higher energy
levels than those in silicon and, therefore, require a smaller amount
of additional energy to escape from the atom. This property makes
germanium more unstable at high temperatures and this is a basic
reason why silicon is the most widely used semiconductive material.

Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent in atomic structure. This

means that they have four valency electrons in their outer shell.

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Atomic Bonding The diagram (a) shows how each silicon atom positions itself with
four adjacent atoms to form a silicon crystal. A silicon atom with its
When certain atoms combine into molecules to form a solid material, four valence electrons shares an electron with each of its four
they arrange themselves in a fixed pattern called a crystal. The neighbours. This effectively creates eight valence electrons for each
atoms within the crystal structure are held together by covalent bond, atom and produces a state of chemical stability. Also, this sharing of
which are created by interaction of the valence electrons of each valence electrons produces the covalent bonds that hold the atoms
atom. A solid chunk of silicon is a crystalline material. together; each shared electron is attracted equally by two adjacent
atoms which share it. Covalent bonding in an intrinsic silicon crystal
is shown (b). An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities.
Covalent bonding for germanium is similar because it also has four
valence electrons.

(a) THE CENTRE ATOM SHARES AN ELECTRON WITH EACH OF THE FOUR
SURROUNDING ATOMS CREATING A COVALENT BOND WITH EACH. THE
SURROUNDING ATOMS ARE IN TURN BONDED TO OTHER ATOMS, AND SO (b) BONDING DIAGRAM. THE RED NEGATIVE SIGNS REPRESENT THE
ON SHARED VALENCE ELECTRONS.

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CONVALENT BONDS FORM A CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

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Conduction in Semiconductors
As you have seen, the electrons of an atom can exist only within An energy band diagram is shown below for an unexited silicon atom
prescribed energy bands. Each shell around the nucleus (no external energy). This condition occurs only at absolute zero
corresponds to a certain energy band and is separated from temperature.
adjacent shells by energy gaps, in which no electrons can exist.

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If an atom is excited by the addition of energy, such as heat, an The free electron is now available for transfer to other atoms while its
electron can jump the energy gap and become a free electron in the absence from the valence band means the atom may receive
conduction band. It leaves behind a deficiency or hole in the valence another free electron from elsewhere.
band. This is known as an electron-hole pair as shown in the energy
diagram (a).

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Intrinsic Semiconductor
A silicon crystal is different from an insulator
because at any temperature above absolute
zero, there is a finite probability that an electron
in the lattice will be knocked loose from its
position, leaving behind an electron deficiency
called a ―hole‖.

If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and

the hole can contribute to a small current flow.

In the band model of semiconductors, the

electrons can reach the conduction band and
contribute to electrical conduction.

The term intrinsic here distinguishes between the

properties of pure ―intrinsic‖ silicon and the
dramatically different properties of doped n-type
or p-type semiconductors.

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Semiconductor Current
The current which will flow in an intrinsic
semiconductor consists of both electron and hole
current. That is, the electrons which have been
freed from their lattice positions into the
conducting band can move through the material.

In addition, other electrons can hop between

lattice positions to fill the vacancies left by the
freed electrons. This additional mechanism is
called hole conduction because it is as if the
holes are migrating across the material in the
direction opposite to the free electron movement.

Under the influence of an external voltage, both

the electron and the hole can move across the
material. In an n-type semiconductor, the dopant
contributes extra electrons, dramatically
increasing the conductivity. In a p-type
semiconductor, the dopant produces extra
vacancies or holes, which likewise increase the
conductivity. It is however the behaviour of the p-
n junction which is the key to the enormous
variety of solid-state electronic devices.

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N Type and P Type Semiconductors Majority and Minority Carriers

Intrinsic semiconductors do not conduct current very well because Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or
of the limited number of free electrons in the conduction band. Thus, germanium) doped in this way is an n type semiconductor (the n
the conductivity of a semiconductor is much less than that of a stands for the negative charge on an electron). The electrons are
conductor. called the majority carriers in n type material. Although the majority
of current carriers in n type material are electrons, there are some
Doping holes. Holes in an n type material are called minority carriers.

The conductivities of silicon and germanium can be drastically

increased and controlled by the addition of impurities to the intrinsic
(pure) semiconductor. This process, called doping, increases the
number of current carriers (electrons or holes). The two categories
of impurities are N type and P type.

N Type Semiconductor

To increase the number of conduction band electrons in intrinsic

silicon, pentavalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with
five valence electrons, such as arsenic (As), Phosphorus (P) and
antimony (Sb).

As illustrated, each pentavalent atom (antimony, in this case) forms

covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. Four of the
antimony atom's valence electrons are used to form the covalent
bonds leaving one extra electron. This extra electron becomes a
conduction electron because it is not attached to any atom. The
number of conduction electrons can be controlled by the number of
impurity atoms added to the silicon.

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P Type Semiconductor

To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity

atoms are added. These are atoms with three valence electrons,
such as Aluminium (Al), Boron (B) and Gallium (Ga).

As illustrated in the diagram, each trivalent atom (boron, in this case)

forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. All three of
the boron atom's valence electrons are used in the covalent bonds;
and, since four electrons are required, a hole is formed with each
trivalent atom. The number of holes can be controlled by the amount
of trivalent impurity added to the silicon.

Majority and Minority Carriers

Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or germanium)
doped in this way is a P type semiconductor because holes can be
thought as positive charges. The holes are the majority carriers in p
TRIVALENT IMPURITY ATOM IN A SILICON CRYSTAL
type material. Although the majority of current carriers in p type
material are holes, there are some electrons. Electrons in p type Summary
material are the minority carriers.
 Semiconductors are made from Tetravalent materials.
Temperature Effects  To convert to N type semiconductor we add pentavalent
impurity atoms
At room temperature an occasional electron will break away from its
 To convert to P type semiconductor we add Trivalent impurity
parent atom and leave a hole in the lattice. These electron/hole pairs
atoms The Majority carriers are Electrons in N type and holes
can participate in the conduction of electricity and are known as the
in P type The Minority carriers are temperature liberated
Minority Carriers.
Holes in N type and Electrons in P type
 There is No Nett electrical charge associated with any type
of semiconductor.

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The PN Junction
As a result of this recombination process, a large number of positive
If you take a block of silicon and dope half of it with a trivalent
impurity and the other half with a pentavalent impurity, a boundary and negative ions builds up near the pn junction. As this buildup
called the pn junction is formed between the resulting p type and n occurs, the electrons in the n region must overcome both the
type portions. The pn junction is the feature that allows diodes, attraction of the positive ions and repulsion of the negative ions in
transistors and other devices to work. This section and the next one order to migrate into the p region. Thus, as the ion layers build up,
will provide a basis for the discussion of the diode. the area on both sides of the junction becomes essentially depleted
of any conduction electrons or holes and is known as the depletion
Formation of the Depletion Region
region. This condition is illustrated. When an equilibrium condition is
A pn junction is illustrated. The n region has many conduction reached, the depletion region has widened to a point where no more
electrons and the p region has many holes. With no external electrons can cross the pn junction.
voltage, the conduction electrons in the n region are aimlessly
drifting in all directions. At the instant of junction formation, some of The existence of the positive and negative ions on opposite sides of
the electrons near the junction drift across into the p region and the junction creates a barrier potential across the depletion region,
recombine with holes near the junction as shown. as indicated in the diagram. The barrier potential, VB, is the amount
of energy required to move electrons through the electric field. At
For each electron that crosses the junction and recombines with a 25°C, it is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium.
hole, a pentavalent atom is left with a net positive charge in the n
As the junction temperature increases, the barrier potential
region near the junction, making it a positive ion. Also, when the
electron recombines with a hole in the p region, a trivalent atom decreases and vice versa.
acquires net negative charge, making a negative ion.

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Formation of the Depletion Region

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Energy Diagram of the PN Junction They are higher because the core attraction for the valence
electrons (+3) in the trivalent atom is less than the core attraction for
Now, let's look at the operation of the pn junction in terms of its
the valence electrons (+5) in the pentavalent atom. Thus, the
energy level. First consider the pn junction at the instant of its
trivalent valence electrons are in a slightly higher orbit and, thus, at
formation. The energy bands of the trivalent impurity atoms in the p
a higher energy level.
type material are at a slightly higher level than those of the
pentavalent impurity atom in the n type material, as shown in the
graph.

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Notice in the diagram that there is some overlap of the conduction As diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form. Also the
bands in the p and n regions and also some overlap of the valence energy bands in the n region conduction band reaches the same
bands in the p and n regions. This overlap permits the electrons of level as the bottom of the p region conduction band, diffusion ceases
higher energy near the top of the n region conduction band to begin and the equilibrium condition is reached. This condition is shown in
diffusing across the junction to the lower part of the p region terms of energy levels in the diagram. There is an energy gradient
conduction band. As soon as an electron diffuses across the across the depletion region rather than an abrupt change in energy
junction, it recombines with a hole in the valence band. level.

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Biasing the PN Junction Forward Bias

As you have learned, there is no current across a pn junction at Forward Bias is the condition that permits current across a pn
equilibrium. The primary usefulness of the pn junction is its ability to junction. The term bias in electronics normally refers to a fixed dc
allow current in only one direction and to prevent current in the other voltage that sets the operating conditions for a semiconductive
direction as determined by the bias. There are two practical bias device. The diagram shows a dc voltage connected in a direction to
conditions for a pn junction: forward and reverse. Either of these forward bias the junction. Notice that the negative terminal of the
conditions is created by application of an external voltage of the
battery is connected to the n region and the positive terminal is
proper polarity and magnitude.
connected to the p region.

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A discussion of the basic operation of forward bias follows: The Once the conduction electrons enter the p region and combine with
negative terminal of the battery pushes the conduction band holes, they become valence electrons. Then they move as valence
electrons in the n region toward the junction, while the positive electrons from hole to hole toward the positive connection of the
terminal pushes the holes in the p region also toward the junction.
battery. The movement of these valence electrons is the same as
When it overcomes the barrier potential, the external voltage source the movement formed by the movement of holes (majority carriers)
provides the n region electrons with enough energy to penetrate the toward the junction. The diagram illustrates current in a forward
depletion region and cross the junction, where they combine the p biased pn junction.
region holes. As electrons leave the n region, more flow in from the
negative terminal of the battery. Thus, current through the n region
is formed by the movement of conduction electrons (majority
carriers) toward the junction.

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Effect of Barrier Potential on Forward Bias

The effect of the barrier potential in the depletion region is to oppose
forward bias. This is because the negative ions near the junction in
the p region tend to prevent electrons from crossing the junction into
the p region. You can think of the barrier potential effect as
simulating a small battery connected in a direction to oppose the
forward bias voltage, as shown in the diagram. The resistances Rp
and Rn represent the dynamic resistance of the p and n materials.

The external bias voltage must overcome the effect of the barrier
potential before the pn junction conducts, as illustrated.

Once the diode is conducting, a voltage will be dropped across the

device. This occurs because the diodes semiconductor material has
a low but finite resistance value and the current flowing through it
must produce a corresponding voltage drop. As it turns out, this
froward bias voltage drop is approximately equal to the barrier
potential. This is 0.3 volts for a germanium diode and 0.7 volts for a
silicon diode.

The amount of forward bias current If is a function of the applied dc

bias V, the forward voltage drop Vf and the external resistance R.
The relationship simply involves Ohm's law as indicated below;

For example, the forward current in a silicon diode with a bias

voltage of 10 volts and an external resistor of 100 ohm is

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Energy Diagram for Forward Bias

When a pn junction is forward biased, the n region conduction band

is raised to a higher energy level that overlaps with the p region
conduction band. Then large numbers of free electrons have
enough energy to climb the "energy hill" and enter the p region
where they combine with holes in the valence band. Forward bias is
illustrated by the energy diagram.

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Summary
We can sum up the operation of a pn junction diode in this manner:

• The diode is a unidirectional electrical device since it

conducts current in only one direction.

• When it is forward biased, current flows through it freely

since it acts as a very low resistance.

• When the diode is reverse biased, current does not flow

through it. It simply acts as an open circuit or extremely
high resistance.

• Only a small, temperature sensitive leakage current flows

in the reverse biased condition.

• The diode is effectively a polarity sensitive electrical

switch. When forward biased the diode switch is closed.
When reverse biased it is open.

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Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is the condition that prevents current across the pn The depletion region widens until the potential difference across it
junction. The diagram below shows a dc voltage source connected equals the external bias voltage. At this point, the holes and
to reverse bias the diode. Notice that the negative terminal of the electrons stop moving away from the junction and majority current
battery is connected to the p region and the positive terminal is ceases, as indicated in the middle diagram.
connected to the n region.
When the diode is reverse biased, the depletion region effectively
The negative terminal of the battery attracts holes in the p region acts as an insulator between the layers of oppositely charged ions,
away from the pn junction, while the positive terminal also attracts forming an effective capacitance. Since the depletion region widens
electrons away from the junction. As electrons and holes move with increased reverse biased voltage, the capacitance decreases
away from the junction, the depletion region widens; more positive and vice versa. This internal capacitance is called the depletion
ions are created in the n region and more negative ions are created region capacitance.
in the p region, as shown in the diagram opposite top. The initial
flow of majority carriers away from the junction is called transient
current and lasts only for a very short time upon application of
reverse bias.

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Reverse Breakdown
If the external reverse bias voltage is increased to a large enough
value, reverse breakdown occurs. The following describes what
happens: Assume that one minority conduction band electron
acquires enough energy from the external source to accelerate it
toward the positive end of the pn junction. During its travel, it collides
with an atom and imparts enough energy to knock a valence electron
into the conduction band. There are now two conduction band
electrons. Each will collide with an atom, knocking two more valence
electrons into the conduction band. There are now four conduction
band electrons which, in turn, knock four more into the conduction
band. This rapid multiplication of conduction band electrons, known
as an avalanche effect, results in a rapid buildup of reverse current.

A single pn junction device is called a diode. Most diodes normally

are not operated in reverse breakdown and can be damaged if they
are. However, a particular type of diode known as a zener diode is
specially designed for reverse breakdown operation.

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For Your Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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4.1.1 DIODES
Diode Characteristic Curve

The diagram is a graph of diode current versus voltage. The upper The lower left quadrant of the graph represents the reverse biased
right quadrant of the graph represents the forward biased condition. condition. As the reverse voltage (VR) increases to the left, the
As you can see, there is very little forward current (IF) for forward current remains near zero until the breakdown voltage is reached.
voltages (VF) below the barrier potential. As the forward voltage When breakdown occurs, there is a large reverse current which, if
approaches the value of the barrier potential (0.7 V for silicon and not limited, can destroy the diode. Typically, the breakdown voltage
0.3 V for germanium), the current begins to increase. Once the is greater than 50 V for most rectifier diodes. Remember that most
forward voltage reaches the barrier potential, the current increases diodes should not be operated in reverse breakdown.
drastically and must be limited by a series resistor. The voltage
across the forward biased diode remains approximately equal to the
barrier potential.

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Germanium Diode that this voltage will vary slightly from one germanium diode to the
next.
The V-I characteristic curve opposite is for a germanium diode. Let‘s
consider its operation in detail. Reverse Characteristics

Forward characteristics The V-I curve also shows that when the diode is reverse-biased, the
reverse current that flows is extremely small. Notice that the reverse
The diagram shows that the forward current through a germanium current increases slightly as the reverse voltage increases but
diode is extremely small and almost insignificant until the forward remains less than 0.1mA, (100µA) until the reverse voltage
bias voltage across the diode increases beyond a value of approaches a value of 20 volts. Then the reverse current suddenly
approximately 0.2 volts. Then the forward current increases as the increases to a much higher value.
forward bias voltage is increased still further. The increase in
forward current really starts to occur as the external bias voltage This sudden increase in reverse current results because the reverse
overcomes the diode‘s internal barrier voltage. Once the bias bias voltage becomes strong enough to tear many valence electrons
voltage exceeds the barrier voltage (0.3 volts), the forward current from their parent atoms and therefore increase the number of
increases very rapidly and at a linear rate because the diode then electron- hole pairs in the N and P materials. This causes an
acts as a low resistance. If this forward current continued to rise, the increase in minority carriers which in turn support a higher reverse
diode would eventually be damaged by an excessive flow of current. current. In other words the junction simply breaks down when the
Throughout the linear portion of the curve, the voltage across the reverse bias voltage approaches a value of 20 volts.
diode is only several tenths of a volt as shown. While the forward
voltage drop is not constant, it changes very little over a wide The voltage at which the sudden change occurs is commonly
current range. A tremendous change in forward current occurs while referred to as the breakdown voltage. This breakdown voltage will
the voltage across the diode changes only a small amount. vary from one diode to the next since it is determined by the exact
manner in which the diode is constructed. In certain cases, ordinary
The point at which the bias voltage equals the barrier voltage is germanium diodes can be damaged when breakdown occurs;
indicated opposite. Notice that this point occurs when the bias however, there are special diodes which are designed to operate in
voltage is equal to 0.3 volts. Also notice that the diode‘s forward this region. These special devices, known as zener diodes, will be
current is equal to 1mA at this time and that this current can described in detail later. When breakdown occurs, the diode no
increase above 5mA while the corresponding voltage across the longer offers a high resistance to the flow of reverse current and
diode remains below 6.4 volts. therefore cannot effectively block current in the reverse direction.
For these reasons, operation in the breakdown region is avoided
The diagram therefore shows that the diode‘s internal barrier when an ordinary PN junction diode is being used.
voltage is approximately 0.3 volts. However, it is important to realize

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Germanium Diode

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Silicon Diode
While a silicon diode operates the same as the germanium diode, Also, the reverse currents in many silicon diodes may be in the
there are some important differences in their characteristic curves. extremely low nano-ampere range and therefore insignificant for
Let‘s look at these differences in detail. most practical applications.

Forward Characteristics

The V-I curve below shows the characteristics of a typical silicon

diode. Notice that the forward characteristics of this diode are
basically similar to those of the germanium diode previously
described; however, there is an important exception. The internal
barrier voltage of the silicon diode is not overcome until the forward
bias voltage is equal to approximately 0.7 volts as shown. Beyond
this point the forward current increases rapidly and at a linear rate.
The corresponding forward voltage across the diode increases only
slightly.

The exact amount of forward voltage required to overcome the

barrier voltage will vary from one silicon diode to the next but will
usually be close to the 0.7 volts indicated above.

Reverse Characteristics

The reverse characteristics of the silicon diode are also similar to

those of the typical germanium diode previously described.
However, the silicon diode has a much lower reverse current than
the germanium type as indicated in the diagram. Notice that the
reverse current remains well below 0.1 milliamperes (100 micro-
amperes) until the breakdown voltage of the device is reached.
Then, as with the germanium unit, a relatively high reverse current
is allowed to flow. A breakdown voltage of 45 volts is indicated,
however, this voltage will vary from one silicon diode to the next.

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Silicon Diode

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The Breakdown Effect Maximum Operating Temperature

If the reverse bias voltage applied to a diode is increased, the The diode has a small forward resistance when it is conducting, so
reverse leakage current will remain approximately constant, until a power must be dissipated as it conducts. This power dissipation
point is reached when a sudden and large increase in current takes causes heat at the junction, this local heating must be kept down, as
place due to avalanche breakdown. excessive leakage current will occur. There is therefore a
MAXIMUM FORWARD CURRENT so that the temperature is not
The large increase in diode current will dissipate power in the diode reached which will cause deterioration of the structure of the diode.
and may lead to damage to the device. It is necessary with rectifier
type diodes to ensure that the diode is not driven into breakdown. MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE is a maximum junction
The manufacturers of diodes usually quote a safe maximum inverse temperature above, which the structure of the diode deteriorates.
voltage, the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV). The maximum forward current is so chosen that this temperature is
not exceeded in the worst combination of circumstances.
When a diode breaks down, due to excessive inverse voltage (i.e.
excessive reverse bias), whilst the diode current increases rapidly, However, it should be remembered that the maximum forward
the inverse voltage remains approximately constant. current will also depend on the temperature in which the diode is
operating; and maximum forward current is usually quoted at two or
Note: Only Zener diodes are designed to operate in the breakdown more ambient temperatures.
region, however even these devices require a series resistor, to limit
the current flow and avoid exceeding the diodes power rating. We know as the temperature rises the leakage current increases
and as a guide the leakage current doubles in value for each 10°C
Temperature Considerations rise in temperature.

In some critical applications it is also necessary to consider the

effect that temperature has on diode operation. In general, the diode
characteristic that is most adversely affected by changes in
temperature is the diode‘s reverse current. This current is caused by
the minority carriers that are present in the N and P sections of the
diode as explained previously. At extremely low temperatures the
reverse current through a typical diode will be practically zero. But at
room temperature this current will be somewhat higher although still
quite small. At extremely high temperatures an even higher reverse
current will flow which in some cases might interfere with normal
diode operation.
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Temperature Considerations

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Diode Symbol
The diagram shows the basic diode structure and the standard
schematic symbol for a general purpose diode. The "arrow" points in
the direction opposite the electron flow. The two terminals of the
diode are the Anode (A) and Cathode (K). The anode is the p region
and the cathode is the n region.

When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is
forward biased and current is from cathode to anode, as shown in
the diagram. Remember that when the diode is forward biased, the
barrier potential, VB, always appears between anode and cathode,
as indicated in the figure. When the anode is negative with respect to
the cathode, the diode is reverse biased as shown in the diagram
and there is no current.

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Diode Packages

Some typical diodes and their terminal identifications are shown in

the diagram to illustrate the variety of physical structures.

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Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model

The simplest way to visualise diode operation is to think of it as a

switch. When forward biased, the diode ideally acts as a closed (on)
switch and when reverse biased, it acts an open (off) switch as
shown in the diagram. The ideal characteristic curve for this model
is also shown. Note that the forward voltage and the reverse current
are always zero in the ideal case.

This ideal model, of course, neglects the effect of the barrier

potential, the internal resistances and other parameters. You may
want to use the ideal model when you are troubleshooting or trying
to figure out the operation of a circuit and are not concerned with
more exact values of voltage or current.

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The Practical Diode Model
The next higher level of accuracy includes the barrier potential in the
diode model. In this approximation, the forward biased diode is
represented as a closed switch in series with a small "battery" equal
to the barrier potential VB (0.7 V Si and 0.3 V for Ge), as shown in
the diagram. The positive end of the battery is toward the anode.
Keep in mind that the barrier potential is not a voltage source and
cannot be measured with a voltmeter; rather it only has the effect of
a battery when forward bias is applied because the forward bias
voltage, VBIAS, must overcome the barrier potential before the diode
begins to conduct current. The reverse biased diode is represented
by an open switch, as in the ideal case, because the barrier potential
does not affect reverse bias, as shown in the diagram. The
characteristic curve for this model is shown in the diagram. In this
book, the practical model is used in analysis unless otherwise stated.

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The Complex Diode Model

One more level of accuracy will be considered at this point. The

diagram shows the forward biased diode model with both the barrier
potential and the low forward dynamic resistance. The diagram also
shows how the high internal reverse resistance affects the reverse
biased model. The characteristic curve is shown.

Other parameters such as junction capacitance and breakdown

voltage become important only under certain operating conditions
and will be considered only where appropriate.

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The DMM Diode Test Position When the Diode is Working

A multimeter can be used as a fast and simple way to check a In the first diagram, the red (positive) lead of the meter is connected
diode. As you know, a good diode will show an extremely high to the anode and the black (negative) lead is connected to the
resistance (or open) with reverse bias and a very low resistance cathode to forward bias the diode. If the diode is good, you will get a
with forward bias. A defective open diode will show an extremely reading of between 0.5 V and 0.9 V, with 0.7 V being typical for
high resistance (or open) for both forward and reverse bias. A forward bias.
defective shorted or resistive diode will show zero or a low
resistance for both forward and reverse bias. An open diode is the In the second diagram, the diode is turned around to reverse bias
mode common type of failure. the diode as shown. If the diode is working properly, you will get a
voltage reading based on the meter's internal voltage source. The
Many Digital Multimeters (DMMs) have a diode test position which 2.6 V shown in the diagram represents a typical value and indicates
provides a convenient way to test a diode. A typical DMM, as shown that the diode has an extremely high reverse resistance with
in the diagram, has a small diode symbol to mark the position of the essentially all of the internal voltage appearing across it.
function switch. When set to diode test, the meter provides an
internal voltage sufficient to forward bias and reverse bias diode.
This internal voltage may vary among different makes of DMM, but
2.5 V to 3.5 V is a typical range of values. The meter provides a
voltage reading or other indication to show the condition of the diode
under test.

If it is necessary to verify the connections in the absence of any

marking then a test meter is used. Using the old analog AVO-meter
it should be remembered, as with any ohmmeter, that the BLACK
(NEGATIVE) terminal becomes the positive output and RED
(POSITIVE) terminal is the negative.

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When the Diode is Defective

When a diode has failed open, you get an open circuit voltage
reading (2.6 V is typical) for both the forward bias and the reverse
bias condition, as illustrated. If a diode is shorted, the meter reads 0
V in both forward bias and reverse bias tests, as indicated.
Sometimes, a failed diode may exhibit a small resistance for both
bias conditions rather than a pure short. In this case the meter will
show a small voltage much less than the correct open voltage. For
example, a resistive diode may result in a reading of 1.1 V in both
directions rather than the correct readings of 0.7 V forward and 2.6 V
reverse.

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Packaging
The junction temperature of a diode must be kept low, therefore, in
order to dissipate the heat associated with high current carrying
rectifiers, they are mounted onto black painted aluminum sheet heat
sinks.

The thermal resistance of a heat sink for a particular rectifier is

specified by the manufacturer. That is, if it is specified at 2°C W -1 this
means that the temperature of the heat sink will rise by 2°C for every
watt of power it has to dissipate. Therefore, to dissipate 5 watts the
temperature rise will be 10°C.

HEAT SINKS

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Diode Applications
We will now discuss the applications of diodes in converting ac to dc Let‘s examine what happens during one cycle of the input voltage
by the process known as rectification. Half-wave and full-wave using the ideal model for the diode. When the sinusoidal input
rectification are introduced, and you will study the basic circuits. The voltage goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and conducts
limitations of diodes used in rectifier applications are examined, and current to the load resistor, as shown in part (b). The current
you will learn about diode limiting circuits and dc restoring (clamping) produces a voltage across the load which has the same shape as
circuits. the positive half-cycle of the input voltage. When the input voltage
goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the diode is
In addition to rectifier diodes, zener diodes and their applications in reversed-biased.
voltage regulation are introduced. Varactor diodes, light-emitting
diodes and photodiodes and their applications also are discussed.

The Half-Wave Rectifier

The most basic type of rectifier is the half-wave rectifier. The

illustration below shows the process of half-wave rectification. In part
(a), an ac source is connected to a load resistor through a diode.

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Half-Wave Rectifiers
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage
There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is zero,
as shown in part (c). The net result is that only the positive half- The average value of a half-wave output voltage (e) is the value that
cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the would be indicated by a dc voltmeter. It can be calculated with the
output does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage, as following equation where Vp(out) is the peak value of the half-wave
shown in part (d). output voltage:

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Effect of Diode Barrier Potential on Half-Wave Rectifier Output

Voltage

In the previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal. When When you work with diode circuits, it is often practical to neglect the
the diode barrier potential is taken into account, here is what effect of barrier potential when the peak value of the applied voltage
happens: During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage must is much greater (at least ten times) than the barrier potential. As
overcome the barrier potential before the diode becomes forward- mentioned before, we will always use silicon diodes and consider the
biased. For a silicon diode, this results in a half-wave output voltage barrier potential unless stated otherwise.
with a peak value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the input
voltage (0.3 V less for a germanium diode), as shown in Figure 17-5.
The expression for peak output voltage is

VP(OUT) = VP(IN) -0.7 V

EFFECT OF DIODE BARRIER POTENTIAL ON HALF WAVE RECTIFIER OUTPUT VOLTAGE (SILICON DIODE SHOWN)

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The Basic DC Power Supply A basic block diagram for a power supply is shown below. The
rectifier can be either a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave rectifier
The dc power supply converts the standard 240 V, 50 Hz ac (covered later). The rectifier converts the ac input voltage to a
available at wall outlets into a constant dc voltage. It is one of the pulsating dc voltage, which is half-wave rectified as shown. The filter
most common electronic circuits that you will find. The dc voltage eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage and produces a
produced by a power supply is used to power all types of electronic relatively smooth dc voltage. The regulator is a circuit that maintains
circuits, such as television receivers, stereo systems, VCRs, CD a constant dc voltage for variations in the input line voltage or in the
players and laboratory equipment. load. Regulators vary from a single device to more complex circuits.
The load block is usually a circuit for which the power supply is
producing the dc voltage and load current.

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Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The maximum value of reverse voltage, sometimes designated as

peak inverse voltage (PIV), occurs at the peak of the negative
alternation of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-biased. This
condition is illustrated below. The PIV equals the peak value of the
input voltage, and the diode must be capable of withstanding this
amount of repetitive reverse voltage.

THIS PIV OCCURS AT THE PEAK OF THE HALF CYCLE WHEN THE DIODE IS REVERSE BIASED.
IN THIS CIRCUIT, THE PIV OCCURS AT THE (tp) OF THE PEAK OF THE NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE

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Diodes in Series and Parallel

When diodes are connected in series to a known load then it must Where current supplied by one rectifier would exceed its maximum
be remembered that the current will be the same and the maximum forward current, or exceed its maximum operating temperature, it is
forward current must not be exceeded for each diode. Because each possible to connect two or more diodes in parallel. The current,
diode has a small forward resistance there will be a volts drop across therefore, will be divided between the diodes.
each diode, which will depend on each diode's characteristics.
These individual volts drops will subtract from the supply voltage to The voltage across each diode will be the same and the current
leave a certain voltage across the load (see later notes on rectifiers). distribution between the diodes will depend on the characteristics of
the diodes.

DIODES IN SERIES

DIODES IN PARALLEL

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Rectifier Diodes in Series Rectifier Diodes in Parallel

Rectifier diodes are sometimes connected in series for high-voltage Rectifier diodes are sometimes connected in parallel when the
rectification when the maximum reverse voltage across the rectifier output current required is greater than that which can be carried by a
exceeds that level which would damage a single diode. In the single diode without overheating. With modern silicon junction
forward (conducting) direction each rectifier carries the same current devices this technique is seldom required as high output currents
and there are slightly higher losses than would occur if only a single can be obtained from polyphase rectifier circuits. However, if diodes
diode could be used. In the reverse direction the voltage across each are used in parallel, some method must be used to ensure that the
of the rectifiers depends on its reverse resistance (leakage current is forward current is shared equally between the diodes. The usual
the only current flowing). To ensure that maximum reverse voltage is method is to connect equal low- value resistors in series with each
shared equally between the rectifiers it is usual to connect equal diode to ‗swamp‘ any variations in the forward resistance values of
value resistors (about 100kΩ is common) in parallel with the diodes the individual diodes.
(see below). These resistors swamp‘ any differences in diode
reverse resistance between individual diodes which, for silicon
junction diodes, lay typically between one and ten megohms.

RECTIFIERS IN SERIES

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Full Wave Rectifiers

Although half-wave rectifiers have some applications, the full-wave The average value for a full-wave rectified output voltage is twice
rectifier is the most commonly used type in dc power supplies. In this that of the half-wave, expressed as follows:
section, you will use what you learned about half-wave rectification
and expand it to full-wave rectifiers. You will learn about two types of
full- wave rectifiers: centre-tapped and bridge.

The difference between full-wave and half-wave rectification is that a

full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional current to the load during the
entire input cycle, and the half-wave rectifier allows this only during
one half of the cycle. The result of full-wave rectification is a dc
output voltage that pulsates every half-cycle of the input, as shown
below.

THE AVERAGE VALUE FOR A FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS

TWICE THAT OF THE HALF-WAVE, EXPRESSED AS FOLLOWS

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Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

The Centre-Tapped (CT) full-wave rectifier circuit uses two diodes
connected to the secondary of a centre-tapped transformer, as
shown below. The input signal is coupled through the transformer to
the secondary. Half of the secondary voltage appears between the
centre tap and each end of the secondary winding as shown.

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For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the Effect of the Turns Ratio on Full-Wave Output Voltage
secondary voltages are as shown in Figure 17-12(a). This condition
forward-biases the upper diode D1 and reverse-biases the lower If the turns ratio of the transformer is 1, the peak value of the
diode D2. The current path is through D1 and the load resistor, as rectified output voltage equals half the peak value of the primary
indicated. input voltage less the barrier potential (diode drop). This value
occurs because half of the input voltage appears across each half of
For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage polarities the secondary winding.
on the secondary are as shown in Figure 17-12(b). This condition
reverse- biases D1 and forward-biases D2. The current path is In order to obtain an output voltage equal to the input (less the
through D2 and the load resistor, as indicated. Because the current barrier potential), a step-up transformer with a turns ratio of 1 to 2
during both the positive and the negative portions of the input cycle (1:2) must be used. In this case, the total secondary voltage is twice
is in the same direction through the load, the output voltage the primary voltage, so the voltage across each half of the secondary
developed across the load is a full- wave rectified dc voltage. is equal to the input.

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

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Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The peak inverse voltage in terms of peak secondary voltage is;
Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately forward-biased and
then reverse-biased. The maximum reverse voltage that each diode PIV = Vp(sec) - 0.7 V
must withstand is the peak value of the total secondary voltage
Vp(sec), as illustrated opposite. When the total secondary voltage Therefore, combining the two preceding equations, the peak inverse
Vp(sec) has the polarity shown, the anode of D1 is +Vp(sec)/2 and voltage across either diode in the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is;
the anode of D2 is -Vp(sec)/2. Since D1 is forward-biased, its cathode
is 0.7 V less than its anode (Vp(sec)/2 - 0.7 V); this is also the
voltage on the cathode of D2. The total reverse voltage across D2 is;
PIV = Vp(sec) - 0.7 V

Since Vp(out) = Vp(sec) /2 - 0.7 V, then by multiplying each term by

2 and transposing;

Vp(sec) = 2 Vp(out) + 1.4 V

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Bridge Output Voltage

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
As you can see in the diagram below, two diodes are always in
The full-wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, as shown below.
series with the load resistor during both the positive and the negative
When the input cycle is positive as in part (a), diodes D1 and D2 are
half cycles. When these diode drops (barrier potentials) are taken
forward- biased and conduct current in the direction shown. A
into account, the output voltage is a full-wave rectified voltage with a
voltage is developed across RL which looks like the positive half of
peak value equal to the peak secondary voltage less the two diode
the input cycle. During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-
drops.
biased.

When the input cycle is negative, as in (b) below, diodes D3 and D4 Vp(out) = Vp(sec) -1.4 V
are forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction
through RL as during the positive half-cycle. During the negative half-
cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave rectified output
voltage appears across RL as a result of this action.

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Peak In verse Voltage (PIV)

Let‘s assume that the input is in its positive half-cycle when D1 and The PIV rating of the bridge diodes is less than half that required for
D2 are forward-biased and examine the reverse voltage across D3 the centre-tapped configuration.
and D4. In the diagram below, you can see that D3 and D4 have a
peak inverse voltage equal to the peak secondary voltage less one
diode drop (Vp(sec) - 0.7 V). Since the peak secondary voltage is
equal to the peak output voltage plus two diode drops (Vp(out) + 1.4
V), the peak inverse voltage is;

PIV = Vp(sec) - 0.7 V = Vp(out) + 1.4 V - 0.7 V

PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7 V

PIV IN A BRIDGE RECTIFIER DURING THE POSITIVE HALF-CYCLE OF THE INPUT VOLTAGE

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Three Phase Half Wave Rectification

In order to obtain three-phase half wave rectification a diode must be
inserted into each of the supply lines to the load and the return from
the load to the supply MUST be to the star point of the three-phase
system.

Therefore this form of rectification can only be used where there is a

star connection using a neutral line. Assume this star connection is
the secondary of a three phase (DELTA-STAR) transformer as
shown.

DELTA STAR TRANSFORMER THREE PHASE HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WAVEFORMS

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Three Phase Full Wave Rectification

This form of connection does not require a neutral line, so can be
used on either Star or Delta connected systems.

The arrows show the time in the three phase cycle when phase A is
maximum and passing peak current to the load (say 10 amps). After
passing through the load, the current splits into two, of five amps
each to return to the B and C lines back to the supply.

The output ripple frequency is six times the supply frequency. We

shall now look at some other uses of diodes.

THREE PHASE FULL WAVE WAVEFORM

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

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Power Supply Filters Capacitor Filter

A power supply filter greatly reduces the fluctuations in the output A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter is shown opposite. We will
voltage of a half wave or full-wave rectifier and produces a nearly use the half-wave rectifier to illustrate the filtering principle; then we
constant-level dc voltage. Filtering is necessary because electronic will expand the concept to the full-wave rectifier.
circuits require a constant source of dc voltage and current to
provide power and biasing for proper operation. Filtering is done During the positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is
using capacitors, inductors, or combinations of both, as you will see forward- biased, allowing the capacitor to charge to within a diode
in this section. drop of the input peak, as illustrated in (a). When the input begins to
decrease below its peak, as shown in (b), the capacitor retains its
In most power supply applications, the standard 50 Hz ac power line charge and the diode becomes reverse-biased. During the remaining
voltage must be converted to a sufficiently constant dc voltage. The part of the cycle, the capacitor can discharge only through the load
50 Hz pulsating dc output of a half-wave rectifier or the 100 Hz resistance at a rate determined by the RLC time constant. The larger
pulsating output of a full-wave rectifier must be filtered to reduce the the time constant, the less the capacitor will discharge.
large voltage variations. The diagram below illustrates the filtering
concept showing a smooth dc output voltage. The full-wave rectifier Because the capacitor charges to a peak value of Vp(in) - 0.7 V, the
voltage is applied to the input of the filter, and, ideally, a constant dc peak inverse voltage of the diode in this application is
level appears on the output.
PIV = 2 Vp(in) - 0.7 V
During the first quarter of the next cycle, as illustrated in (c), the
diode again will become forward-biased when the input voltage
exceeds the capacitor voltage by approximately a diode drop.

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Ripple Voltage For a given input frequency, the output frequency of a full-wave
rectifier is twice that of a half-wave rectifier. As a result, a full-wave
As you have seen, the capacitor quickly charges at the beginning of rectifier is easier to filter. When filtered, the full-wave rectified voltage
a cycle and slowly discharges after the positive peak (when the has a smaller ripple than does a half-wave signal for the same load
diode is reverse-biased). resistance and capacitor values.

The variation in the output voltage due to the charging and A smaller ripple occurs because the capacitor discharges less during
discharging is called the ripple voltage. The smaller the ripple, the the shorter interval between full-wave pulses, as shown opposite. A
better the filtering action, as illustrated here. good rule of thumb for effective filtering is to make RLC ≥10T; where
T is the period of the rectified voltage.

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The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter

and is defined as the ratio of the ripple voltage (Vr) to the dc
(average) value of the filter output voltage (VDC). These parameters
are illustrated below.

The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor can
be decreased by increasing the value of the filter capacitor.

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Surge Current in the Capacitor Filter

It is possible that the surge current could destroy the diodes, and for
Before the switch in (a) below, is closed, the filter capacitor is this reason a surge-limiting resistor Rsurge is sometimes connected,
uncharged. At the instant the switch is closed, voltage is connected as shown in (b). The value of this resistor must be small compared to
to the bridge and the capacitor appears as a short, as shown. An RL. Also, the diodes must have a forward current rating such that
initial surge of current is produced through the two forward-biased they can withstand the momentary surge of current.
diodes. The worst-case situation occurs when the switch is closed at
a peak of the input voltage and a maximum surge current Isurge(max) is A general rule-of-thumb for estimating the value of the surge-limiting
produced, as illustrated in the diagram (a). resistor is:

where IFSM is the specified non repetitive maximum forward surge

current for the diode.

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Filters
LC Filter

When a choke is added to the filter input, as shown below, a

reduction in the ripple voltage is achieved. The choke has a high
reactance at the ripple frequency, and the capacitive reactance is
low compared to both XL and RL. The two reactances form an ac
voltage divider that tends to significantly reduce the ripple from that
of a straight capacitor filter.

It should be noted at this time that an LC filter produces an output

with a dc value approximately equal to the average value of the
rectified input. The capacitor filter, however, produces an output with
a dc value approximately equal to the peak value of the input.
Another point of comparison is that the amount of ripple voltage in
the capacitor filter varies inversely with the load resistance. Ripple
voltage in the LC filter is essentially independent of the load
resistance and depends only on XL and Xc, as long as Xc is
sufficiently less than RL.

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π-Type and T-type Filters

A one-section π-type filter is shown below left. It can be thought of

as a capacitor filter followed by an LC filter. The T-type filter in below
right is basically an LC filter followed by an inductor filter. π-type and
T-type filters combine the peak filtering action of the single-capacitor
or the single-inductor filter with the reduced ripple and load
independence of the LC filter.

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For Your Notes

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Diode Limiting and Clamping Circuits When the input goes back below 0.7 V, the diode reverse-biases and
appears as an open. The output voltage looks like the negative part
Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are sometimes used to clip of the input, but with a magnitude determined by the RS and RL
off portions of signal voltages above or below certain levels. Another voltage divider as follows:
type of diode circuit, called a clamper is used to restore a dc level to
an electrical signal. Both of these diode circuits will be examined
here.

Diode Limiters
If RS is small compared to RL, then Vout Vin. If the limiter circuit is
Diode limiters (clippers) cut off voltage above or below specified unloaded, RL= ∞ and Vout = Vin.
levels. Diagram (a) below shows a diode circuit that limits or clips off
the positive part of the input signal. As the input signal goes positive, Turn the diode around, as in (b), and the negative part of the input is
the diode becomes forward-biased. Since the cathode is at ground clipped off. When the diode is forward-biased during the negative
potential (0 V), the anode cannot exceed 0.7 V (assuming silicon). part of the input, the output voltage across the diode is held at -0.7 V
Thus, the output voltage across the diode is clipped at +0.7 V when by the diode drop. When the input goes above -0.7 V, the diode is no
the input exceeds this value. longer forward-biased and a voltage appears across RL proportional
to the input.

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EXAMPLES OF LIMITING

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Series Positive Limiter Assume the input is a sine wave of (say) +20 to -20 volts. When the
diode is conducting (assuming negligible resistance) the voltage
In a series positive limiter, the diode only conducts on the negative across it is negligible and the output voltage (VOUT) will be equal to
going cycles and so the positive going portion of the input waveform VIN. When the diode is cut off the output voltage is practically zero.
is clipped. The circuit therefore clips the portion of the waveform, which goes
positive.
The resistance R must be some value intermediate between the two
diode extremes of resistance. This means R is very large compared
to the conducting resistance (almost zero ohms) and very small
compared with the cut-off resistance (which is almost infinite). A
typical value for R in practice will be between 10kΩ and 100kΩ.

SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER WAVEFORM OF SERIES POSITIVE LIMITER

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Series Negative Limiter

Assume the input is a sine wave of (say) +20 to -20 volts. When the
diode is conducting (assuming negligible resistance) the voltage
across it is negligible and the output voltage (VOUT) will be equal to
VIN. When the diode is cut off the output voltage is practically zero.
The circuit therefore clips the portion of the waveform, which goes
negative.

SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER WAVEFORM OF SERIES NEGATIVE LIMITER

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Shunt Positive Limiter

During the positive half cycles, with the diode conducting the voltage
developed across it is practically zero, so output voltage is zero.
When the diode is cut off on the negative half-cycles, practically the
whole of the input voltage is across the diode and therefore VOUT =
VIN. This circuit therefore clips the portion of the input waveform,
which goes positive.

SHUNT POSITIVE LIMITER WAVEFORM OF SHUNT POSITIVE LIMITER

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Shunt Negative Limiter

The circuits so far discussed have all 'clipped' or limited the
waveform above zero volts. In practice it is often necessary to clip
the portion of the waveform above or below some reference voltage
other than zero. This can be done using slightly modified versions of
the basic limiting circuits already shown.
A shunt negative limiter is arranged with the diode in shunt (parallel)
with the component (VOUT) and the resistor is in series.
On one half cycle of the input, the diode is cut off and practically the
whole of the input voltage appears as VOUT. On the other half cycle WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER
the diode is cut off until it reaches above the bias level, up to this
point VIN = VOUT, when the diode conducts the VOUT is equal to the
bias level and clips the negative half cycle as shown.
If the polarity of the bias was turned around the other way, then the
output would be as shown:

REVERSE POLARITY WAVEFORM OF SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER

SHUNT NEGATIVE LIMITER

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Combined Limiter

This 'combined limiter' can be used to take a 'slice' out of an input

waveform, as shown.

In practice, reference or bias levels are not provided by batteries, but

by a potentiometer connected across a dc supply line (refer next
page).

COMBINED LIMITER

WAVEFORM OF COMBINED LIMITER

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Adjustment of the Limiting Level

If the bias voltage is varied up or down, the limiting level changes
To adjust the level at which a signal voltage is limited, add a bias correspondingly, as shown in (b).
voltage in series with the diode, as shown below (a). The voltage at
point A must equal VBIAS + 0.7 V before the diode will conduct. Once If it is necessary to limit voltage below a specified negative level,
the diode begins to conduct, the voltage at point A with respect to then the diode and bias battery must be connected as in (c). In this
ground is limited VBIAS + 0.7 V so that the voltage above this level is case, the voltage at point A with respect to ground must go more
clipped off, as shown in the figure. negative than - VBIAS - 07 V to forward-bias the diode and initiate
limiting action, as shown.

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Diode Clampers
A diode clamper, sometimes known as a dc restorer; adds a dc level The capacitor can discharge only through the high resistance of RL.
to an ac signal. The diagram below shows a diode clamper that Thus, from the peak of one negative half-cycle to the next, the
inserts a positive dc level. To understand the operation of this circuit, capacitor discharges very little. The amount that is discharged, of
start with the first negative half-cycle of the input voltage. course, depends on the value of RL. For good clamping action, the
RC time constant should be at least ten times the period of the input
When the input initially goes negative, the diode is forward-biased, frequency.
allowing the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the input (Vp(in)
- 0.7 V), as shown in (a). Just past the negative peak, the diode
becomes reverse-biased because the cathode is held near Vp(in) -
0.7 V by the charge on the capacitor.

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The net effect of the clamping action is that the capacitor retains a If the diode is turned around, a negative dc voltage is added to the
charge approximately equal to the peak value of the input less the input signal, as shown in (d). If necessary, the diode can be biased
diode drop. The capacitor voltage acts essentially as a battery in to adjust the clamping level.
series with the input signal, as shown in (b). The dc voltage of the
capacitor adds to the input voltage by superposition, as shown in (c).
POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT

NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT

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Clamping With Bias

In the examples shown, the output waveform is clamped to either

positively or negatively to zero volts. If it was necessary, as in some
radar circuits, to clamp to a level other than zero, then the bias
voltage is placed in the resistor rectifier line as shown. The
waveforms produced are shown respectively.

NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS WAVEFORM OF NEGATIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS

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POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE BIAS WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO POSITIVE BIAS

POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS WAVEFORM OF POSITIVE CLAMPING TO NEGATIVE BIAS

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Clamper Application

A clamping circuit is often used in television receivers as a dc

restorer. The incoming composite video signal is normally processed
through capacitively coupled amplifiers that eliminate the dc
component, thus losing the black and white reference levels and the
blanking level. Before being applied to the picture tube, these
reference levels must be restored. This diagram illustrates this
process in a general way.

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Voltage Doubler With reference to Voltage Doubler Circuit - 2, C3 is charged to V

Another application of a diode is in a voltage doubler circuit, which is volts during the negative half cycle of the supply voltage. The
typically used in a High Energy Ignition Unit, (HEIU). potential between C3 now acts as a battery in series with the supply.
In the positive half cycle of the supply, C4 is charged to a voltage
Based on the diagram below, Voltage Doubler Circuit – 1, on one equal to the sum of the peak supply voltage and the voltage across
half cycle of the supply, capacitor C1 will charge up to V volts, on the C3, i.e. approximately 2V.
other half cycle C2 will charge up to V volts. As the two capacitors
are in series then the output is approximately 2V volts.

VOLTAGE DOUBLER CIRCUIT - 1 VOLTAGE DOUBLER CIRCUIT - 2

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4.1.1 DIODES

Voltage Tripler
During the second positive half cycle, Diode D1 and D3 conducts
We can extend the previous voltage doubler circuit, to create
and D2 get reverse biased. In this way capacitor C2 charges the
the voltage tripler circuit. In this circuit we have used AC (Alternate
capacitor C3 up to the same voltage as itself, which is 2 Vpeak.
current) and just added one more diode and capacitor to triple the
voltage.
Now the capacitor C1 and C3 are in series and voltage across C1 is
Vpeak and voltage across C3 is 2 Vpeak, so the voltage across the
During the first positive half cycle of AC, Diode D1 get forward
series connection of C1 and C3 is Vpeak + 2Vpeak = 3 Vpeak, that
biased and capacitor C1 get charged through the D1. Capacitor C1
is how we get the triple voltage of the peak value of AC. Although the
get charged up to the peak voltage of AC i.e. Vpeak.
voltage is not exactly thrice of the peak voltage, because some
voltage drops across the Diodes, so the resulting voltage would be:
During the negative half cycle of the AC, Diode D2 conducts and D1
reverse biased. D1 blocks the discharging of capacitor C1. Now the
capacitor C2 charge with the combined voltage of capacitor C1 Vout = 3 х Vpeak – voltages drop across diodes
(Vpeak) and the negative peak of the AC voltage that is also Vpeak.
So the capacitor C2 charge up to 2Vpeak volt.

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Fly Wheel Diode

Sometimes a diode is connected across a relay coil. When the

supply is switched off, the collapse of current causes a self-induced
emf in the coil which by Lenz's Law tries to keep the current flowing
and may cause arcing across the control switch contacts. The diode
allows a path for the dissipation of this voltage and prevents this
possible arcing. This may also be called a free-wheel diode.

Fly Wheel Diode

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Zener Diodes Zener Breakdown

A major application for zener diodes is voltage regulation in dc power Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and
supplies. In this section, you will see how the zener diode maintains zener. The avalanche breakdown also occurs in rectifier diodes at a
a nearly constant dc voltage under the proper operating conditions. sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener
You will learn the conditions and limitations for properly using the diode at low reverse voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to
zener diode and the factors that affect its performance. reduce the breakdown voltage, causing a very narrow depletion
The diagram below left shows the schematic symbol for a zener region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion
diode. The zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that differs region. Near the breakdown voltage (Vz), the field is intense enough
from the rectifier diode in that it is designed for operation in the to pull electrons from their valance bands and create current.
reverse breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode
is set by carefully controlling the doping level during the Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than approximately
manufacturing process. From the discussion of the diode 5 V operate predominantly in zener breakdown. Those with
characteristic curve previously, recall that when a diode reaches breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V operate
reverse breakdown, its voltage remains almost constant even though predominantly in avalanche breakdown. Both types, however, are
the current may change drastically. This volt-ampere characteristic is called zener diodes. Zeners with breakdown voltages of 1.8 V to
shown again below right. 200 V are commercially available.

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Breakdown Characteristics
The diagram below shows the reverse portion of the characteristic
curve of a zener diode. Notice that as the reverse voltage (VR) is
increased, the reverse current (IR) remains extremely small up to the
"knee‖ of the curve. At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the
zener resistance (Rz) begins to decrease as the current (Iz)
increases rapidly. From the bottom of the knee, the breakdown
voltage (Vz) remains essentially constant. This regulating ability is
the key feature of the zener diode: A zener diode maintains an
essentially constant voltage across its terminals over a specified
range of reverse current values.
A minimum value of reverse current, IZK must be maintained in order
to keep the diode in regulation. You can see on the curve that when
the reverse current is reduced below the knee of the curve, the
voltage changes drastically and regulation is lost. Also, there is a
maximum current, IZM above which the diode may be damaged.
Thus, basically, the zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage
across its terminals for values of reverse current ranging from IZK to
IZM. A nominal zener test voltage, VZT, is usually specified on a data
sheet at a value of reverse current called the zener test current, IZM.
Like resistors and capacitors, zener diodes cannot be produced with
zener breakdown voltages that are always exactly equal to a
specified value. Therefore it is necessary to specify minimum and
maximum breakdown voltage limits for each device. This is done by
specifying a breakdown voltage tolerance for each type of diode that
is manufactured.
The standard zener breakdown voltage (zener voltage) tolerances
are 20%, 10% and 5%, however specially manufactured zener
diodes are also available in 1% tolerance. For example a 6.8V 10%
zener diode will have a zener voltage somewhere in the 6.12 to
7.48V range.

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Zener Equivalent Circuit

Diagram (a) below shows the ideal model of a zener diode in reverse The ratio of ∆VZ to ∆IZ is the zener resistance, expressed as follows:
breakdown. It acts simply as a battery having a value equal to the
zener voltage. Diagram (b) represents the practical equivalent of a
zener, where the zener resistance (RZ) is included. The zener
resistance is actually an ac resistance because it is dependent on
the ratio of a change in voltage to a change in current and can be Normally, Rz is specified at /ZT, the zener test current. In most cases,
different for different portions of the characteristic curve. Since the this value of Rz is approximately constant over the full range of
voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in reverse current (∆IZ) reverse- current values.
produces a small change in zener voltage (∆VZ), as illustrated in (c).

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Power Dissipation in Zener Diodes Power-Temperature Curves

Manufacturers of zener diodes also specify the maximum power To simplify the relationship between a zener diode‘s maximum
dissipation of each device. Some devices are rated at only several power rating, its temperature and its lead length, a power-
hundred milliwatts while others are rated as high as 50 watts. temperature rating curve is often supplied with each type of diode
However some of the most popular and widely used devices have manufactured. A typical curve for a diode that has a power
relatively low ratings of 400 milliwatts, 500 milliwatts and 1 watt. A dissipation rating of 500 milliwatts at a temperature of 70°C with lead
zener diode‘s power dissipation rating is given for a specific lengths of 3/8" is shown in the diagram. Notice that three curves are
operating temperature. Often the power rating is given for a shown for three different lead lengths of 1/ 8", 3/8" and 1". The
temperature of 25°C, 50°C and 75°C. However, the actual power specified power rating of 500 milliwatts occurs only when the lead
that a zener diode can safely dissipate will decrease if the length is equal to %" and the temperature is equal to 75° centigrade
temperature increases above this specified level or increase if the as shown. If the temperature increases above or decreases below
temperature decreases below the specified level. Also, if the diode 75° centigrade, the power rating decreases below or increases
has axial leads, its power rating is often specified for a specific lead above 500 milliwatts respectively. Also notice that the shorter lead
length or various ratings are given for various lead lengths. This is length 1/8" allows the diode to dissipate more power over the same
because a diode‘s ability to dissipate power increases as its leads temperature spread while the longer lead length (1") reduces the
are shortened. The shorter leads (when appropriately soldered in an overall power rating of the device. The curve also shows that the
electronic circuit) are more effective in conducting heat away from power rating of the device is effectively reduced to zero at 200°
the diode‘s PN junction. centigrade. As you examine the diagram keep in mind the actual
temperature of the diode leads are indicated and not just the ambient
or surrounding air temperature which is sometimes shown in less
specific power temperature curves. The diodes leads are also
assumed to be soldered to a suitable circuit board or component
which can serve as a heat sink to drain away the heat produced by
the device.

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Temperature Compensated Zener Diodes

Effects of Temperature on Zener Voltage
Special zener diodes are constructed which are temperature
Zener diodes also have other characteristics that must be
compensated so that their zener voltage ratings remain almost
considered in certain applications. For example, a diode‘s zener
constant with changes in temperature. These special diodes are
voltage will vary slightly as temperature changes. The amount of
commonly referred to as temperature compensated zener diodes or
voltage change that takes place is usually expressed as a
voltage reference diodes. A temperature compensated diode is
percentage of zener voltage (VZ) change for each degree centigrade
formed by connecting a zener in series with an ordinary PN junction
rise in temperature and is referred to as the zener voltage
diode. However, the two are connected back-to-back so that the
temperature coefficient. Zener diodes that have a zener breakdown
junction diode will be forward-biased while the zener diode is
voltage of 5 volts or more, usually have positive zener voltage
reverse-biased.
temperature coefficients.
The zener diode usually has a zener voltage rating that is greater
This simply means that their breakdown voltages increase as
than 5 volts and therefore has a positive temperature coefficient.
temperature increases. However, most diodes that have breakdown
However, the forward-biased diode will have a forward voltage drop
voltages that are below approximately 4 volts usually have a
of approximately 0.6 or 0.7 volts and a negative temperature
negative zener voltage temperature coefficient. This means that the
coefficient. By carefully selecting the two devices so that their
breakdown voltage will decrease with an increase in temperature.
temperature coefficients are equal and opposite, the voltage
changes effectively cancel out. Furthermore, the voltage drops
When the breakdown voltages are between approximately 4 and 5
across the two devices must be summed to obtain the overall
volts, the zener voltage temperature coefficient may be either
voltage rating of the temperature compensated device.
positive or negative. For example, a zener diode with a zener
breakdown voltage of 3.9 volts might have a zener voltage
For example, when a 5.6 volt zener diode is connected in series with
temperature coefficient of -0.025 percent per degree centigrade. This
a junction diode that has a forward voltage drop of 0.6 volts, a 6.2
means that the diode‘s zener voltage will decrease 0.025 percent (or
volt temperature compensated zener diode is produced. In some
approximately 0.001 volt) for each degree centigrade rise in
cases more than one junction diode may be used to obtain the
temperature.
necessary compensation. Typical temperature compensated zener
diodes will have temperature coefficients that range from .01 percent
per degree centigrade to 0.0005% per degree centigrade. However,
the optimum temperature stability usually occurs at or near a specific
operating current which is normally specified by the manufacturer.

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Zener Voltage Regulation

Zener diodes are widely used for voltage regulation. The diagram As the input voltage varies (within limits), the zener diode maintains
below illustrates how a zener diode can be used to regulate a an essentially constant voltage across the output terminals.
varying dc voltage to keep it at a constant level. This process is However, as VIN in changes, /Z will change proportionally, and
called input or line regulation. therefore the limitations on the input variation are set by the
minimum and maximum current values with which the zener can
operate and on the condition that VIN > VZ. Resistor R is the series
current-limiting resistor.

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For example, suppose that the zener diode shown below can
maintain regulation over a range of current values from 4 mA to 40
mA. For the minimum current, the voltage across the 1 kΩ resistor is

VR = (4mA) (1 kΩ) = 4 V

Since

VR = VIN - VZ

then

VIN = VR + VZ = 4 V + 10 V = 14 V

For the maximum current, the voltage across the 1 kΩ resistor is

VR = (40mA) (1 kΩ) = 40 V

Therefore

VIN = 40 V + 10 V = 50 V

As you can see, this zener diode can regulate an input voltage from
14 V to 50 V and maintain approximately a 10 V output. The output
will vary slightly because of the zener resistance.

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Zener Regulation with a Varying Load

The diagram here shows a zener regulator with a variable load

resistor across the terminals. The zener diode maintains a constant
voltage across RL as long as the zener current is greater than IZK and
less than IZM. This process is called load regulation.

From No Load to Full Load

When the output terminals are open (RL = ∞), the load current is zero
and all of the current is through the zener. When a load resistor is
connected, part of the total current is through the zener and part
through RL.

As RL is decreased, IL goes up and IZ goes down. The zener diode

continues to regulate until IZ reaches its minimum value, IZK. At this
point the load current is maximum.

Percent Regulation

The percent regulation is a figure of merit used to specify the

performance of a voltage regulator. It can be in terms of input (line)
regulation or load regulation.

The percent line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the
output voltage for a given change in input voltage. It is usually
expressed as a percent change in VOUT for a 1 V change in VIN
(%/V).

Percent line regulation =

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All semiconductor diodes are constructed from PN junctions.
However each type of diode is manufactured to meet a certain
specification and this is determined by the requirements of particular
applications.

Simple Applications

Power Diodes - used mainly for rectification. Because rectifier

diodes are subject to high inverse voltages, this type of diode
typically has high PIV ratings often to hundreds of volts. Also,
rectifier diodes have high current ratings in the forward direction.
Hence the name Power diode.

Signal Diodes - general purpose signal diodes are used in

applications where a large current and PIV rating are not required.

Zener Diodes - these devices are used for voltage stabilisation.

Zener diodes are available in a range of Zener breakdown voltages.
e.g. A 7.5 V Zener diode will breakdown at 7.5 V inverse voltage and
maintain that voltage across its terminals for a wide range of inverse
currents.

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Diodes - Light Emitting Diodes Doping the Junction

The colour of light emitted by a LED is determined mainly by the

Light Emitting Diode
impurities introduced into the PN junction during manufacture. Each
dopant, or combination of dopants, produces a light output peculiar
In a PN junction the majority of the power is dissipated from the
to itself; thus gallium phosphide (GaP) produces a light which is
junction as HEAT but a small amount is emitted as LIGHT. Usually
green or yellow in colour depending on the level of impurities
the amount of light is small and remains imperceptible, but junctions
introduced into the silicon wafer; the wavelength of the light emitted
can be constructed where the light output is high. If a junction diode
by this particular dopant is 0.55 micrometres (µm) - about 550 THz
is fabricated specifically to emit light it is referred to as a Light
A further combination of impurities.
Emitting Diode or LED.

Operation of LED

The light emitted from a semiconductor is the result of the

conversion of electrical energy into light energy. Materials which are
able to convert electrical energy into light energy most easily are the
semiconductors. Semiconductors are capable of carrying one or
more of their orbiting electrons in the conduction (or HIGH energy)
shell; if such an electron CAN be forced into a lower energy shell -
that is, lose some of its energy - then the excess energy has to be
transferred into some other form. In a light emitting diode, the excess
energy is dissipated as light.

The nature and form which the emitted light takes is determined,
primarily, by the type of material used as a dopant in the PN
junction. Each dopant substance has its own well defined energy
gap between the high and low energy state and the differences
between types is exhibited by the colour or wavelength of the light
emitted from the junction

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Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), produces an orange/red light, Efficiency

again depending on the level of impurities in the wafer; the
wavelength of the light emitted by this particular combination centres The efficiency of any device is a ratio of the output power supplied
on 0.65 micrometres (about 480THz) which is at the extreme of by the device and the input power applied to the device. In a light
perception for the human eye. The spectral response of LEDs is emitting diode, the power input is purely electrical and is, therefore,
shown in the figure below, with human vision levels superimposed measured in watts whilst the output from the device is a light source
for comparison purposes. whose units of measurement are lumens. The efficiency rating of the
diode is the ratio of light power to electrical power expressed as
Much research is being carried out on the doping materials, and lumens per watt. The output of a typical gallium phosphide LED is
percentages of each, needed to produce a range of colours shown in the figure below. The vertical axis of the graph shows the
spreading across the colour spectrum. To date, the range of colours ability of the device to convert electrical power and it can be seen
extends from deep red through orange, yellow, all shades of green, that at its most efficient, the ratio is 980 lumens per watt. As a
and a close approximation to dark blue. comparison, the conversion rate of a tungsten halogen lamp is
approximately 2500 lumens per watt, whilst a fluorescent lamp is
Output Levels 2100 lumens per watt.

If the maximum receptivity of the human eye is given a value of unity

at the centre of its response to the various wavelengths of perceived
light, it can be seen from the figure that a gallium phosphide (GaP)
display provides maximum output at approximately the centre of the
response curve of the eye. As a contrast the response of gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) occurs almost at the extreme of range
of vision and would show up as a very dim glow

To counteract the variations in brilliance between the two types of

LED, it is necessary that the red/orange (GaAsP) range be supplied
with more power to raise the level of illumination. Typically, a red
LED requires ten times more power than a yellow (GaP) LED but this
is offset to some extent by red being a more noticeable colour and
hence attracting an operator‘s attention quicker.

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Construction

Light emitting diodes are available in a wide variety of shapes and A more detailed drawing of the PN wafer of the light emitting diode is
sizes, and they can be manufactured to fulfil a specific purpose or for shown below and, from this diagram, it can be seen that one face of
general use. In size, they range from a miniature decimal point for the silicon is left clear of any obstructions or connecting wire which
use in a multi-number configuration to a three-inch high single may impede the path of the light rays. For a single indicator diode,
character display. the junction uses a square section of silicon. During manufacture it is
considerably easier to slice the silicon die into squares than it is to
The figure below shows a section of one type of LED. The diagram cut and trim complicated shapes; the desired outward appearance of
shows the PN junction encapsulated in clear plastic with the light the LED can be more easily obtained by shaping the lens of the
from the device focused by a lens. The lens is usually made of self- device. Thus, from a square section of silicon, plastic lens caps of
coloured plastic to match, or modify slightly, the colour being emitted square, rectangular, circular or star shape can achieve the shapes
by the junction. The lens can be made to focus the light to a small required for a particular indicator.
pinpoint or to spread it over a wide area.

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Bi-Colour LED

In some equipment, there frequently arises the need for a device to

act as a simple ‗GO‘ or ‗NO GO‘ indicator. Previously, this was
accomplished by using a millimetre with its scale divided into a green
zone and a red zone to indicate the two states. A much more
economical and more easily discernible method of achieving the
same result can be obtained by fabricating two light emitting diodes
onto a single substrate. The figure here shows such a piece of
silicon where one junction is doped with gallium phosphide (green
output) and the other junction with gallium arsenide phosphide (red
output). Depending on which junction is energised, the LED will emit
either a red light or a green light; an overlap period can be provided
when both diodes illuminate to show a borderline condition.

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Multi-Segment LED
The diode junctions which form the segments of the display require
A further development of the standard LED package is the seven both an anode and a cathode connection. For a sixteen segment
segment numerical indicator and the sixteen segment alphanumeric display this would result in thirty two connectors. Fortunately, most
indicator. In these devices, the PN junctions are elongated into a situations allow for a common connection to all the cathodes (or,
rectangular format and the light is emitted in a bar shape. The letter alternatively, all the anodes). The displays are then referred to as
or number which a multi-segment display is required to produce is common anode connected or common cathode connected and the
formed from a combination of illuminated segments. The figure number of leads reduces to eight or seventeen for the two types of
below shows the layout of the constituent light emitting diodes which display.
are used in seven segment displays. A sample of the letters or
figures which may also be produced by some of the possible
combinations of illuminated diodes is also illustrated.

Because these displays are composed of linear segments (that is,

there are no curls or twists which can be produced), some
anomalies could exist between similarly formed letters or numbers.
Any combination which may introduce a misinterpretation is usually
not specified in the equipment manual which covers the
interpretation of the display. As an example, the number 1 and the
letter I could easily be read one for the other, and the distinction will
be shown in the display dictionary.

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Dot Matrix Display Power Requirements

An alternative to the segmented arrays is a LED diode device which Any device which is provided with a supply voltage and has current
consists of a matrix of single diode indicators. The diodes are through it consumes power. The amount of power consumed by a
arranged in a series of horizontal rows and vertical columns as light emitting diode is determined mainly by the size of the PN
shown below. With these devices, it is possible to select any junction. The light emitting diode is essentially a surface operated
required combination of diodes to form the desired pattern. Like the device and the current through the junction must be limited to
segmented displays, a dot matrix can be wired for common anode or prevent burnout. Maximum operating currents at a supply voltage of
common cathode but, like the display shown here, is more usually 1.6 volts are typically 10mA to 20mA.
wired for multiplex operation. This type of operation involves a scan
of the array so many times every second, the rate depending on the
turn-on and turn-off times of the diodes. The vertical and horizontal
arrays are scanned separately and a diode is illuminated only when
a supply voltage and an earth connection are available across it.
Multiplex theory and operation will be covered in more detail later.

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The LED is a p-n junction especially manufactured from a semi- Example 1

conducting material which emits light when a current of about 10mA
flows through the junction. No light is emitted when the junction is Calculate the value of the series resistor required when an LED is to
reverse biased and if this exceeds about 5V the LED may be be used to show the presence of a 12 V supply.
damaged. The general appearance and a circuit symbol are shown
in the diagram.

The LED will emit light the voltage across it is about 2 V. If a voltage
greater than 2 V is to be used then a resistor must be connected in The circuit is therefore, as shown below.
series with the LED.

To calculate the value of the series resistor we must ask ourselves

what we know about LEDs. We know that the diode requires a
forward voltage of about 2 V and a current of about 10 mA must flow
through the junction to give sufficient light. The value of the series
resistor R will, therefore be given by:

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Practical Circuits

The application of LED‘s as visual indicators are numerous and

varied. A single LED can be used as a simple ON-OFF indicator in
either mains or battery powered equipment with only minor circuit
alterations. The figure here shows an LED employed to indicate a
supply ON situation for a mains powered equipment. The 120k ohm
resistor reduces the 240 volt supply to approximately 1.5 volts at
20mA and the diode D1 is used to rectify the voltage at the
indicator. It is usual to employ a red LED to indicate that voltage is
being applied to the equipment.

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The following figure uses three LEDs in a circuit to indicate under- The op-amps are arranged so that they conduct only when the two
voltage, correct voltage or over-voltage conditions. This circuit uses input voltages are approximately equal; thus when the supply
three operational amplifiers with two input terminals, and one voltage is correct, op-amp 3 will conduct and the voltage correct LED
operational amplifier with a single input connection. The single input will illuminate. Similarly, if the supply voltage increases, the voltage
op-amp derives its input signal from the supply voltage any inputs to op-amp 3 become dissimilar and its LED extinguishes
fluctuations on the supply rail appear at the output terminal. Three whilst the inputs to op-amp 2 are now in close approximation to each
parallel connections are taken from the output and used as inputs to other and the over voltage LED illuminates. If the input voltage falls
the remaining three op-amps. The second input for the two input op- to a value less than is desired, op-amp 4 will conduct and the under
amps is derived from a resistive ladder network which is supplied by voltage LED illuminates.
a zener diode stabilised source. Thus each of the three input
voltages is in decreasing order of magnitude.

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Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) Typically silicon diodes are used, as their leakage current with no
light (dark current) is much lower than germanium. The sensitivity
Almost all materials change their resistance with a change in lies between 10mA/lm to about 50mA/lm (lm = lumen which is the
temperature. Light energy falling on a suitable semiconductor also amount of light emitted from a light source 1 candela strong) and the
causes a change in resistance. The semiconductor material of an spectral response covers the visible to the infrared range.
LDR is encapsulated as shown in the diagram. Photodiodes used with laser systems can operate at very high
frequencies. They are very fast operating and are used in laser gyros
The resistance of an LDR in total darkness is about 10 MΩ, in and as an optical receiver for laser systems.
normal room lighting about 5 kΩ and in bright sunlight about 100 Ω.
They can carry tens of milli-amperes, an amount which is sufficient Thermistor
to operate a relay. The LDR uses this characteristic to switch on
automatically street lighting and security alarms. The thermistor is a thermal resistor, a semiconductor device whose
resistance varies with temperature. The circuit symbol and general
Photodiode appearance are show in the diagram. They can be supplied in many
shapes and are used for the measurement and control of
The photodiode is a normal junction diode is a normal junction diode temperature up to their maximum useful temperature limit of about
with a transparent window through which light can enter. The circuit 300°C. They are very sensitive and because the bead of
symbol and general appearance are shown in the diagram. semiconductor material can be made very small, they can measure
temperature in most inaccessible places with fast response times.
It is operated in reverse bias mode and the leakage current
increases in proportion to the amount of light falling on the junction. Thermistors are embedded in high voltage underground
This is due to the light energy breaking bonds in the crystal lattice of transmission cables in order to monitor the temperature of the cable.
the semiconductor material to produce holes and electrons. Information about temperature of a cable allows engineers to load
Photodiodes will only carry micro-amperes of current but can operate the cables more efficiently. A particular cable can carry a larger load
much more quickly than LDRs and are used as fast counters when in winter for example, when heat from the cable is being dissipated
the light intensity is changing rapidly. more efficiently. A thermistor is also used to monitor the water
temperature of a motor car.

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Light Dependent Resistors (LDR)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHOTODIODE

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Diode Ratings Summary

Diode ratings are the manufacturers recommended limits for safe
The unbiased PN junction has a barrier pd. POSITIVE to the N side
and reliable operation.
and NEGATIVE to the P side.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
When an external voltage is applied, POSITIVE to P side and
NEGATIVE to N side, the junction is forward biased and low
The maximum safe repetitive reverse bias allowed. If the applied
resistance. A large current flows.
inverse voltage is excessive the diode will breakdown and damage
may occur. The rated PIV for a device, specifies the maximum
When the external voltage is applied in the opposite sense the
inverse voltage that the device can tolerate without the risk of
junction is reversed biased and high resistance, small current flows.
breakdown.
PN junctions can be used as diodes.
Current Rating
Diode Testing
This is the maximum forward current allowed.
The p-n junction has a low resistance in one direction and a very
Power Rating
high resistance in the reverse direction. Connecting to an Ohm
meter, with the red positive lead to the anode and the black negative
The maximum power the device can dissipate without damage
lead to the cathode would give a very low reading. Reversing the
occurring. Power is dissipated in the diode as heat energy, therefore
lead connections would give a high resistance reading in a good
if the diode is operated at excessive power dissipation it is liable to
component.
overheat.
Use of two diodes to reduce the current or voltage applied to a
Diode Power = Diode Current х Potential Difference across the diode
diode.
PD = ID х VD NOTE: All semiconductor devices consist of combinations of PN
junctions. It is the way these junctions are biased which determines
the way the device behaves. We will next consider the BIPOLAR
TRANSISTOR which has two such PN junctions in its structure.

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Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Thyristor in Practice

The thyristor was previously known as the silicon controlled rectifier The thyristor has no moving parts and operates without arcing. It can
since it is a rectifier which controls the power to a load. It consists of operate at extremely high speeds and the currents used to operate
four pieces of semiconductor material sandwiched together and the gates are very small. The most common application for the
connected to three terminals as shown in the diagram. thyristor is to control the power supply to a load, for example, lighting
dimmers and motor speed control.
The word thyristor is derived from the Greek word thyra meaning
door, because the thyristor behaves like a door. It can be open or The power available to an ac load can be controlled by allowing
cut, allowing or preventing current flow through the device. current to be supplied to the load during only a part of each cycle.
This can be achieved by supplying a gate pulse automatically at a
The door is opened, or we say the thyristor is triggered, to a chosen point in each cycle as shown in the diagram. Power is
conducting state by applying a pulse voltage to the gate connection. reduced by triggering the gate later in the cycle.
Once the thyristor is in the conducting state, the gate loses all
control over the device. The only way to bring the thyristor back to a The thyristor is only a half-wave device (like a diode) allowing control
non-conducting state is to reduce the voltage across the anode and of only half the available power in an ac circuit. This is very
cathode to zero or apply reverse voltage across the anode and uneconomical and a further development of this device has been the
cathode. triac.

We can understand the operation of a thyristor by considering the Thyristor Testing Using an Ohmmeter
circuit shown. This circuit can also be used to test suspected faulty
components. A thyristor may also be tested using an ohmmeter as described
below, assuming that the red lead of the ohmmeter is positive.
Thyristor Operation and Testing
A 'good' thyristor will give the following readings:
When SW B only is closed the lamp will not light, but when SW A is
also closed, the lamp lights to full brilliance. Black to cathode and red on gate = low resistance
Red to cathode and black on gate = high resistance value
The lamp will remain illuminated even when SW A is opened. This
shows that the thyristor is operating correctly. Once a voltage has The value of the second reading will depend upon the thyristor and
been applied to the gate the thyristor becomes forward conducting, may vary from only slightly greater to very much greater.
like a diode and the gate loses control.
From cathode to anode with either polarity connected will result
in a very high resistance reading.
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GATE

Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

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Thyristor Test Circuit

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Graph of the Characteristics for an SCR

In aircraft systems, the SCR would be typically used in firewire
The following figure shows a graph of the characteristics for an SCR control, windscreen-heating control, etc. In windscreen heat control,
for different values of gate voltage. The points a, b and c represent the SCR can be gated at the beginning or at any point throughout
values at which the junction reverse bias is overcome and the SCR the half cycle. The earlier it is gated then more current will flow to the
conducts, known as 'breakover', 'a' represents the highest voltage windscreen, the later it is gated then less current will flow.
and 'c' the lowest gate voltage. Once the SCR is conducting the
voltage across it is typically 1 volt.

GRAPH OF SCR CHARACTERISTICS

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Waveforms

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The triac's gate region is more complex and a detailed analysis of its
Bi-Directional Triode Thyristors operation will not be considered. However, the gate is basically capable of
directly or remotely triggering either equivalent SCR into conduction. Notice
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) previously described is capable of that both of the equivalent SCR gates are tied together to show the
controlling current which is flowing in one direction and is therefore an equivalent relationship.
undirectional device. The SCR is used in many applications which involve
the control of direct current as well as alternating currents. Unfortunately The circuit shown is not in all ways equivalent to the triac. This circuit is
when used in ac applications, a single SCR is capable of operating on just used simply to explain the basic concept involved. The primary difference is
one alternation of each ac input cycle. In order to achieve full control of that the two equivalent SCR's would actually require different gating circuits
each ac input cycle, it is necessary to use two SCR's in parallel or it is to trigger them into conduction but the triac is designed to respond to
necessary to convert each entire ac cycle into a pulsating dc signal before it currents that flow through its single gate terminal.
is applied to a single SCR.
Unlike an SCR which can control currents flowing in only one direction, the
In applications where it necessary to achieve full control of an ac signal, it is triac can control currents flowing in either direction. The triac is therefore
often much easier to use a device known as a bidirectional triode thyristor. widely used to control the application of ac power to various types of
This device is more commonly referred to as a triac. The triac has basically loads or circuits. The conditions required to turn a triac on or off in either
the same switching characteristics as an SCR, however it exhibits these direction are similar to the conditions required to control an SCR. Both
same characteristics in both directions. This makes the triac equivalent to devices can be triggered to the on state by a gate current and they can be
two SCR's which are in parallel but are connected in opposite directions. turned off by reducing their operating currents below their respective
holding values. In the case of an SCR, current must flow in the forward
We will now briefly examine the triac's basic construction and operation and direction from cathode to anode. However, the triac is designed to conduct
then we will consider its important characteristics and applications. both forward and reverse currents through its main terminals.
Basic Construction and Operation The schematic symbol that is commonly used to represent the triac is
shown. Notice that the symbol consists of two parallel diodes connected in
A simplified diagram of a triac is shown. Note that the device has three opposite directions with a single gate lead attached. The device is usually
leads which are designated as main terminal 1, main terminal 2 and the placed within a circle as shown and its main terminals are sometimes
gate. Main terminal 1 and main terminal 2 are each connected to a PN identified as MT1 and MT2 as indicated.
junction at opposite ends of the device. The gate is also connected to a PN
junction which is at the same end as terminal 1. If you examine the entire
structure closely you will see that from terminal 1 to terminal 2 you can pass
through an NPNP series of layers or a PNPN series of layers. In other
words the triac is effectively a four layer NPNP device in parallel with a four
layer PNPN device.

These NPNP and PNPN are often compared to two SCR's which are
connected in parallel but in opposite directions. This equivalent SCR
arrangement is shown.
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Bi-Directional Triode Thyristors

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It is possible to use a thyristor to control a.c. power by allowing Since the thyristor switches off during the negative half cycles, it is
current to be supplied to the load during only part of each cycle. The only a half wave device (like a rectifier) and allows control of only
diagram below shows the basic circuit and waveform. half the power available in a.c. circuits. The device that overcomes
this is a TRIAC. This comprises two thyristors connected in parallel
but in opposition and controlled by the same gate, i.e. it is bi-
directional and allows current to flow through it in both directions.

The terms Anode and Cathode have no meaning for a TRIAC;

instead the contact near to the Gate is called ―main terminal 1‖
(MT1), and the other ―main terminal 2‖ (MT2).

In a practical circuit, the gate pulses are applied automatically at a

selected stage during part of each cycle. Half power to the load is
achieved by applying the gate pulses at the peaks of the a.c.
waveform. More or less power is achieved by changing the timing of
A small Gate current switches on a very much larger current
the gate pulses e.g. trigger early output power to the load rises.
between the main terminals. Typical Gate current IG is in the order of
20mA but can trigger TRIAC‘s of up to 25A (typical).

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Typical uses can be lamp dimmers, regulation or a motor speed If Ɵ = 0, the TRIAC conducts throughout the whole of each half cycle
controller. However, there has to be some means of varying the a.c. of the a.c. waveform and the load is at full power. As Ɵ increases
power passing through the load. The circuit opposite shows how this form 0 – 1800, more and more of the half cycle is chopped off, and
can be achieved using an "RC phase shifter‖. the dimmer the lamp becomes. Practical a.c. power control circuits
using TRIAC‘s refine the design shown to give better low-power
VR1 is the dimmer control. The device shown as a DIAC is control, and a reduction of radio interference that is generated by the
essentially two zener diodes connected back to back. It conducts rapid turn on and off of the TRIAC. A single package that combines a
when the voltage across C1 reaches the DIAC‘s breakdown voltage DIAC (the Triggering device, as shown on the next page) and a
e.g. 3V. The burst of current through the DIAC "fires‖ the TRIAC. TRIAC is known as a QUADRAC.
The rate at which C1 charges depends on the CR time constant. The
greater the time constant the slower the capacitor charges and the
later in each half cycle the lamp lights and therefore the dimmer the
lamp is. The waveforms below show how the TRIAC controls power
by chopping off part of each half cycle. The amount chopped off is
indicated by the phase shift.

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V-I Characteristics - Applications

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Schottky Diode
The basic construction, as already mentioned, is a piece of
This diode is a rectifying metal to semiconductor junction. Several aluminum fused to an N type semiconductor. Some of the aluminum
metals may be used, including gold and aluminum, which are fused atoms diffuse into the silicon because aluminum has a valence of 3.
directly to a semiconductor material. This makes a very small P region. The current carrier is almost
100% electrons due to free electrons in the N type semiconductor
Since the mobility of electrons is greater than holes an N-type semi- and the metal.
conductor is used. Current flow in this diode differs from current flow
in conventional P-N junction diodes in that the minority carriers do The Schottky diode is used in the making of logic gates as the
not take any part in the process. The diode has very low capacitance switching time is high.
and high switching speeds, produces less noise and has a smaller
forward conducting voltage (0.2 to 0.4v) then conventional P-N
diodes.

SCHOTTKY DIODE SYMBOL

Schottky & PN Characteristics Compared

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Diodes - Varactor Diode

Varactor Diode

Also known as Van Cap or Capacitive Diode. When a reverse biased

PN junction behaves very similar to a charged parallel plate
capacitor as on each side of the junction are "LOCKED IN‖
stationary charges. The only mobile charges are those associated
with the very small minority or leakage current. This potential hill
region on either side of the junction is "DEPLETED‖ of mobile charge
carriers and is therefore called the depletion region. The associated
capacitance is called the depletion capacitance.

The PN junction may therefore be used as a capacitor and is

invariably the form of capacitance in an integrated circuit.

The depletion capacitance has another important feature, in that the

width of the space charge region d varies with the applied bias. Thus
if the reverse bias is increased, d is increased, i.e. the effective
separation of the capacitor plates is increased. This means that the
capacitance is reduced. So the value of the capacitance varies
inversely with the value of the applied voltage. Symbol: Varactor Diode
The relationship between applied voltage V and capacitance C
depends on the nature of the junction, but is always non-linear.

This voltage dependent feature of the depletion capacitance is

extremely important in a number of applications e.g. tuning and
modulation circuits.

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Varistor
The metal oxide varistor (MOV) is a semiconductor resistor made of
zinc oxide semiconductor crystals. When the voltage across this
specialised resistor becomes two high, the resistor breaks down and
becomes a conductor. The action of the varistor can be compared to
a pair of zener diodes wired back to back in series. They are used
for transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch
contact protection.

MOV SYMBOL

TYPICAL MOV VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTIC GRAPH

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The varistor is connected across the secondary of the transformer

and at normal voltage has a very high resistance and takes a very
small current. However when the voltage spikes exceed the
breakdown voltage, it conducts and clips off the noise spikes. The
varistor switches extremely fast, unlike zener diodes that are slow
switching. The principle described here could also be used for switch
contact protection.

VARISTOR NOISE SPIKE CLIPPING ACTION

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For Your Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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Transistors come in many case styles depending on manufacturer, power

4.1.2 TRANSISTORS rating and use. There are as many different sets of specifications as there
are transistors.
Introduction
Some are better at higher frequencies; some can withstand higher power
Solid state devices such as transistors are the backbone of the electronics dissipation and some are more stable at varying temperatures. These are
industry. but a few of the specifications that must be taken into account by the
technician. The designer must consider even more.
The Bi-Polar Transistor - Use and Identification

As a result of successful completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

 Recognise the common transistor case types.

 List and describe the common transistor specs.
 Demonstrate some general knowledge of transistor operation, use
and construction.

Up to now, we have been mainly concerned with "two legged" devices,

namely resistors, capacitors, coils and diodes. The transistor is the first
"three legged" device to be discussed and, in many ways it is the most
important.

Semiconductors are solid state devices such as transistors, diodes and

integrated circuits. The transistor is the major device in the semiconductor
group. Transistors are used as amplifiers, switches, variable resistors,
voltage regulators and signal detectors. The list could go on. Transistors
are used in virtually every electronic system.

Modern computers use millions of transistors compacted onto tiny silicon

wafers (Integrated Circuits - ICs). In televisions, transistors regulate the size
and quality of the picture and detect and amplify the sound, colour and
video signals.

Needless to say, the would be technician must have sound understanding

of transistors as well as some experience in handling these delicate
devices.

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The Transistor
The transistor is made up of 2 PN junctions in one piece of
semiconductor material. There are clearly two possible
arrangements, namely PNP transistor and NPN transistor. The three
electrodes are called EMITTER, BASE and COLLECTOR.

Bipolar transistors are operated with the base emitter junction

forward biased and the collector base junction reverse biased, i.e.
Electrons flow from emitter to collector, via base control. Base
voltage controls electron flow.

PNP Transistor

The EMITTER emits holes into the base region.

The COLLECTOR collects holes out of the base region.
Few holes recombine with electrons in the base region.

NPN Transistor

The EMITTER emits electrons into the base region.

The COLLECTOR collects electrons out of the base region.
Few electrons recombine with holes in the base region.

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Solid State Devices The following is a list of some transistor specifications:

The layers and thus the wires connecting them to the "outside world"
IC - collector current
are called the "emitter", the "base" and the "collector". The diagram
IB - base current
illustrates these connections and the proper biasing (applied voltage
IE - emitter current
polarities). Note that the emitter base junction is always forward
VC - collector voltage
biased. It must be for the transistor to conduct. The base collector is
VB - base voltage
reverse biased. The basic usefulness of a transistor derives from the
VE - emitter voltage
fact that a small increase in base emitter current results in a large
VEE - supply voltage to the emitter
increase in emitter collector current.
VCC - supply voltage to the collector
VBB - supply voltage to the base
Transistors are represented in schematics as illustrated in the
BVCEO - breakdown voltage between the emitter and collector. The
diagram. The only difference between the two is the direction of the
base is not connected (open). The transistor is connected
arrow on the emitter.
so emitter is common to the input and output.
hfe - current gain (amplification)

These are a few of the items that may be specified for a particular
transistor. As you can see from this, it can be difficult to substitute
transistors without a substitution guide or specifications manual.
Therefore, it is essential for the technician to have access to such
manuals.

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Bipolar transistors are operated with the base-emitter junction

Bi-polar Junction Transistors (BJT’s) forward biased and the collector-base junction reverse biased.
Electrons flow from emitter to collector, via base control.
An NPN is produced by sandwiching a P-type layer between two n-
type layers, and
The Base voltage controls electron flow and it uses both holes and
electrons as carriers. It is current controlled (despite using the
A PNP is produced by sandwiching a N-type layer between two p-
analogy of 0.7v or 0.3v forward bias voltages), the O/P current
type layers.
depends on the I/P current.

Symbol of NPN transistor

Symbol of PNP transistor

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Shorthand notation for Transistor Voltages and Currents

All upper case letters (i.e. capitals) refer to D.C. conditions

All lower case letters refer to a.c. conditions

VB means the DC voltage at the base referred to earth

VE means the DC voltage at the emitter referred earth
IC & IE are Emitter and Collector currents respectively
Vbe means the a.c. signal voltage between the base and emitter

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Transistor Action  Majority carriers from the emitter N region (i.e. electrons)
produce a large current flow due to forward biasing of b-e
The diagram shows a transistor with its base emitter junction forward junction.
biased and its collector base junction reverse biased as previously
mentioned.  As the base region is very thin most of these majority carriers
will travel straight through the base region towards the
Electrons are emitted into the base region but due to the low level of collector.
doping in the base, most of these electrons move across the base to
the collector.  However, a few majority carriers will recombine in the base
region, giving rise to a small base current.
Typically 98% of the electrons leaving the emitter arrive at the
collector leaving 2% to flow out through the base. This is basic
An important relationship for any transistor is that:
transistor action which always takes place irrespective of the
transistor configuration. IE = IB + IC
Typically IC = 0.981E so that IC IE
IB = 0.021E

Always IE = IB + IC

To explain the action of the transistor we will only consider an NPN

SILICON device. The diagram shows typical bias voltages and the
resultant currents that will flow through the transistor.

The action of the transistor is as follows:

 The emitter to base junction is forward biased due to 0.6V

across it.

 The base collector junction is reverse biased due to 5.4 V

(i.e. 6V - 600 mV) across it.

 The base region is very thin.

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Transistor

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Action of NPN Transistor Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee, electrons
cross the junction into the base. Only a small proportion (about 1%
For transistor action to occur the BASE-EMITTER junction must be
to 2%) of the electrons combine with holes in the base due to it being
forward biased (POSITIVE to 'P', NEGATIVE to 'N') and the
very thin and lightly doped. Most of the electrons (98% to 99%),
COLLECTOR-BASE junction must be reverse biased (POSITIVE to
under the very strong positive influence of the battery Ec, are swept
'N', NEGATIVE to 'P').
through the base to the collector to Ec to form the collector current in
the external circuit.
It should be noted that the battery Ee is much smaller than the
battery Ec, it must also be of sufficient voltage to overcome the
Electrons are the majority carriers in the NPN transistor.
barrier potential of 0.6v for silicon.
The small amount of electron-hole combination in the base gives it a
momentary negative charge, which is immediately corrected by
battery Ee supply holes, or can be considered as electron flow.
Remember conventional current flow is in the opposite direction.

So transistor action is the controlling of a large current in the high

resistance (reverse biased) collector-base junction by a small current
through the low resistance (forward biased) base-emitter junction.

NPN OPERATION

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW NPN TRANSISTOR

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Action of PNP Transistor Due to recombination of holes and electrons in the base, the base
loses free electrons and will therefore exhibit a positive charge. The
Again the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-
electrons will be attracted by battery Ec into the base to 'make-up' for
base junction is reverse biased.
those lost by recombining with holes. Figure 78 shows the
conventional current flow through the transistor.
Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee, holes cross
the junction into the base. Only 1% to 2% of holes recombine with
free electrons in the base due to it being very thin and lightly doped.
The majority of the holes 98 to 99% are accelerated towards the very
strong negative influence of battery Ec. Holes are the majority
carriers in the P N P transistor.

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW PNP TRANSISTOR

Since the carriers in the NPN and PNP transistors originate at the
emitter and distribute themselves between base and collector, the
sum of the base and collector currents must always be equal to the
emitter current, therefore:

IE = IB + IC

PNP OPERATION

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Transistor as a Switch
The transistor has no moving parts and can switch at very high
speeds.

In switching applications the transistor is treated as a two state

device, ie the transistor is either fully conducting or cut-off.

In this figure, when the input voltage reverse biases the base-emitter
junction, the transistor is cut-off and acts as an open switch. If the
input voltage switches to a large forward bias the transistor will
conduct and act as a closed switch.

Fast switching is desirable and NPN types are preferred because

their majority carriers, which are electrons, travel faster than the
majority carriers (holes) in PNP types.

MOSFETS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors) can

be used as switches, their switching speed being about ten times
faster than a BJT (Bi-polar Junction Transistor).

THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

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Switching

When used in this mode, the emitter/base junction impedance is

utilised purely as a switch. This results in two possible output
voltages:

 The lower voltage level normally 0V.

 The upper voltage level, normally power supply voltage, VCC

Transistor Switch

TR1 is an N-P-N transistor that requires the base to be at least 0.6 to

0.7 volts positive with respect to the emitter for it to conduct.

If a positive input signal (VBE) is made sufficiently large TR1 is driven

into saturation causing the output signal (VCE) to fall to practically
zero volts.

If the input signal (VBE) is removed, the emitter/base junction is no

longer forward biased, therefore TR1 is cut off and the output (VCE)
will be high (+VCC).

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Another arrangement is shown (Transistor Switch (b)) where a

positive signal to the base of TR1 turns the transistor on and the
output voltage (VCE) rises to +VCC. If the signal is removed from the
base, TR1 is cut off and the output voltage falls to the lower level,
0V.

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Transistor Operation Modes

Unlike resistors, which enforce a linear relationship between voltage
and current, transistors are non-linear devices. They have four
distinct modes of operation, which describe the current flowing
through them. (When we talk about current flow through a transistor,
we usually mean current flowing from collector to emitter of an
NPN.)

The four transistor operation modes are:

 Saturation – The transistor acts like a short circuit. Current

freely flows from collector to emitter.
 Cut-off – The transistor acts like an open circuit. No current
flows from collector to emitter.
 Active – The current from collector to emitter is proportional
to the current flowing into the base.
 Reverse-Active – Like active mode, the current is
proportional to the base current, but it flows in reverse.
Current flows from emitter to collector (not, exactly, the
purpose transistors were designed for).
The simplified quadrant graph above shows how positive and
To determine which mode a transistor is in, we need to look at the negative voltages at those terminals affect the mode. In reality it‘s a
voltages on each of the three pins, and how they relate to each bit more complicated than that.
other. The voltages from base to emitter (VBE), and from base to
collector (VBC) set the transistor‘s mode: Let‘s look at all four transistor modes individually; we‘ll investigate
how to put the device into that mode, and what effect it has on
current flow.
Note: The majority of this page focuses on NPN transistors. To
understand how a PNP transistor works, simply flip the polarity or >
and < signs.

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Saturation Mode Because the junction from base to emitter looks just like a diode, in
reality, VBE must be greater than a threshold voltage (Vth) to enter
Saturation is the on mode of a transistor. A transistor in saturation saturation. There are many abbreviations for this voltage drop – Vth,
mode acts like a short circuit between collector and emitter. Vγ, and Vd are a few – and the actual value varies between
transistors (and even further by temperature). For a lot of transistors
(at room temperature) we can estimate this drop to be about 0.6V.

Another reality bummer: there won‘t be perfect conduction between

emitter and collector. A small voltage drop will form between those
nodes. Transistor datasheets will define this voltage as CE
saturation voltage VCE(sat) – a voltage from collector to emitter
required for saturation. This value is usually around 0.05-0.2V. This
value means that VC must be slightly greater than VE (but both still
less than VB) to get the transistor in saturation mode.

In saturation mode both of the ―diodes‖ in the transistor are forward

biased. That means VBE must be greater than 0, and so must VBC. In
other words, VB must be higher than both VE and VC.

VB > VC
VB > V E

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Cutoff Mode

Cutoff mode is the opposite of saturation. A transistor in cutoff mode

is off – there is no collector current, and therefore no emitter current.
It almost looks like an open circuit.

To get a transistor into cutoff mode, the base voltage must be less
than both the emitter and collector voltages. VBC and VBE must both
be negative.

VC > VB
VE > V B

In reality, VBE can be anywhere between 0V and Vth (~0.6V) to

achieve cutoff mode.

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Active Mode Current Relationships

To operate in active mode, a transistor‘s VBE must be greater than Beta (β) can be used to calculate any of the transistor terminal
zero and VBC must be negative. Thus, the base voltage must be less currents.
than the collector, but greater than the emitter. That also means the
collector must be greater than the emitter.

VC > VB > VE IE IB IC
IB βIB
In reality, we need a non-zero forward voltage drop (abbreviated
either Vth, Vγ, or Vd) from base to emitter (VBE) to ―turn on‖ the
IB β
transistor. Usually this voltage is usually around 0.6V.

Alpha (α) – The ratio of collector current (IC) to emitter current (IE).

Also referred to as collector current efficiency.

IE is greater than IC, so the value of α is always less than 1.

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Amplifying in Active Mode

Active mode is the most powerful mode of the transistor because it The actual value of β varies by transistor. It‘s usually around 100,
turns the device into an amplifier. Current going into the base pin but can range from 50 to 200…even 2000, depending on which
amplifies current going into the collector and out the emitter. transistor you‘re using and how much current is running through it. If
your transistor had a β of 100, for example, that‘d mean an input
Our shorthand notation for the gain (amplification factor) of a current of 1mA into the base could produce 100mA current through
transistor is β (you may also see it as βF, or hFE). β linearly relates the collector.
the collector current (IC) to the base current (IB):

IC βIB

Active mode model. VBE = Vth, and IC = βIB.

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What about the emitter current, IE? In active mode, the collector and
base currents go into the device, and the IE comes out. To relate the
emitter current to collector current, we have another constant value:
α. α is the common-base current gain, it relates those currents as
such:

IC = αIE
α is usually very close to, but less than, 1. That means IC is very
close to, but less than IE in active mode.

You can use β to calculate α, or vice-versa:

If β is 100, for example, that means α is 0.99. So, if IC is 100mA, for

example, then IE is 101mA.

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Reverse Active

Just as saturation is the opposite of cutoff, reverse active mode is

the opposite of active mode. A transistor in reverse active mode
conducts, even amplifies, but current flows in the opposite direction,
from emitter to collector. The downside to reverse active mode is the
β (βR in this case) is much smaller.

To put a transistor in reverse active mode, the emitter voltage must

be greater than the base, which must be greater than the collector
(VBE<0 and VBC>0).

VC < VB < VE

Reverse active mode isn‘t usually a state in which you want to drive
a transistor. It‘s good to know it‘s there, but it‘s rarely designed into
an application.

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Relating to the PNP

In summary:
After everything we‘ve talked about on this page, we‘ve still only
covered half of the BJT spectrum. What about PNP transistors? Voltage relations NPN Mode PNP Mode
PNP‘s work a lot like the NPN‘s – they have the same four modes –
but everything is turned around. To find out which mode a PNP VE < VB < VC Active Reverse
transistor is in, reverse all of the < and > signs.
VE < VB > VC Saturation Cutoff
For example, to put a PNP into saturation VC and VE must be higher
VE > VB < VC Cutoff Saturation
than VB. You pull the base low to turn the PNP on, and make it
higher than the collector and emitter to turn it off. And, to put a PNP VE > VB > VC Reverse Active
into active mode, VE must be at a higher voltage than VB, which must
be higher than VC.
Another opposing characteristic of the NPNs and PNPs is the
direction of current flow. In active and saturation modes, current in a
PNP flows from emitter to collector. This means the emitter must
generally be at a higher voltage than the collector.

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COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF AN NPN TRANSISTOR

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Transistor Voltage Ratings Transistor Collector Curves

VCBO – The maximum allowable reverse voltage across the collector The portion to the left of VK represents saturation.
and base terminals.
The IB = 0 μA line and the space below it represents cutoff.
VCEO – The maximum allowable reverse voltage across the collector
and emitter terminals. The center portion of the curve represents the active region of
operation.
VEBO – The maximum allowable reverse voltage across the base and
emitter terminals. The right end of the curve represents the device characteristics
when it is driven into breakdown.

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Beta Curves
Transistor OFF Characteristics
Beta curves show how the value of beta varies with both
temperature and DC collector current. Collector cutoff current (ICEX) – The maximum value of IC when the
device is in cutoff.

Base cutoff current (IBL) – The maximum value of IB when the device
is in cutoff.

Transistor ON Characteristics

DC current gain (hFE) – The ratio of dc collector current to dc base

current. The dc beta rating of the component.

Collector-emitter saturation voltage, VCE(sat) – The rated value of VCE

when the component is saturated.

Base-emitter saturation voltage, VBE(sat) – The rated value of VBE

when the component is saturated.

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Transistor as an Amplifier
For the transistor to amplify, the BASE EMITTER junction must be
forward biased. The BASE COLLECTOR junction must be reverse
biased. Under these bias conditions a very small (mA) base current
controls a much larger (mA) collector current.

In considering the effects of a change in base emitter voltage on the

transistor, it is necessary to recall the characteristic for a forward
biased PN junction as in the diagram. This changing VBE from, say
600 mV to 620mV will cause an increase in base current, IB, from
say 4 mA to 8 mA for a particular transistor. Accordingly, since the
base current has doubled, IE and IC will also be doubled.

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Gain of a Transistor
The Current Gain (Ai) of a transistor varies widely among
different types of transistors. Typical values are shown in
the table below:

Transistor Typical Ai Values

Germanium 50 – 100

Silicon 100 – 250

It should be noted that these are typical values. Some Silicon

transistor may well go higher e.g. a BC109 has a D.C. current gain of
200 – 800; a 2N3053 has a current gain of 50 - 250.

The Gain is a ratio of Steady Collector Current to the Steady Base

Current. The symbols often used is the Greek letter β or hFE, where:

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EXAMPLE OF CURRENT GAIN

From our original example on page 114 the table below is

constructed:

Current in mA @ 0.6V Current in mA @ 0.62V Change in Current

IE 1 mA 2 mA 1 mA

IC 0.996 mA 1.992 mA 0.996 mA

IB 0.004 mA 0.008 mA 0.004 mA

Current Gain (Ai) =

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a.c. Voltage Amplification (AV)

Suppose now VBE is a steady bias of 610 mV with a 20 mV peak to
peak ac signal superimposed. This is shown in the diagram.

The ac input waveform has therefore been amplified.

Voltage Gain (AV) =

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Power Gain (Ap)

Power is the product of CURRENT and VOLTAGE. Power gain is
the product of current gain and voltage gain. For the common emitter
amplifier we have assumed, typical value for the current gain was
change of IC divided by change of IB

= 0.996 mA divided by 0.0004 mA = 249

The voltage gain has just been calculated as approximately 100.

Therefore the power gain AP = Ai times AV = 24,900

Power Gain (Ap)

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The COMMON EMITTER which has Ai, AV and AP all high, is most
Input and Output Impedances often used of the three configurations.
As well as the properties listed in Table 4 the input and output
The COMMON COLLECTOR with its HIGH Zin and LOW Zout is used
impedance of each amplifier configuration should be known.
to match a high impedance signal source to a low impedance load.
In simple terms IMPEDANCE is the opposition to an ac current flow
The COMMON BASE with its LOW Zin and HIGH Zout is used to
in the same way as RESISTANCE is the opposition to a dc current
match a low impedance signal source to a high impedance load.
flow.

The input impedance of an amplifier is the input signal voltage

divided by the input signal current.

Zin = and is measured in ohms

By similar reasoning Zout of the amplifier =

Zout = and is measured in ohms

The COMMON EMITTER amplifier has a MEDIUM Zin value and a

MEDIUM Zout value.

The COMMON BASE amplifier has a LOW Zin value and a HIGH Zout
value.

The COMMON COLLECTOR amplifier has a HIGH Zin value and a

LOW Zout value.

The expressions LOW, MEDIUM and HIGH are with respect to each
other and do not attempt to define relative values. Relative values
depend upon physical sizes and the value of emitter current.

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Biasing a Transistor for an Amplifier

In order to understand transistor as an amplifier, we need to look at
how the bias is applied in a practical circuit. In our previous
discussions batteries were used for the bias.

The voltage across must be 0.6V to overcome the barrier potential.

If DC only is applied to the circuit shown above, then R1 and R2 will
This could be achieved by removing RE and making R2 of such a
divide the supply voltage into the same ratio as that of the resistors.
value so that 0.6V is dropped across it. However, the problem here
So if the resistor values were 80kΩ and 20kΩ then with a supply
would be R2 would have to be quite low and the amplification would
voltage of 10V, the voltages across R1 and R2 would be 8V and 2V
be restricted.
respectively.

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The voltage across the base emitter junction (VBE) must be 0.6V and
is the difference between the voltage across R2 and RE.
VBE = VR2 – VRE

So RE must be of a value that when the standing DC current is

flowing 1.4V will be dropped across RE leaving VBE to be 0.6V.
So in the static condition, i.e. DC only applied, a standing current With current flow through the load resistor, RL and TR1 there will be
(quiescent current) flows through the circuit and R1, R2 and RE a voltage drop across RL. Let us assume this voltage drop is 5V so
provide the bias necessary to operate TR1 and allow current to flow. that the standing voltage is 10V – 5V = 5V. This is the condition that
when DC is applied to the amplifier, all bias voltages are applied and
a standing voltage is at the collector of TR1.

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We now need to look at applying a signal to the amplifier. This will be To ensure this, a capacitor is connected across RE. This capacitor
a small ac signal (which may be superimposed on a dc level), so will have a capacitive reactance at the operating frequency very
only AC must be applied to the amplifier. Capacitor C1 will block any much lower than RE This means that if the AC "bypasses" RE, it will
DC component, and also the output amplified AC value must only be leave a steady DC across RE. This capacitor C3 is known as a
passed onto the next stage if again C2 blocks a DC component. DECOUPLING CAPACITOR.
These capacitors are known as COUPLING CAPACITORS.
Please note the figures quoted are purely explanatory, and actual
It is also essential that the voltage across RE remains constant, and values will depend on the individual circuits. Also, the transistor used
therefore VBE remains constant so that the AC input signal adds to is an NPN but everything applies equally as well when using a PNP
and subtracts from the steady VBE bias. transistor except the positive rail would be at the bottom.

AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT WITH COUPLING/ DECOUPLING CAPACITORS

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Action with an AC Signal – Common Emitter Amplifier

When the AC voltage goes negative, it opposes the bias and the
Assume that with DC applied the voltage at the collector is 5V. If a transistor conducts less, the current through RL is less, so the volts
2.5mV signal is applied as the input then when the AC signal goes drop is less and the collector voltage rises.
positive it will add to the DC bias. The transistor will switch on more
and the current through the transistor will increase and the voltage
drop across RL will increase, so the collector voltage will fall.
Assume if falls to by 0.25V.

So you can see with an input voltage of 2.5mV we get an output

swing of 0.25V so therefore there is a gain:

Please note again the values used are for explanatory purposes
only.

Also note the function of RL (load resistor) without it there would be

no voltage changes at the collector and no amplification.

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Another purpose, (probably its more well-known one) for RE, the If there is a current gain and voltage gain then there must be a
resistor in the emitter lead, is as a temperature compensating power gain.
resistor.

If the temperature increases, the resistance of the transistor

decreases, this causes greater current through the transistor and
POWER GAIN ( ) is typically several thousands.
therefore a greater voltage drop across RE. If you remember the
voltage across the base-emitter junction is VR2 – VBE and this will The input impedance is is typically 600 Ω – 2000 Ω and
decrease thus reducing the forward bias, reducing the current,
compensating for the original increase.
the output impedance is is typically 10 kΩ – 50 kΩ.
This amplifier configuration is known as a COMMON EMITTER
AMPLIFIER.

As you have seen, it has a VOLTAGE GAIN ( ) of typically Also note the phase relationship between the input and the output is
180°.
100 – 600.

It also has a CURRENT GAIN ( ) of typically 50 - 300.

So it is a current amplifier as well as a voltage amplifier.

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The COMMON EMITTER amplifier is used for the majority of Other characteristics of the common base amplifier are:
amplifier applications. There are two other amplifier configurations,
the COMMON BASE and the COMMON COLLECTOR.

Common Base Amplifier

Current Gain ( ) less than 1, typically 0.98

Voltage Gain typically 500 - 800

With reference to the figure below; if the input goes positive then the Power GAIN medium compared to common emitter
emitter is positive to the base and this reduces the bias voltage and Input impedance low typically 50 Ω to 200 Ω
the current through the transistor falls. The volts drop across RL falls
and the voltage at the collector rises. When the input goes negative Output impedance high typically 100 kΩ to 1 MΩ
the emitter is negative with respect to the base and the bias
increases, the current increases and the volts drop across RL will Input and Output signals are in phase. Because of their very low
increase and the collector voltage falls. input impedance and high output impedance they are used as
impedance matching devices.

COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER

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Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower) Other characteristics of the common collector amplifier are:

When the input goes positive this will increase the bias, the transistor
will conduct more. The volts drop across RE will increase and the top
of RE will go more positive. When the signal goes negative, the bias
Current Gain ( ) typically 20 – 200

will decrease, the transistor will conduct less the voltage across RE Voltage Gain less than 1
will decrease and the top of RE goes more negative.
Power GAIN low compared to common base and
common emitter

Input impedance high typically 20 kΩ to 100 kΩ

Output impedance low typically 20 Ω to 500 Ω

The input and output signals are in phase. Because of its high input
impedance and low output impedance it again is used for impedance
matching.

COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

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Each amplifier has the word common in front. This means that the
input and output signals are common to whichever electrode is
stated.

COMMON EMITTER INPUT BETWEEN BASE & EMITTER

OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & EMITTER

COMMON BASE INPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & BASE

OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & BASE

COMMON COLLECTOR INPUT BETWEEN BASE & COLLECTOR

COMMON COMMON COMMON
(EMITTER FOLLOWER) OUTPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & COLLECTOR
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
If you have difficulty, CURRENT <1
20 to 200 20 to 200
GAIN (0.95 to 0.995)
Identify SIGNAL IN and identify SIGNAL OUT
VOLTAGE
100 to 600 500 to 800 <1
GAIN
WHAT IS LEFT IS WHAT IT IS ALL ABOUT!!
POWER GAIN High Medium Low
e.g. SIGNAL IN on base
What‘s left? – emitter INPUT
500Ω to 2000Ω 50Ω to 200Ω 20kΩ to 100kΩ
SIGNAL OUT on collector IMPEDANCE
OUTPUT
Hence COMMON EMITTER. 10kΩ to 50kΩ 100kΩ to 1MΩ 20Ω to 500Ω
IMPEDANCE
INPUT – OUTPUT
PHASE 180°out of phase In phase In phase
RELATIONSHIP
Impedance Impedance
TYPICAL USE Normal amplifier matching matching
(low to high) (high to low)

TABLE OF COMPARISONS

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PNP Circuits
So far we have only used NPN transistors in our circuits. PNP
transistor circuits are similar to the NPN circuits except that to obtain
the same biasing condition the dc voltage applied must be reversed.
In a PNP amplifier the base must be NEGATIVE with respect to the
emitter, the collector must be NEGATIVE with respect to the base.
When the e-b junction is forward biased and the b-c junction is
reverse biased. The diagram shows a PNP COMMON EMITTER
AMPLIFIER.

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Thermal Runaway
When operated in the common emitter configuration IC is partly
temperature dependent. Transistor dissipation causes the
temperature to rise which causes an increase in transistor current.
The increased transistor current again causes increased dissipation
which causes the transistor temperature to rise further. The action is
a cumulative one and can, unless limited by series resistance, result
in the destruction of the transistor. Even if destruction does not
occur, the bias conditions may change sufficiently to cause
distortion.

The common emitter amplifier in particular requires very careful

choice of bias arrangement if thermal runaway is to be avoided.

Heatsinks

These are metal clips, plates or castings designed to attach to the

transistor in order to conduct heat away as rapidly as possible into
the air. This reduces any temperature increase and so reduces the
danger of thermal runaway and bias changes.
Heatsinks

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Multistage Amplifier

In many cases the amplifications of a single stage amplifier is

insufficient and several stages have to be used. If this is so the
output at one stage is the input to the next, i.e. they are connected in
cascade.

TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

The figure above shows a resistor (R3) and a capacitor (C2) coupled
two stage common emitter amplifier.

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A certain cascaded amplifier arrangement has the following voltage

gains AV1=10, AV2 = 15, and AV3 = 20.
n AMPLIFIER STAGES IN CASCADE a) What is overall voltage gain?

Overall voltage gain, |AvT| = |Av1|•|Av2|•|Av3| . . . |Avn|

|AvT| = |Av1|•|Av2|•|Av3| . . . |Avn| = Vout/Vin = 10 • 15 • 20

Overall gain in dB, = 3000

AvT(dB) = Av1(dB)+Av2(dB) + . . . +Avn(dB) where, Av(dB) = 20 log Av

The purpose of a multistage arrangement is to increase the overall b) Express each gain in decibels (dB) and determine the total
voltage gain. voltage gain in dB.

Av(dB) = 20 log Av

= 20 log 3000

= 20 • 3.4771

= 69.54 dB

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TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Another method of coupling stages of an amplifier is by using
transformers. Using the correct turns ratio the high output impedance
of stage 1 can be matched to the low input impedance of stage 2,
thus giving a considerable increase in gain over RC coupled stages.
However, due to the change in impedance with frequency, its
frequency response is poor compared with the RC coupled amplifier.
The uneven response that is shown causes distortion.
However, they are often used between the output stage and a
loudspeaker load (High to low impedance matching).
If the gain of stage 1 is 5 and the gain of stage 2 is 20 then the
overall gain is 100 (5 x 20). The overall gain is the product of the
individual gains. TRANSFORMER & RC COUPLED RESPONSE CURVES

TWO STAGE TRANSFORMER COUPLED AMPLIFIER

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Directly-Coupled Amplifiers

Coupling amplifier stages to one another via capacitors or

transformers makes it easy to couple together points with differing
DC voltage levels. However, this form of amplifier will only amplify an
alternating signal, completely ignoring dc voltages and will respond
poorly to signals of very low frequencies.

Many control systems found in aircraft produce signals that vary only
infrequently and this makes it necessary to use directly-coupled
amplifiers in order to amplify those variations. Careful matching of
transistors and associated components is essential if these
amplifiers are to perform correctly. They are particularly sensitive to
voltage and temperature variations.

Simple Direct Coupling of two Bi-polar Transistor Amplifiers

The emitter bias resistor in TR2's circuit (R) produces a series

current negative feedback, reducing the overall gain of the amplifier
to a minimum.

DIRECT COUPLED BI-POLAR TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

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Direct Coupling with Zener Diode Bias

A Zener diode in the emitter circuit of TR2 maintains a constant

voltage at the emitter and thus increases the overall gain of the
amplifier. It also goes some way towards decreasing the effects of
any variation in supply voltage.

DIRECT COUPLING WITH ZENER DIODE BIAS

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Differentially Connected Amplifiers

If two identical directly-coupled amplifiers have the same power

source, then a change in supply voltage will not cause a change in
the difference of their outputs. There is similarly no change in the
difference of their outputs if the ambient temperature changes.

The only thing that will produce a change in the difference at their
output is a variation in their signal inputs.

The 'Long-Tailed Pair' Differential Amplifier

The figure below shows the arrangement of the 'long tailed pair'.
Note the output is across the collectors of the two transistors, and
that they have a common emitter via a resister (R).

THE LONG TAILED DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

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The Darlington Pair

This arrangement gives a high current gain. It can also be used in

the Common Collector or Emitter Follower configuration with
currents in the order of milliamps, in which case its main benefit is
the increase in input impedance due to the reduction of current taken
by the first transistor.

THE DARLINGTON PAIR

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Classes of Amplification
When a transistor is used as an amplifier the input circuit is normally
biased to some particular working point. There are three basic
classes of bias, named according to the working point chosen.

Class A

The amplitude of the input signal and bias are such that there is an
output current for the full cycle of the input signal. This is the most
commonly used class of bias in amplifier circuits.

 The most common type of amplifier class due mainly to their

simple design.
 Low signal distortion levels. Class A Amplifier
 The best sounding of all the amplifier classes.
 Has the highest linearity over the other amplifier classes.
 Can be either inverting or non-inverting.
 Maximum power efficiency is 25%.
 Used in low power applications < 1W
 Operates in the linear portion of the characteristics curve.
 Connected in a common emitter configuration for both halves
of the waveform with the transistor always having current
flowing through it, even if it has no base signal.
 The output stage is never driven fully into its cut-off or
saturation regions but instead has a base biasing quiescent
current (Q-point) in the middle of its load line.
 Output voltage waveform has same shape as input waveform
except amplified.
 Disadvantage – The transistor never turns ―OFF‖. Heats up.
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Class B

The bias is such that current flows for only half of the cycle of input
signal, for the other half of the input cycle the transistor is "cut off.
This is usually employed in power amplifiers.

• Solution to the efficiency and heating problems of class A

amplifier.
• Uses two complimentary transistors. Either bipolar of FET for
each half of the waveform with its output stage configured in
a ―push-pull‖ type arrangement, so that each transistor device
amplifies only half of the output waveform.
• No DC base bias current as its quiescent current is zero, so
that the dc power is small.
• Biased at cutoff - it operates in the linear region for 180o and
cutoff for 180o.
• Efficiency is much higher than that of the class A amplifier.
• Disadvantage - more difficult to implement circuit for linear
reproduction of input wave

An npn transistor and a matched pnp transistor form two emitter-

followers that turn on alternately. Since there is no dc base bias,
Q1and Q2 will turn on only when |Vin| is greater than VBE. This Crossover
leads to crossover distortion. Distortion
Crossover Distortion

Class B Amplifier

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Class C

The bias and amplitude of input signal are such that current flows for
less than half of each cycle. Used in oscillators and selective
amplifiers.

 Greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity.

 Heavily biased so that the output current is zero for more
than one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle.
 Biased below cutoff, i.e. it conducts less than 180°.
 Due to severe distortion of output waveform, class C
amplifiers are limited to applications in high frequency sine
wave oscillators and certain types of tuned amplifiers at radio
frequencies (RF).

Class C Amplifier

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Efficiency

This is defined by

An amplifier which produces low power output has an efficiency

which is no greater than 50%. This is because it is working under
Class A conditions and the DC standing (no input) current is large
and produces wasted DC power.

To overcome this problem in power amplifiers the push-pull amplifier

was introduced.

Amplifier Classes and Efficiency

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GRAPHS OF INPUTS AND OUTPUTS FOR CLASSES A, B, & C AMPLIFIERS

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Push-Pull Amplifier
Operation
The figure below shows a simple push-pull power amplifier using an
When an input is applied, assuming at this moment in time that the
NPN type and PNP type transistors. The load is a loudspeaker and
input at A is positive to B (positive half cycle), the base emitter
is connected to both emitters via a dc blocking capacitor.
junction of TR1 is forward biased. There is therefore an output to the
loudspeaker (positive half cycles).

During this time TR2 is reverse biased (base negative with respect to
emitter).

Negative half cycles of the input (B positive to A) will reverse bias

TR1 and it will cut off and forward bias TR2, this time there is again
an output; this time on the negative half cycles.

As each transistor conducts for one half of each complete input

cycle, the amplifier is working in Class B conditions.

When there is no input, neither transistor conducts, therefore no DC

power is wasted. The maximum efficiency of a Class B power
amplifier is high (78%) when compared with a Class A amplifier
(50%).

One disadvantage of the simple circuit is that each transistor does

not turn on until the input is about 0.6V. As a result there is a dead
PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER zone producing 'cross-over' distortion (see next page).

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CROSSOVER DISTORTION

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This is overcome by forward biasing the base-emitter junctions of Operation

both transistors. The figure below shows a push-pull amplifier with
this biasing to the two transistors being provided by resistors R1, R2 Under static (no input signal) conditions, equal currents will flow
and R3 via the secondary winding of transformer T1. through the two halves of T2's primary winding and through the two
transistors and R3 to the -ve rail. There will therefore be no resultant
flux in T2 from this DC source. Therefore no dc power is wasted and
its efficiency is high (78%).

Transformer T1 is a phase-splitter, providing inputs to the transistors

which are equal but in anti-phase.

When the top of T1's secondary winding is positive, TR1 will be

switched ON (circuit via base-emitter - Cl) and TR2 will be switched
OFF. As the collector current of TR1 increases, that of TR2
decreases. More current will flow from the +ve rail through the top
half of T2's primary winding, collector - emitter TR1 and R3 to the -ve
rail.

When the bottom of T1's secondary is positive, TR2 will be switched

ON (circuit via base-emitter - C1) and TR1 will be switched OFF. As
the collector current of TR2 increases, that of TR1 decreases.

Current will flow from the +ve rail through the bottom half of T2's
primary winding, collector - emitter of TR2 and R3 to the -ve rail.
PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
The changing currents in the primary of T2 results in an output which
is an amplification of each half of the input signal.

This is then operating in Class AB conditions, being a compromise

between the low distortion, low efficiency Class A amplifier and the
higher efficiency, higher distortion Class B amplifier.

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For Your Notes

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Multivibrators Astable Multivibrator (Free Running Multivibrator)

These are transistor switching circuits of two stages with the output When the supply is connected as before one transistor conducts
of one stage being fed back to the input of the other by coupling faster than the other (due to slight manufacturing differences) and
resistors or capacitors. The output of one is 'high' the other is low' cuts the other one off. In this multivibrator each transistor then
and this occurs alternatively producing a square wave output. There switches automatically to its other state and then back to its first
are three basic types: state, producing an output of square wave pulses.

1. Astable or free running multivibrator Assume that TR2 is ON and TR1 is OFF. The base of TR1 is
2. Bistable or flip-flop negative at the moment, but is approaching cut on (base voltage
3. Monostable or 'one shot' going positive) on a time constant determined by C2R2.

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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When TR1 conducts, its collector voltage falls to a low value and
since capacitor C1 cannot change its charge instantaneously there is
no change of capacitor voltage during the rise of conduction of TR1.

Therefore the fall of collector voltage at TR1 causes TR2 base to fall
by the same amount causing TR2 to cut off, causing TR2 collector
voltage to rise.

This multivibrator produces a continuous stream of almost square

wave pulses, i.e. it is a square wave oscillator. It requires no input
trigger and is sometimes called a relaxation oscillator.

It is extensively used for producing timing (clock) pulses for digital

systems. Remember, everything in computing works in
synchronisation with a (very fast) electronic clock.

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Bistable Multivibrator (Flip-Flop) By applying a positive signal to the base of TR2 via R6 (shown on
the diagram as a switch but in a practical circuit would be a
When the DC supply is switched on then, because of the slight temporary input signal) TR2 would conduct, causing its collector
differences in manufacture, one transistor will conduct more than the voltage to fall to a low value (lower than 0.6v). TR1 base current
other. This causes say, TR1 to switch fully on while TR2 switches ceases and TR1 switches off, its collector voltage rises to a high
off. value and this is fed through R1 to the base of TR2 keeping it
switched on. Q is therefore low (logic 0) and ̅ is high and therefore
At this point TR1 collector voltage is low (high voltage drop across at logic state 1.
R3), there is therefore "insufficient voltage to drive current through Each transistor can be made to 'flip' to a high collector voltage or
R1 to the base of TR2. TR2 remains off and its collector voltage
'flop' to a low collector voltage changing the outputs on Q and ̅ . The
being high there is current flow through R2 to maintain TR1 switched
switching can also be achieved by applying a negative voltage to the
on. The output at Q is high (logic state 1) and the output at ̅ is low
base of the transistor that is conducting.
(logic state 0).

The inputs R & S would be supplied by a trigger pulse and this circuit
is the basis of the SR flip-flop Q = 0, ̅ = 1 = reset condition;
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR Q = 1, ̅ = 0 set condition. These are used in memory circuits and
binary counters in digital computers.
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Monostable Vibrator ('One Shot')

Again, when the supply is switched on the circuit settles into the This multivibrator has one stable state and one unstable state. It can
state TR1 OFF and TR2 ON, therefore Q = 0 be switched into its unstable state for a certain time (determined by
the values of C and R) and then returns to its stable state. It can be
A positive trigger pulse, represented by the switch in the diagram will used to create a pulse of known timing to act as a delay circuit in
switch TR1 ON, C1 right hand plate falls rapidly switching off TR2 digital systems.
making the output Q go high. Now the capacitor charges up through
R1 making the right hand plate go low TR2 is switched on again and
the Q output goes low.

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR The Multivibrators we have seen are using junction transistors (BJT).
However, they can be constructed using Field Effect Transistors
(FET's) logic gates and operational amplifiers (to be discussed later).

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Flip-Flops Operation

The JK Flip-Flop Suppose that TR4 is conducting and that TR3 is cut off. Q is at logic
0. If logic 1 is applied to J and logic 0 to K, there would be no effect
Study the figure below for a few minutes and note the layout of the because there would be no change to the diodes D1 and D2. A
system including the inputs at J and K. falling (1-0) signal at T will cause the transistors to change over in
the usual way, so Q now goes to logic 1. However, a further falling
pulse at T will have no effect on the circuit if J is still at logic 1. It
follows, therefore, that a trigger pulse at T will only change the state
if the logic levels at J and K are reversed. From this it can be seen
that:

A TRIGGER PULSE AT 'T' WILL ONLY CHANGE THE STATE

IF THE LOGIC LEVELS AT 'J' AND 'Q' ARE DIFFERENT.

It also follows that a Logic 0 or a Logic 1 can be stored at J until a

trigger pulse arrives at T, when it will be released at Q.

JK FLIP-FLOP

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RS Flip Flop
The volts drop across R1 is almost zero and so 6 volts is applied via
Operation R3 to the base of T2, keeping it switched hard-on. Under these
conditions, the two outputs are:
With reference to the figure below; when power is applied, current-
biasing will be applied to each transistor base-emitter by way of R2- ̅ six volts (Logic 1) and Q zero volts (Logic 0).
R4 to T1 and R1-R3 to T2. Although the two 'sides' are identical,
mis-matching will mean that one transistor will start to conduct A positive pulse at S (SET) will cause T1 to conduct and the ensuing
before the other. If silicon transistors are being used, 0.6 volts is volts drop across R1 will switch T2 off. The two outputs will now be:
needed across the base-emitter for switching ON. ̅ zero volts (Logic 0) and Q six volts (Logic 1).

A positive pulse at R (RESET) will send the outputs back again to

the original condition. So, a pulse at S sets Q at Logic 1 and a pulse
at R sets Q at Logic Q.

These devices are widely used in storage and timing device circuits.

RS FLIP-FLOP CIRCUIT & SYMBOL

Suppose that T2 reaches the point of switch-on before T1. When T2
conducts, the volts drop across R2 becomes almost 6 volts and the
T2 collector voltage now applied via R4 to the base of T1 becomes
almost zero, forcing T1 into a 'cut-off non-conducting condition.

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The Unipolar or Field Effect Transistor (FET)

This device uses EITHER electrons or holes as carriers. It is a There are two basic types of Field Effect Transistors (FET's). A
voltage controlled device and is extremely low powered. It uses mA Junction Gate FET (JUGFET) and a Metal Oxide Semiconductor
and is extremely sensitive to "static electricity‖. It is well suited to FET (MOSFET).
operation by low voltage supplies and solar power. A voltage on its
gate region (note the different symbol and terminology) controls the
current flowing through the device.

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JUGFET (Junction Gate Field Effect Transistor)

With reference to the figure, the bar of N-type material provides the
medium through which the majority carriers (electrons) pass. In
doing so, they have to pass between the two sections of P-type
material, known as the Gate. The two P-type sections are usually
connected together electrically (so are at the same potential) and are
used as the Control electrode. Current enters at the SOURCE
electrode and leaves at the DRAIN electrode.

JUGFET SYMBOLS
Note: The opposite arrangement of a P-type channel and N-type
gate is also available.

JUGFET

As in any semiconductor device containing P-N junctions, depletion

zones exist at these junctions. In this device, the P-type gate
sections are more heavily doped than the N-type channel. This
results in the depletion zone extending further into - the channel than
it does into the gate.

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Operation Since no majority carriers exist in the depletion zones, the width of
the channel through which they can flow is dependent on the size of
The Drain-Source voltage VDS sets up a current flow of majority these zones and hence on the value of VGS. It is in this way that VGS
carriers through the channel. The Gate-Source voltage VGS reverse- controls the current flow. Under normal operating conditions, the
biases the gate-channel junction, thus increasing the width of the gate-channel junction is reverse-biased so that only a very small
depletion zones. As can be seen in the diagram, these zones are not leakage current flows in the gate-source circuit. It has, therefore, got
uniform in shape. This is because the potential gradient between very high input impedance.
drain and source produces a greater potential difference between
the gate and the channel towards the drain than it does towards the Uses
source. Thus we have characteristic 'wedge' shaped depletion
zones. The JUGFET can be used as an amplifier or a switch and the next
diagram shows it connected as an amplifier. Its input resistance is
very high compared with that of a transistor (1 x 1010Ω compared to
1 to 5kΩ for a transistor). Its output impedance is 50kΩ to 1MΩ
compared to a transistors output impedance of 10 - 50kΩ.

JUGFET SCHEMATIC
JUGFET AMPLIFIER

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MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

Also called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor - IGFET. The

basic construction of an n-channel MOSFET and symbol is shown:

OUTPUT CURVE - MOSFET (N CHANNEL DEPLETION)

MOSFET & SYMBOL (N CHANNEL DEPLETION) The voltage between the gate and the source (VGS) controls the
electron concentration in the channel. If the drain (D) is made
The main difference between this device and the JUGFET is that positive to the Source (S) and VGS is zero a current will flow. If VGS
there is no direct electrical connection between the gate terminal and is made negative, positive holes are attracted into the channel so
the semiconductor material. Instead they are insulated from one reducing the number of free electrons in the channel and therefore
another by a very thin layer of highly insulative silicon oxide. channel current decreases. This is known as the DEPLETION
MODE. If VGS is positive, electrons are attracted into the channel
from the P substrate increasing current flow – this is known as the
ENHANCEMENT MODE.

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If a P–channel FET (refer diagram below) was used in the MOSFET structure is very compact and is widely used in integrated
enhancement mode, the conduction is by holes. circuits. Great care has to be taken to protect MOSFETS from
electrostatic charges, which could break down the insulated oxide
layer. They are supplied with a metal clip short circuiting the leads,
which should be left in place until connected in the circuit.

Component Handling

The SiO2 layer in the MOSFET gate is susceptible to damage from

static electricity. To protect a MOSFET:

 Store the device with its leads shorted together or in

MOSFET & SYMBOL (N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT) conductive foam.
 When you must handle the MOSFET, hold the component by
The MOSFET has a higher input impedance than the the case (rather than the leads).
JUGFET > 1 х 1012Ω, however its output impedance is similar to that
of a bi-polar transistor 10 to 50kΩ. When used as a switch its  Do not install or remove a MOSFET while power is applied to
switching time is very fast. the circuit.

The MOSFET gate can be protected by internal diodes that conduct

to short any static buildup around the gate.

OUTPUT CURVE - MOSFET (N CHANNEL ENHANCEMENT)

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CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

This is one of the most important families of logic gates which uses a
P-channel and an N-channel MOSFET to create all the relevant logic
gates. An example of an invertor gate is shown below. The great
advantage of CMOS is that in both the HIGH and LOW states the
current consumption is very small (1 x 10-9 A). Power consumption is
therefore low and the fan out is high (typically 50). The speed of
operation is poorer than TTL (Transistor–transistor logic).

CMOS INVERTOR GATE

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Feedback in Amplifiers Positive Feedback

Feedback is the return of a portion of the output signal of an amplifier When the returned portion of the output signal assists the input
signal, it is called Positive Feedback. This causes an increase in the
back into the input signal of the same system. There are many
overall gain. It can be many times larger than the gain without
variations on this but the following deals with the broader principles. feedback, but can also lead to instability and oscillation.

The Gain of an amplifier with positive feedback is given by:

Where

= Gain with feedback

= Gain without feedback
= Feedback fraction =
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

There are generally two types of feedback - which, incidentally, It can be seen that, if equals unity, the gain is infinite and
occurs in all forms of control systems whether mechanical, electrical, oscillation occurs.
electronic etc., these are positive feedback and negative feedback.

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Negative Feedback

When the returned portion of the output signal opposes or tries to

cancel the input signal, it is called Negative Feedback. This is the
most common form of feedback (in all control systems), having
several advantages and uses.

The Gain of an amplifier with negative feedback is given by:

which gives a reduction in overall gain.

Negative Feedback is used to:

a) Improve the stability of the gain. It is less affected by changes

in transistor parameters and temperature changes.
b) Effectively change the input and output impedances.
c) Reduce 'noise' and distortion.
d) Increase bandwidth (see figure: Frequency Response Curve)

FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE

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Frequency Response and Bandwidth

The GAIN of an electronic amplifier is determined by such things as As stated above, negative feedback has the effect of reducing the
the type of amplifying device being used and by its associated circuit gain of an amplifier but it also has the very valuable effect of
components. Any particular circuit arrangement will provide increasing its bandwidth. The Frequency Response Curve in the
maximum gain at a single frequency (or over a narrow band of previous page shows graphs of an amplifier's gain and associated
frequencies) and less gain at all other frequencies. Since many bandwidth, both with and without negative feedback.
amplifiers are required to provide amplification over a wide range of
frequencies it is common practice to provide each amplifier with a
graph showing how its gain varies with frequency. This is known as
the amplifier's Frequency Response Curve. Example is shown in the
figure.

The Effects of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth

An amplifier's Gain is generally considered to be adequate

as long as it is equal to, or greater than, half the Maximum
Power Gain

(OR)

An amplifier's Gain is generally considered to be adequate

as long as it is equal to, or greater than, 0.707 of the
Maximum Voltage Gain

The range of frequencies over which this requirement is satisfied is

known as the amplifier's BANDWIDTH.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE

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Oscillators
This oscillation would continue indefinitely if the circuit had no
resistance, but the coil has resistance, so the oscillations gradually
decrease. To maintain the oscillation some energy must be
continuously fed into the LC circuit. Most oscillators are amplifiers
with positive feedback which means the feedback is in phase with
the input and makes good the energy losses in the oscillatory circuit.

SIMPLE OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

With reference to the figure above, assume the capacitor is charged

from an external supply.

When the switch is closed the capacitor will discharge, thus

changing magnetic field causes an induced voltage into the coil, the
back emf opposes this discharge and this therefore takes some time.
Eventually the capacitor discharges and its electrical energy have
been transferred to the coil. At this time the magnetic field begins to
collapse, current now flows to charge up the capacitor, lower plate
+ve.

Once charged the capacitor discharges in the opposite sense

creating a magnetic field of opposite polarity.

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Radio Frequency Oscillators

Audio frequency oscillators using resistors and capacitors are used
up to 50 MHz.

You have already seen the commonest square wave type oscillator,
which is the Astable Multivibrator.

OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

The basic operation of this circuit is as follows:

Switching on the power supply charges up the capacitor and starts

the oscillations. Feedback is obtained by the changing magnetic field
in L1 inducing an emf into L2. Thus emf is applied between the base
and emitter, which causes more collector current and therefore more
current in L1, this continues until oscillation is maintained.

The feedback from L2 being enough to draw DC from the supply to

make good the energy losses and keep the oscillation going. So the
oscillator converts DC to AC.

For very high frequency stability crystal oscillators are used in the
range 1 to 10 MHz.

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Some small signal or special purpose transistors can be damaged by
Bipolar Transistor - Testing and Handling this practice.

As a result of successful completion of this unit the student will be

able to:

1. Test transistors with an ohmmeter.

2. Test transistors with a transistor tester.
3. State guidelines for safe, non-destructive handling of
transistors.

Transistors are delicate devices. In many circuits, there is only a

relatively narrow "window" of correct operating conditions. Things
such as temperature, current and voltage levels, voltage transients
(spikes) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) can affect proper
operation of a circuit. This is especially true in critical and exacting
applications. Transistors of the same type may even be received
from the manufacturer with enough spec difference to cause poor
operation. This is the result of batch-to-batch variations caused by
manufacturing methods and tolerances.

A good quality transistor tester can ensure that transistors are of

consistent quality. Such a tester will allow the user to check the
transistor's beta (gain) and its leakage, as well as testing for
operation (go, no-go testing).

Most transistor testers have three leads to be connected directly to

the three transistor legs. Some will have sockets as well. Different
testers require different levels of sophistication on the part of the
user. Most require that the user know whether the transistor being
tested is NPN or PNP. Always read the user's manual for the tester
before using it.

It is possible to use an ohmmeter to test transistors. It is not always a

reliable test, nor is it recommended by transistor manufacturers. OHMMETER LEADS REVERSED –
REVERSE BIASED JUNCTION RESISTANCE
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Here is the test method most people use for fast go, no-go testing of By using the above procedures you can determine if the transistor in
transistors known to be large enough to escape damage by the PNP or NPN. Use the same technique used for determining diode
ohmmeter (see diagram). polarity. Just remember you will be working with two junctions and,
don't forget some ohmmeters have the battery polarity reversed from
1. Connect the ohmmeter leads to the base emitter leads. Read the lead polarity.
the resistance.
There is another simple ohmmeter test of transistors which
2. Reverse the leads. Read the resistance. You should have eliminates the risk of transistor destruction by ohmmeter current.
read a high resistance in one direction, low in the other. Just Connect the ohmmeter leads to the emitter and collector, wet the tip
like testing a diode. In fact you have just tested the base of your finger and place it between the collector and base. If the
emitter pn junction. transistor is good, (and the leads are connected with the correct
polarity) the ohmmeter should indicate a decreasing resistance. The
3. Repeat steps one and two with the leads connected to the wet fingertip provides a high resistance path from the collector to the
base collector leads. The results should be the same for this base. This allows forward bias current to be applied to the base and
pn junction as for the base emitter. the transistor turns on. With this method, there are no destructive
junction currents. With practice, you can even get a good idea of the
4. Perform the same test for the emitter collection leads. This transistor's gain by how well it conducts. This test can be performed
time you are checking across two pn junctions and the on all low power devices and even some power transistors.
resistance will be medium to high. Often there is little
difference in the forward and reverse measurements

If your ohmmeter has HI and LO settings the HI ohms setting is

necessary for these tests. The LO ohms setting will have a lead
voltage of less than .2 volts. This is the voltage necessary to cause a
germanium diode to conduct. Silicon junctions require about .7 volts.
The HI ohms setting may produce as much as 9 volts on the leads.
This high a voltage can easily push enough current through small
signal transistors to destroy them. The LO ohms setting is used for
measuring resistances in circuit. If there are diodes, transistors, or
ICs in the circuit, the ohmmeter voltage could cause them to
conduct. The ohmmeter would then read the combined resistance of
the conducting solid state device AND the resistor. The reading
would be incorrect. The LO ohms setting will not cause solid state
devices to conduct so the measurement will be more accurate.
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On most analogue multimeter, the ohms range of the negative (-) Certain elementary precautions must be observed when working
terminal has a positive polarity and the positive terminal (+) has a with any solid state device. Some devices require much more care.
negative polarity. This is an important point with regards to We will discuss them at a later time. For the typical transistor the
identifying NPN and PNP transistors. If a digital multimeter is used following rules must be observed:
then check the polarities of the terminals on the ohms range.
1. Do not bend the leads unnecessarily. They will break off at the
The figure below shows the readings you would expect using an case where they cannot be soldered back.
analogue multimeter.
2. NEVER insert or remove a transistor with power applied to the
circuit.

3. Make sure leads are not shorted before power is applied.

4. There should always be some current limiting resistance

between transistor leads and the power source.

5. Voltage levels should NEVER exceed the transistor's specified

allowable operating voltage.

6. Transistors are heat sensitive.

TESTING TRANSISTORS USING A MULTIMETER
a) Use a low powered soldering iron (about 25 watts).

b) Always use a heat absorbing material between the heat

application point and the transistor case. Anything from
surgical clamps to spit-wads can be used. This is called
"heat sinking".

c) Good soldering practices are essential.

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For Your Notes

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For Your Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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4.1.3 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Electronic Circuits can be made simultaneously forming individual ICs are assembled this way to allow their fitment to PCBs (Printed
transistors, diodes and resistors on a small "chip‖ of silicon. The Circuit Boards) etc. Otherwise they would be too small for handling
components are connected to each other with aluminum "wires‖ and connection purposes.
deposited on the surface of the chip. This is otherwise known as an
“Integrated Circuit” (IC)

Introduction

We will now introduce the topic of linear Integrated Circuits (ICs), in

which many transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors are
fabricated on a single silicon chip and packaged in a single case to
form an operational amplifier. The manufacturing process for ICs is
complex and beyond the scope of these notes.

In our study of ICs, we will treat the entire circuit as a single device.
That is, we will be more concerned with what the circuit does from an
external point of view and will be less concerned about the internal,
component level operation.

Integrated Circuits (IC)

An integrated circuit (IC) is a complete electronic circuit on a chip of

silicon about 5mm square and 0.5mm thick.

The figure shows a typical IC cutaway so you can see the silicon IC PACKAGE
chip and the leads radiating from it to the pins. The diagram shows a
dual in-line package, but circular packages are available.

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IC‘s can contain as few as several to as many as hundreds of

thousands of transistors e.g. one kind of IC includes 262,144
transistors on a silicon chip about %‖ square. A Pentium IV chip has
42 MILLION transistors - Each transistor is 0.13 microns (10-6
meters).

SILICON WAFER

Silicon is the base material used, as it has a high degree of purity

and a continuous regular monocrystalline structure. A silicon wafer
(about 10cm in diameter) is produced onto which hundreds of IC's
can be formed.

The following figure shows how areas of silicon oxide deposited on

the silicon are selectively removed. It is basically a photographic
process where areas of the chip are masked and then the surface is IC PRODUCTION
subject to UV light. The unmasked areas are 'eaten' away using a
solvent leaving those areas that are required. Finally the unmasked
silicon oxide area is removed by etching.

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The following figure shows how a transistor is made using the Monolithic integrated circuits are manufactured by an extension of
diffusion process, i.e. exposing the wafer at high temperature to the the planar diffusion process. The active elements (transistors) and
vapour of boron or phosphorus so their atoms diffuse through the the passive elements (diodes, resistors and capacitors) are all
window producing a 'P' or 'N' type area. created by modifying the conductive properties of the silicon.

IC PRODUCTION

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Categories of IC’s
Integrated diodes are made by forming a P-N junction similar to that Digital Circuits
previously described. Integrated resistors are thin layers, the
resistance being defined by the length and width of the layer. Respond to or produce signals having only 2 voltage levels.
Integrated capacitors are made by using the capacitance of reverse Uses - Microprocessors, Memories, Mircocomputers.
biased P-N junctions.
Digital IC design is to produce components such as
There are two broad types of IC‘s: microprocessors, FPGAs, memories (RAM, ROM, and flash) and
digital ASICs (Application-Specific Integrated Circuits). Digital design
1. Analogue (Linear) focuses on logical correctness, maximizing circuit density, and
2. Digital (Logic) placing circuits so that clock and timing signals are routed efficiently.

Analogue (Linear) Circuits

Amplify or respond to variable voltages.

Uses - Amplifiers, Timers, Oscillators & Voltage regulators.

Analogue IC design is used in the design of op-amps, linear

regulators, phase locked loops, oscillators and active filters.
Analogue design is more concerned with the physics of the
semiconductor devices such as gain, matching, power dissipation,
and resistance. Fidelity of analogue signal amplification and filtering Some IC‘s combine both analogue and digital functions on a single
is usually critical and as a result, analogue ICs use larger area active chip.
devices than digital designs and are usually less dense in circuitry.
Most linear IC's are based on bi-polar transistors but in some cases IC‘s are supplied in many different packages. The most common is
FET's are used exclusively or in addition to bi-polar types. The the Dual-in-Line Package (DIP or DIL).
majority of today's linear integrated circuits use operational
amplifiers (op-amps). The DIP is made from plastic (cheap) or ceramic (more robust). Most
DIP‘s have 14 or 16 pins but can range from 4 to 64 pins.

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Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)

Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to
perform mathematical operations such as additions, subtraction,
integration and differentiation - hence the term operational. These
early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked with
high voltages. Today's op-amps are linear Integrated Circuits (ICs)
that use relatively low dc supply voltages and are reliable and
inexpensive.

Symbols and Terminals

The standard op-amp symbol is shown in the diagram (a). It has two
input terminals, the inverting input ( - ) and the noninverting
input ( + ) and one output terminal. The typical operational
amplifier requires two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other
negative, as shown in diagram (b). Usually these dc voltage
terminals are left off the schematic symbol for simplicity, but they are
always understood to be there. Typical integrated circuit packages
are shown in part (c).

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Properties of Operational Amplifiers

The common IC Operational Amplifier is one that has a very high
gain.

Applications include both Linear and Digital Logic Systems

Properties common to all IC Operational Amplifiers are:

1. An inverting input.

2. A non-inverting input.

3. A high input impedance (usually assumed infinite) at both

inputs

4. A low output impedance.

5. A large Voltage Gain that remains constant over a wide

frequency range.

6. Relatively free of drift due to ambient temperature change

(hence the output voltage being zero when there is no input
signal).

7. Good stability, being free of parasitic oscillation.

Note: The input terminals are marked + and -, these are not
polarity signs, rather the - indicates the inverting input
terminal and the + the non-inverting input terminal.

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A typical op-amp contains twenty transistors as well as resistors and With reference to the figure below, the basic op-amp has one output
small capacitors. and two inputs. The NON-INVERTING (NI) input is marked ‗+‘ and
the INVERTING (I) input is marked ‗-‗. In the circuit diagram below,
The chief properties of op-amps are: point E is the common reference for the input and output volts. The
DC power supply is typically ±5V to ±15V with 0V being the
1. Very high open loop gain reference level.
2. High input impedance (1 x 106 to 1 x 1012)
3. Low output impedance (typically 1000) With the NI input grounded (chassis potential), an input at I causes a
voltage of opposite polarity to appear at the output.

SYMBOL
BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUIT

SYMBOL

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With the I input grounded and an input at N1, causes a voltage of the
same polarity to appear at the output.

When signals are applied to both input terminals the output is the
difference between to the two inputs, i.e. two identical signals will
produce zero output. The op-amp is basically a differential amplifier.

Although the power supplies positive and negative are shown in the
basic op-amp symbol they are usually omitted on wiring diagrams.

OP-AMP SYMBOL

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A component-level diagram of the common 741 op-amp.

Dotted lines outline: current mirrors (red); differential amplifier (blue); class A gain stage (magenta); voltage level shifter (green); output stage (cyan).

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Op-Amp Inputs
Operational amplifiers have two signal input connections and one Most (but not all) operational amplifiers require a symmetrical supply
signal output connection. One of the signal inputs is marked ‗-‘ and of typically between ±5V and ±15V.
the other is marked ‗+‘.
This allows the output voltage produced by the amplifier to swing
These polarity markings have nothing to do with the supply both positive (above 0V) and negative (below 0V). Note that, to keep
connections - they indicate the overall phase shift between each things simple, power supply connections are not always shown on
input and the output. ‗+‘ sign indicates zero phase shift and the ‗-‘ circuit diagrams. The maximum output voltage swing is usually within
sign indicates 180° phase shift. about 0.1V or 0.2V of the supply rail voltages.

Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted (i.e. turned upside

down) waveform, the ‗-‘ input is often referred to as the ‗inverting
input"

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Common Rail + & - Volts

Operational amplifier circuits often use two separate supplies, a
positive supply and an equal, but opposite, negative supply.

The common connection to these two supplies acts as the common

0V rail and the input and output voltages are usually measured
relative to this rail.

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Input Offset Voltage

An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage
when 0V is applied to its input. In practice, due to imperfect internal Offset voltage may be minimised by applying relatively large
balance, there may be some small voltage present at the output amounts of negative feedback or by using the ‗offset null‘ facility
even when the input voltage is true 0V. provided by a number of operational amplifier devices. Typical
values of input offset voltage range from 1mV to 15mV.
The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational
amplifier input in order to make the output voltage exactly zero is Where a.c., rather than direct coupling, is employed offset voltage is
known as the input offset voltage. not normally a problem and can be ignored.

Ideally, when both inputs are grounded the output will be Zero. The 10KΩ variable resistor connected between the 2 offset pins is
adjusted until the output is Zero.

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The Input Resistance of an Operational Amplifier

Defined as the ratio of input voltage to input current expressed in
ohms.

It is often expedient to assume that the input of an operational

amplifier is purely resistive though this is not the case at high
frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance may become
significant.

The input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much

dependent on the semiconductor technology employed. In practice
values range from about 2 MΩ for bipolar operational amplifiers to
over 1012 Ω for FET and CMOS devices.

Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current:

RIN = VIN/IIN, where RIN is the input resistance (in Ω), VIN is the input
voltage (in V) and IIN is the input current (in A).

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The Output Resistance of an operational amplifier

Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10Ω to
around 100Ω depending upon the configuration and amount of
feedback employed.

Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-

circuit output current, hence:

where ROUT is the output resistance (in Ω), VOUT (OC) is the open-
circuit output voltage (in V) and IOUT (SC) is the short-circuit output
current (in A).

Bandwidth is also infinite. Thus, an ideal op-amp works the same at

all frequencies.

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The open-loop voltage gain

Gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage measured with no external feedback
applied.

Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of as the ‗internal‘

voltage gain of the device. In practice, this value is exceptionally
high (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to considerable
variation from one device to another.

Open-loop voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage

measured without feedback applied, hence:

where AVOL is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the
output and input voltages respectively under open-loop conditions.

The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in dB rather than

as a ratio.

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Feedback (Fb)
Like most engineered systems, the op-amp uses feedback to Most op-amps use negative feedback, i.e. feeding some of the
realize its potential value. Feedback comes in two forms: output back to the inverting input. The coupling between the stages
is direct coupling. In practice even when dc bias conditions are met
and no input signal is applied, there may be a small voltage at the
input, called the differential input offset voltage. It may be caused by
different manufacturing tolerances of the components of the op-amp.
This offset voltage produces a voltage at the output (with no input
signal remember) and in certain applications is undesirable. For the
741 op-amp this is achieved by placing a variable resistor across the
offset null pins (1 and 5) and adjusting it until the output is zero when
the input is zero.

Connecting the output to the positive input is positive feedback.

Connecting the output to the negative input is negative feedback.

It seems like positive feedback might be best, but negative feedback

makes the op-amp work more efficiently.

741 OP-AMP

In AC operation a coupling capacitor at the output removes any DC

component caused by the offset voltage. Slew rate is the maximum
rate of change of large amplitude output voltages that an op-amp
can allow before it behaves non-linearly, it is measured in volts per
micro-second (V/µs).

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Positive Feedback
In electronics, "Feedback‖ is the return part of the output signal. Positive feedback increases gain: but if the feedback energy is
sufficient to overcome the power lost by the resistances, the
If the output signal is fed back in phase the input increases and so amplifier becomes unstable and produces oscillations and distortion.
the output increases.

This is REGENERATIVE or POSITIVE FEEDBACK.

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Negative Feedback
When the feedback is out of phase with the input, the gain of the
amplifier decreases, but the stability and bandwidth increases and
there is a decrease in distortion.

This is DEGENERATIVE or NEGATIVE FEEDBACK.

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Gain
The key idea is that amplifiers give us power gain. There are two key Voltage gain can also be found by:
points:

1. We amplify signals, which are time varying quantities.

2. The amplified signals have more power.
Where AV = Voltage Gain, Rf is the feedback resistance and Rin is
We need to get the power from somewhere. We get the power from the input resistor value.
what we call dc power supplies (the positive and negative power
supplies - v+ and v-). The three gains are Voltage, Current and
Power.

Voltage gain AV is the ratio of the voltage at the output to the voltage
at the input and is given by:

Where AV = Voltage Gain, VO is the output voltage and VI is the input

voltage.

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Current gain Ai is the ratio of the current at the output to the current Power gain Ap is the ratio of the power at the output to the power at
at the input and is given by: the input and is given by:

Where Ai = Current Gain, io is the output current and ii is the input  A dB (deciBel) is a popular, logarithmic relationship for these
current. gains.
 Voltage gain in dB is 20(log10|Av|).
 Current gain in dB is 20(log10|Ai|).
 Power gain in dB is 10(log10|Ap|).

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Inverting Amplifiers Practical operational amplifiers that have zero volts are required to
produce a switch greater than the very high voltage gain (l05) so that
The circuit shown is a basic inverting amplifier. The common feature virtually output (the maximum output) is being unable to confines of
of this circuit is that Vi is applied to the inverting input via resistor R1. the power supply.
The noninverting input is connected to signal common (ground). A
balance resistor is frequently included between the positive input and The closed loop gain (G) has a magnitude determined solely by the
ground as it provides for better temperature stability and its value is ratio of the feedback resistors. Output is of opposite polarity to input.
usually made equal to R1 and Rf in parallel.
Example:
The Feedback path is from the output to the inverting input via the
resistor Rf. The input resistor is labelled R1. Assuming the amplifier In the circuit below we had an input resistor of 1KΩ, a feedback
has ideal properties, no current will flow in the amplifier input. This resistance of l0kΩ. If the input is ½ % V what is the gain and voltage
being the case, then the circuit transfer function can be calculated output?
using the following assumptions.
Solution

OP-AMP INVERTING AMPLIFIER

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Non-Inverting Amplifiers
The figures here show a non-inverting op-amp. The input voltage is
applied to the non- inverting input (+) with the inverting input
grounded. The feedback resistor is still connected to the inverting
input to obtain negative feedback. Output is the same polarity as the
input.

OP-AMP NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

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Voltage Follower
A non-inverting amplifier can be provided with 100% feedback by For this reason, this circuit is commonly known as a VOLTAGE
connecting the output voltage directly to the inverting input as FOLLOWER, although other names such as SOURCE FOLLOWER
illustrated by the circuits in the figure below. The circuit operation in or UNITY GAIN AMPLIFIER are sometimes used for this
this case can now be explained simply by stating that at no time can arrangement.
a voltage difference exist between the two inputs to the amplifier.
The principle advantages of the voltage follower are the extremely
The output voltage must rise until it equals the input voltage, and
high input impedance (of the order of 10 megohms) and very low
only then will the amplifier remain balanced. This effectively gives a
output impedance (less than 1 ohm). The circuit is often used as a
situation where the output voltage follows the input and almost
buffer‖ amplifier and can be described as a "super emitter follower‖.
exactly equals it.

The output signal therefore will always "follow‖ the input signal to
give an exact gain of unity.

VOLTAGE FOLLOWING OP-AMP

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Inverting Summing Amplifier

By altering the values of R1, R2 and R3, the scale of each input may
The basic inverting amplifier can be used for summing (adding) be adjusted so used as a Scaling Amplifier.
several input voltages as illustrated by the following circuit.
Although this circuit only shows three inputs, as many inputs as
needed may be used, and the gain of each input can be
independently set by the ratio of the feedback resistor Rf to the
respective input resistor.
Therefore, the transfer function for this circuit will be:

SUMMING OP-AMP
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Op-amp as a Simple Voltage Comparator

With reference to the figure below, the op-amp compares V1 to Vref.
When V1 is slightly greater than Vref the op-amp saturates in one
direction and when Vref is greater than V1 it saturates in the other
direction. It is therefore behaving as a two-state digital device with
V0 switching from high to low, i.e. comparing voltages. When fed
with an ac input, the op-amp in its saturated condition is converting a
continuously varying analogue signal into a two-state digital one, i.e.
converting a sine wave into a square wave.

SIMPLE COMPARATOR

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Op-amp as an Integrator
The circuit shown is similar to an inverting amplifier but feedback is
via a capacitor. It therefore inverts, amplifies the input signal over a
period of time determined by the values of R1 and C1.

OP-AMP INTEGRATOR

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Op-amp as a Differentiator

This circuit responds only to changes of input Vi. It is only during

these input changes that current flows through C1 and Rf. The
output is the inversion of the input rate of change.

DIFFERENTIATING OP-AMP

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The Differential Amplifier A basic differential amplifier circuit and its block symbol are shown
in the diagram below. The diff-amp stages that make up part of the
op-amp provide high voltage gain and common mode rejection
As previously stated the op-amp is basically a differential amplifier so (defined later).
it is useful to look at its operation.

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
The circuit shown produces an output which is proportional to the
difference between the two inputs. If RS = RF then Vout is equal to the
difference in input voltages. If RF and RS have different values then
the circuit gain (A0) = RF/RS

In general the output is

The op-amp, in its basic form, typically consists of two or more
V0 = A0 (V2 - V1) differential amplifier stages. Because the differential amplifier
(diff-amp) is fundamental to the op-amp's internal operation, it is
useful to have a basic understanding of this type of circuit.

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Basic Differential Amplifier

The differential amplifier effectively amplifies the DIFFERENCE
between the signals applied to the two input terminals. If Rf (R3) is made 10 times the value of R1 (R2) then a "gain of 10‖
difference amplifier is obtained. Similarly, if R1 = R2 =R3 =Rf a unity
The basic circuit for the difference amplifier is illustrated in Fig 91 gain amplifier is obtained and the device will be a "straight difference
with input signal V1 applied to the inverting input and input signal V2 amplifier‖ giving:
applied to the non-inverting input.
Vo = (V2 - V1)
A Feedback network R1 and Rf is connected to the inverting input in
the usual manner in order to provide gain setting. If either input is held at 0v the device behaves as a single-ended
amplifier.
However, since the gain at the non-inverting (+) input is 1 plus the
gain at the inverting (-) input, an attenuator network (R2 and R3)
must also be connected in the noninverting signal input as shown. In
a practical circuit, if R1 = R2 and R3 = Rf the transfer function
simplifies to:

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Other uses of Op-amps

Linear IC's are used in audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers
and video amplifiers, but are of specialised types and require a small
number of external components. This figure shows a radio frequency
amplifier.

RADIO FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER

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Logic Circuits
There are two main types of logic circuit:

1. TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic)

2. CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

The following shows the scales of integration which refer to the

number of gates contained in a single package:

Small scale integration (SSI) – containing not more than 11 gates

Medium scale integration (MSI) – containing up to 100 gates
Large scale integration (LSI) – containing between 100 - 1000 gates
Very large scale integration (VLSI) – containing over 1000 gates

The following diagrams show some TTL and CMOS gates. TTL 'NAND' GATE
The figure above shows a two input NAND gate which uses a
multiple emitter NPN transistor. If both inputs to T1 are high, then no
current flows from the base to the emitter. Current does flow through
the base collector circuit to switch on T2. The output F is near zero
volts. If either input A or B go low, then T1 conducts. This causes
current flow from collector of T2 (positive charges) through T1 to
ground, which switches T2 off and the output goes high.

TTL 'AND' GATE

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Properties of TTL and CMOS

TTL uses bi-polar transistors along with diodes and transistors

formed to microscopic dimensions on a slice of silicon (chip). TTL
must have a steady 5V DC supply, while CMOS will work on DC
voltages between 3 and 15V and usually requires much less power.
CMOS uses uni-polar Field Effect Transistors (FET) with metal-
oxide-silicon technology; this lends itself to VLSI as they take up less
room on a chip, compared to the TTL. CMOS has much higher input
impedance.

One important point with CMOS is that if static electric charges are
allowed to build up on its input pins, these voltages can break down
CMOS 'NOR' GATE the thin layer of silicon oxide insulation between the gate and the
other electrodes of MOSFET's and this will destroy the IC. So,
antistatic protection is important.

Gate operating parameters include:

1. Speed of operation
2. Fan in
3. Fan out
4. Noise margin
5. Power dissipation

CMOS 'NAND' GATE

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Speed of operation - the time that elapses between the application of Typical figures for TTL and CMOS are shown below.
a signal to an input terminal and the resulting change in the logical
state at the output terminals. Speed of Fan Fan Noise Power
Operation in out margin dissipation
Fan in - number of inputs coming from similar circuits that can be Standard
connected to the gate without adversely affecting its performance. 9nS 8 10 0.4V 40mW
TT L
CMOS 30nS 8 50 1.5V 0.001mW
Fan out - the maximum number of similar circuits that can be
connected to its output terminals without the output falling outside
the limits at which logic levels 1 and 0 are specified. If you look back at the diagrams for the TTL AND gate and the TTL
NAND gate you will see that the NAND gate uses fewer components
Noise margin - this is maximum noise voltage (unwanted voltage) and is therefore cheaper to produce.
that can appear at its input terminals without producing a change in
output state. This also applies to the NOR gate, i.e. it is cheaper to produce than
the OR gate.
Power dissipation - as in any circuit, supply voltage multiplied by the
current (Power = V х I) gives the power in the circuit and this heat
must be dissipated.

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NAND gates can be connected together to form any of the other

basic gates - thus reducing production costs by manufacturing one
gate only. The following drawings show how these gates can be
formed.

USE OF NAND GATES

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The following figure shows the pin connections of IC's for different IC's are made which also perform the function of encoding,
gate configurations. There is no need to remember them but it does decoding, performing binary addition (adders) and multiplexers.
give a good idea of how the chip (with the gates in) is connected -
although the chip itself is so small that it looks like a piece of silver In sequential logic circuits flip-flops are extensively used all of which
metal 4 or 5mm square. are manufactured on IC's.

IC PIN CONNECTIONS

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The SR Flip-Flop The output state is said to be indeterminate, so S = R = 1 should not

be allowed to occur. The truth table is shown:
The SR flip-flop has two output terminals Q and ̅ . The figure below
shows the SR flip- flop using NAND gates. S R Q ̅

1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1

0 0 Depends on state before inputs applied

1 1 Indeterminate

So basically, the SR flip-flop can exist in two stable states:

THE SR FLIP-FLOP
Q = 1 ( ̅ = 0) or Q = 0 ( ̅ = 1)
With reference to the SR flip-flop above,

When S =1, R=0, Q=1, ̅ = 0 the flip-flop is SET

When S = 0, R=1, Q=0, ̅ = 1 the flip-flop is RESET

When S = 0, R=0, then no change occurs Q and ̅ will be what

they were before

When S = 1 and R = 1 then Q = 1 and ̅ equals 1. The circuit is

stable while S = R = 1, but if they are changed simultaneously from 1
to 0, then due to different switching times of the gates, we cannot
predict whether Q or ̅ will be 1.

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Clocked SR Flip-Flop
In sequential logic circuits where there may be a large number of flip-
flops, it is important they all act at the same time, so no circuit
operates out of sequence.

This is achieved by a CLOCK pulse from a high frequency pulse

generator. The circuits may be triggered when the clock pulse
changes from 1 to 0 or when it changes from 0 to 1 (edge triggered)
or when the level is 1 or 0. The figure here shows a clocked SR flip-
flop and its truth table.
CLOCKED SR FLIP-FLOP

DURING CLOCK OUTPUTS BEFORE OUTPUTS AFTER

INPUTS
PULSE CLOCK PULSE CLOCK PULSE COMMENTS
S R A B Q ̅ Q ̅
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
NO CHANGE IN OUTPUTS
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
FLIP-FLOP SETS WITH Q = 1 & ̅ = 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
FLIP-FLOP RESETS WITH Q = 1 & ̅ = 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
THIS INPUT IS NOT ALLOWED
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

TRUTH TABLE - CLOCKED SR FLIP-FLOP

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D Type SR Flip-Flop
This is a modified SR flip-flop. The D stands for Delay. If you look at
the truth table, when the clock pulse changes (rises), whatever is at
D is transferred to Q, when clock pulse falls, Q stays at that level.
NO MATTER WHAT IS APPLIED TO D, Q will only change state at
the next clock pulse. The truth table shows that the output equals the
input one clock pulse earlier, i.e. the data is held back until the clock
pulse = 1.

CLOCKED D TYPE FLIP-FLOP

OUTPUTS BEFORE OUTPUTS AFTER

INPUT
CLOCK PULSE CLOCK PULSE
D S R Q ̅ Q ̅
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0

TRUTH TABLE - CLOCKED D TYPE FLIP-FLOP

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JK Flip-Flop
The figures here show the layout and truth table of the JK flip-flop
using NAND gates.

The two inputs are called J and K and the operation is described in
the truth table. J = K = 1 is allowed (unlike S = R = 1 in a SR flip-flop)
and toggles (changes state) when this input is applied.

JK FLIP-FLOP

OUTPUTS BEFORE DURING CLOCK OUTPUTS AFTER

INPUTS
CLOCK PULSE PULSE CLOCK PULSE COMMENTS
J K Q ̅ A B Q ̅
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
NO CHANGE IN OUTPUTS
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
STAYS AT OR SETS TO Q = 1 & ̅ = 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
STAYS AT OR SETS TO Q = 0 & ̅ = 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
TOGGLES
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

TRUTH TABLE - JK FLIP-FLOP

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Multivibrators using Op-amps

Shift Registers, which store a binary number and shifts it out when
required, usually consist of a number of flip-flops and manufactured
in IC's as are counters and memories.

The Astable, Monostable and Bistable multivibrators are also

manufactured on IC's using op-amps as shown.

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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For Your Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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4.2 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

Modular Construction
Today, there is an increasing diversity of types of electronic modular
The basic module is a printed circuit board assembly whose end
assemblies. Many of them have been built with new kinds of basic
function terminates at a connector device. It may take many forms
materials and manufacturing processes and techniques. Your
(Figure 96) ranging from the simple, single-sided, un-coated circuit
knowledge of electronic packaging, assembly methods, physical
board with standard sized components mounted in a low density
characteristics, and the limitations of the materials and components
manner, to a double-sided or multilayered circuit board packaged
used will contribute greatly to your success in the non-destructive
with mechanical hardware and multi-leaded sub-modules or micro-
repair of printed circuit board assemblies.
miniature components that are coated with or encapsulated within a
A firm understanding of these elements of construction will enable variety of coating materials. Variations In termination and mounting
you to fully analyse the repair problem at hand and accomplish the techniques also tend to complicate matters.
task without further damage to the circuit board.

Modules and Assemblies - The Modular Concept

Most modern electronic systems are produced with building blocks

commonly known as modules. The general concept of modular
construction has become the standard method for constructing the
most complex of systems. Primarily, the modular concept permits us
to build up complex Systems with assemblies that are readily
interchanged.

Some Systems use the modular concept extensively, and may even
utilise a basic standard module package. However, in many cases
specific module configurations may differ from subsystem to
subsystem within the same overall system. This is because the
subsystem designers have established modular formats which they
felt best suited their individual requirements.

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Quality Assurance Criteria of Acceptability

These are the standards that define the "end result‖ acceptability of
the repair. Often, quality control inspectors are not available in the
field when repairs are made, so you must act as your own inspector.
As a result, you must know not only the specific repair procedures to
be utilised, but also the detailed standards with which a repair must
comply.

The above elements form the basis for "Universal Repair.‖ Leaving
any one of them out will result in repair deficiencies.

However, if you know what to do and why, and if you learn the
proper skills and procedures and have the proper equipment to do
the work, then these elements are the foundation of a successful
repair operation. This complexity is further compounded by the
diversity of manufacturers who establish their own standards to suit
their particular design and manufacturing requirements. Therefore, to
properly repair these modules, you must acquire a working
knowledge of the materials and elements of construction employed
to produce them.

Submodules

Submodules are separate assemblies of components that have been

connected or mounted to a circuit board assembly (fig 97). They may
be found in a variety of sizes and shapes and may have two or more
connecting leads. The leads may be of various spacings, dimensions
and materials, such as copper, nickel, kovar, etc. The submodule
assembly may be conformally coated with a thin skin of plastic, or be
completely encapsulated with a potting material. These contribute to
the repair problem. Internally, parts of the submodule may be
interconnected by either soldering or welding.

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Circuit Board Elements Whatever the specific material used, its qualities must include high
insulation resistance, low moisture absorption, good temperature
Printed circuit boards are constructed of two main elements. The first stability, resistance to shock and vibration, and where important,
is the base material, sometimes called the substrate. The second is resistance to fungus growth.
the circuitry made of a conductive foil bonded to the base material.
Recognising the type of base material used helps determine the
Base Material or Substrate bond and mechanical strength factors for the specific module being
repaired. More specific details on various types of base materials are
The base materials, listed in Table 1, include most of those which found in Table 1. This table indicates the relative heat and
have been used over the years. One of the earliest materials used mechanical load limits that can be utilised during repair, since some
was a laminate impregnated with phenolic resins. This material is baseboards and laminates cannot withstand the same levels of heat
primarily for moderate temperature applications. Its colour is either or mechanical loading as can others.
natural or a shade from tan to brown. It is usually opaque and has no
Common Heat/Mechanical
discernible weave since the paper laminating material does not have NEMA Grade Material
Appearance Load Limits*
a weave.
X , XP ,XPC, XX, XXP Phenolic Paper Tan -
Another material, used for higher temperature applications, is XX P , XXXPC Phenolic Paper Tan -
laminated fibreglass cloth impregnated with epoxy resin. Its colour CE, L, LE Phenolic cotton Tan with weave -
can be natural, tan, green, or others. It will usually be translucent, G-2 Phenolic Glass Tan with weave -
G-7 Silicone Glass White to light tan Above 5
and a cloth texture can be noted lust below the surface. This material
G-1O Epoxy Glass Green with weave 5
has a mechanical strength that is two to three times greater than that FR-4 Epoxy Glass Green with weave 5
of phenolic laminates, and it also has a greater bond strength to the FR-5 Epoxy Glass Green with weave 3
laminated copper. CEM Epoxy composite Green 5

Other base materials used for special applications include ceramic,

TABLE 1: BASE MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
steel, Mylar, polyamids and others. Most circuit boards are rigid and
will keep their shape. However, some boards such as Dupont The numbers indicate the ―peel strength‖ of the laminate, i.e., the force in lbs/inch-of
MylarO and KaptonO, are purposely made of thin and flexible width needed to peel off a strip of copper cladding at an elevated temperature. In
material so they can be formed to fit the available space, or can be general, the earlier paper and cotton laminates have a greater susceptibility to
bent around corners to replace bulky wire harnesses. damage from heat and mechanical stress than do the newer epoxy glass laminates;
silicone glass is least susceptible. (~M limits are not available for some materials.
See NEMA Standards Publication LI 1.1971, Revisions.)

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Make Up Of PCBs
The layered sheets are bonded in a hot press. The heat during the
Metallic foil is bonded onto a base board made from insulating pressing operation melts the resin in the base material so that it
material, and a pattern is printed onto the foil and chemical etching flows and fully wets the material and the copper foil. As
on to the foil forms a series of current conducting paths. The polymerisation of the resin mix proceeds, each layer of base material
components are then mounted to the board and soldered to the reaches the fully cured state with the copper foil is bonded to it.
appropriate points to make-up the circuit required. The boards are When cooled each board is trimmed to the required size, inspected
usually made-up of layers of phenolic resin impregnated paper, or and packed in polythene bags.
epoxy resin impregnated glass-fibre cloth.
Next a master diagram must be produced to show clearly the
The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil. To bond conductor pattern (a sort of wiring pattern) required and where the
the copper to the board, copper foil sheets are cut to the size of the components are to be located. This is usually done by computer
board and steel separate plates are interposed between the layers aided design techniques.
as shown:

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Etching Process

The printing process may be by the etching or additive process. In

the etching process the copper foil is cleaned and coated with a
photo-sensitive solution known as a 'resist', this solution has the
property of becoming soluble when exposed to strong light. The
master diagram is then placed over the board and exposed for a
time in a printing machine. The resist is washed away to leave the
resist etched away around the circuit pattern. The board is then
placed in a bath of ferric chloride to etch away all the unprotected
copper.

ETCHING PROCESS

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Additive Process

An alternative process is the additive method. In this process the

copper is deposited only in the areas where conductors are required.
Again the board is coated with a photo resist solution. A negative of
the master diagram is then screen printed onto the board, exposing
the areas for the conductor layout. These exposed areas are
chemically activated and the whole board is immersed in a copper
plating solution, when the required thickness is obtained the board is
withdrawn from the solution.

ADDITIVE PROCESS

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The components are soldered to the board by two main methods (a) In mass soldering all joints are soldered simultaneously by bringing
by hand, (b) mass soldering. the board into contact with an oxide free surface of molten solder,
which is contained in a special bath. The solder specification for
mass soldering is 60/40 tin/lead. To prevent oxidation a flux is used
and in the automated mass soldering system a fluxer unit is
incorporated, removal of any flux residue is by solvents.

TYPICAL DOUBLE SIDED PCBS BOARD COMPONENTS

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Circuitry The type of foil most used is copper, which is commonly found in two
main thicknesses: 0.0014 inches (.036mm) and 0.0028 inches (.071
The circuitry is the second main element of a printed circuit board. It mm). The thinner (0.0014") foil is known as one-ounce copper, since
is made of a conductive foil bonded to the base material (Fig 98). one square foot of it weighs one ounce; the thicker (0.0028") foil is
known as two-ounce copper. A third type, commonly used for
internal circuits on multi-layer boards, is known as half-ounce
copper, and has a thickness of 0.0007 inches (.0l8mm). Other
thinner copper circuits are also becoming more popular.

The circuit consists of the conductors (also called runs), edge

connectors, ground planes, heat sinks (because their large mass
helps to dissipate heat), and pads or terminals (Figure 99).

Note that the copper is extremely thin in comparison to the circuit

board (Figure 100). This is a very important relationship to
comprehend because the improper application of heat to circuitry,
during repair, can overheat the circuitry and cause delamination of
he copper as well as heat damage to the board itself.

The application of heat during repair operations will be covered in

more detail later in this course.

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Plating of Circuitry

Circuit board conductive surfaces are usually covered with a thin

coating of tin-lead (i.e. solder) to reduce the effects of corrosion and
improve solder-ability. This solder coating is applied with a plating,
dipping, or other process.

Plating may also be present on the edge connector fingers. Here

gold is commonly used for its high conductivity, resistance to
oxidation, and natural lubricating quality.

Through-Holes in Circuit Boards

In addition to its base material and conductive foil, the usual circuit
board also has a number of holes drilled through it to allow the
mounting of components (Figure 101). These holes are of two kinds:
unsupported and supported (plated-through). Unsupported holes are
simply holes in the base material, drilled through from one side to the
other, but providing no electrical connection between the two sides
of the board.

Plated-through holes (supported), on the other hand, have their walls

lined with copper so that they form a continuous electrical path,
called a through connection, running through the board, from one
side to the other. Plated-through holes are also known as reinforced
holes. In addition to the use of plating, reinforcement may be through
the use of copper eyelet‘s or funnelets that have been inserted into
the hole to create continuity from one side of the board to the other
(while retaining compatibility with the copper foil).

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Eyelet’s and Funnelets

Figure 102 shows the cross section of an eyelet and a funnelet. The
Eyelet‘s and funnelets are usually made of pure copper. The copper nomenclature is referenced in FIG 102.
material in these devices must have a softness factor (Ductility
Level) that will prevent splitting when they are set in a circuit board. The head on the eyelet or funnelet that it comes with is known as the
manufactured head. The end that you set or swage when installing it
There are cases, however, where controlled splitting during setting- into the work-piece is known as the upset head, or end. The funnelet
called petal setting-is desired. Most eyelets and funnelets are plated is essentially the same as the eyelet, but has a flange-type
with tin-lead or pure tin. manufactured head, requiring additional nomenclature called the
Fange Angle (FA).

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Circuit Board Configurations

If circuits exist on only one side of a board, it is a single-sided board;
if on both sides, it is a double-sided board. A third type is the multi
layered board, which is a sandwich of a number of layers, each one
with its own circuitry. The following descriptions summarise the
construction of each of these types of board.

Single-Sided Boards (Single layer)

These boards contain all printed conducting paths on one side with
the components mounted on the opposite side.

The single-sided board has combinations of conductors, terminals

(pads), and ground planes bonded to one side of the base material
(Figure 103). The usual board also has a number of holes drilled
through it to allow the mounting of components.

In a single-sided board, the pads are normally unsupported; there is

no through-hole copper to support the pad to the board. The
components are normally mounted on the back (non-circuit) side of
the board, and the component leads are fed through the holes and
soldered to the pads.

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Double Sided Boards (Multilayer)

The leads are soldered from the circuit side, but the solder flows
These have printed conducting paths on both sides and the
through the hole, providing a continuous solder joint through the
components may also be mounted on both sides.
entire hole, with fillets located on both sides for additional lead
The double-sided board has combinations of conductors, terminals support and solder joint integrity.
and ground planes located on both sides of the board (Figure 104).
A second, but less commonly used type of double-sided board, is
In most applications, there is a continuous conductive path, or
that using an unsupported type of hole. As shown in Figure 104,
interconnection, between circuitry on both sides. This is usually via a
there is no plated-through hole or other mechanical feed-through.
plated-through hole, in which copper is plated to the hole walls, and
The component lead itself performs this function. The lead is
also to the pads on either side of the board (Figure 104). This is
soldered to both sides of the board, with individual fillets on each
known as a supported hole configuration. In some boards, this
pad, to assure a good electrical connection. A problem with this
through-hole support can also come from eyelets or funnelets that
configuration is that each side must be desoldered independently
have been inserted into the hole, and fused to the pads on either
when components are removed for repair. In addition this type of
side (Figure 102).
configuration is susceptible to solder joint cracking due to thermal
In construction, the components are normally mounted on one side stresses.
of the board, with the leads fed through the hole.

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Multi-Layer Boards (Multilayer sandwich)

These boards are many thin boards laminated together with the
components mounted on one or both external sides.

Multi-layer boards (see figure) are similar in construction to the

double-sided type of board, wherein a plated-through hole is utilised
to provide a continuous electrical connection between the circuitry on
both outside surfaces of the board. The multi-layer board, however,
utilises one or more "internal‖ conductor planes that are sandwiched
in layers within the board. These are connected, in many locations,
to the plated-through holes in the circuit board.

It is very important to consider this internal construction for

component removal, since the internal planes can act as heat sinks
absorbing the heat applied to the surface solder and pad, and
preventing it from completely melting the joint.

Excessive heat at the hole/internal plane interface can cause

damage and loss of continuity with the internal plane, often with no
outward sign of damage. Since all plated through holes in a
multilayer may not interconnect with all (or any) of the internal
planes, each plated through hole and its associated solder and lead
must be considered independently with respect to thermal mass,
heat transfer, and dwell time on the joint.

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Flexible Circuits
Though not as common as the rigid substrate-type of printed circuit
board, flexible printed wiring assemblies and flexible flat cables are
finding increased use (Figure 106). Flexible printed wiring consists of
etched conductors of electrolytic or rolled copper laminated to one or
more layers of a flexible insulating base of Mylar or Kapton, This
type of circuitry is generally custom designed for a particular
application and often used as an interconnection system within a
component package. Flat cable, on the other hand, is most often
used like conventional harnesses: to interconnect separate
component packages, to go around corners in high density
packages, or to reduce the effects of vibration fatigue on the
conductors.

FIGURE 106: TYPICAL FLEXIBLE CIRCUITS

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Flexible printed wiring circuits are available and usually serve as a If we were to touch the edge connectors or some other exposed
means of interconnecting units and are basically copper foil metal part then a surge of current due to the difference in potential
conductors bonded to a base of thin flexible insulator (polyester, between our body and the PCB would cause damage to the
epoxy glass cloth and polyimide) and covered with the same components. The following table lists static sensitive devices and
material. voltages that can cause damage. These devices are often referred to
as ESD's (electrostatic sensitive devices).
Printed circuit boards are widely used in components on a modern
large transport aircraft. When removing or replacing these boards
strict precautions must be observed. RANGE WHERE DAMAGE
TYPE OF DEVICE
CAN OCCUR (V)
The reason for this is that the static electricity or charge that we have
in our body can cause serious damage to the software of the MOSFET 150 TO 1,000
components on the boards. The table shows typical electrostatic
CMOS 250 TO 1,000
voltages that may be developed.
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR 4,000 TO 15,000
ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES
MEANS OF STATIC RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%) SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
GENERATION 4,000 TO 15,000
(SCR)
10 TO 20 65 TO 90
THIN FILM RESISTORS 150 TO 1,000
WALKING ON CARPET 35,000 1,500
TABLE OF VOLTAGE RANGE WHERE DAMAGE CAN OCCUR ON ESD
WALKING ON VYNIL FLOOR 12,000 250
To identify components fitted with ESD's a symbol is used on the line
WORKING AT BENCH 6,000 100 replacement unit (LRU) and associated documentation, transport
VINYL (PLASTIC) DOCUMENT bags etc.
7,000 600
ENVELOPES
'POLY BAG' PICKED FROM To overcome the static discharge problem the person removing the
20,000 1,200
BENCH PCB must use a conducting wrist strap which is connected to a
CHAIR PADDED WITH convenient grounding point on the aircraft and the person, to initially
18,000 1,500
POLYURETHANE FOAM discharge any energy within the body.
TABLE OF TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES

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ESD DECALS AND WARNINGS

When removing an ESD PCB (or any PCB for that matter) electrical If you are removing the complete LRU then it is important you do not
power is removed, the wrist strap is connected to the ground (there touch the connector pins and place dust caps on all connectors.
is usually a convenient point nearby on the aircraft), attach strap to
your wrist and remove the PCB using the extractors provided. Place REMEMBER STATIC DISCHARGE CAN CAUSE DAMAGE!
the PCB immediately into a special conductive bag (designed for
ESD components) and identify with a label, do NOT use staples or
adhesive tape. Remove wrist strap if not immediately refitting a new
PCB. Do not forget any documentation such as the Airworthiness
Release Certificate / Airworthiness Approval Tag (ARC/AAT)
(Ref: DCA Airworthiness Notices AN29 and AN29A)
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Component Types and Mounting Techniques The Clinched Lead

Common components used in electronics are usually referred to as This method is usually used with unsupported holes, but may be
the discrete components or piece parts of a modular assembly. They used with supported holes. The lead is inserted into the hole, and
can be separated into categories by function, such as resistors, then the lead end is bent 90 degrees onto the conductor. This helps
capacitors, transistors, diodes, etc. In each category there are stabilise the component on the board so that it will not move during
several subcategories: for example, resistors may be carbon soldering.
composition, vitreous enamel, wire wound or ceramic, and may be
fixed, variable, or adjustable. The same may be true for other The Semi-Clinched Lead
discrete components. In addition, a component may be classified as This is similar to the clinched lead, except that the end of the wire is
axial leaded, such as the resistor, or multi-leaded, such as the bent at an angle of only 45 degrees or so, making it easier to
transistor, dual inline pack, or LSI micro- processor-style package. straighten out for removal if repair is required.

Each type of component has its own peculiarities and may be The Swaged (Spaded) Lead
mounted in one of many different ways, depending on weight, shape,
size, mechanical configuration, heat sensitivities, and package size The lead ends extending through the printed circuit board are
restrictions. Additionally, the component may be subject to electrical swaged or flattened to increase their width beyond that of the hole,
damage and require special precautions during handling. thus retaining the components in their proper position during the
handling and soldering. This method requires special procedures for
In most instances, discrete components are mounted flush to the removing the component.
board surface to aid in heat dissipation, and may be mechanically
supported (depending on weight), conformally coated, or otherwise Surface Mounting
bonded to the workpiece surface. In other instances, the
components may be vertically mounted. The leads of flat packs and other planar-mounted components are
mounted and soldered onto the flat surfaces of the pads on the
Figure 107 shows the six most common methods of terminating board, rather than passing through holes in the board.
soldered component leads to printed circuit boards. These are:
Offset Pad Mounting
The Straight-Through (Unclinched) Lead
This is a variation of the Surface Mounting method. The lead is
This type of termination is the easiest to remove and replace passed through a hole in the board and is bent so that it can be
because there are no bends in the leads after they pass through the surface-mounted to a pad on the opposite side. In some instances,
holes. the pad to which the lead is joined is some distances away from the
hole.
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Circuit Board Packaging Varnishes are hard, applied in thin coats, translucent or opaque, and
non-soluble in mild solvents.
On some boards, the components are mounted widely spaced apart;
this is known as low-density packaging; boards with high-density  Acrylic lacquer is hard, usually thin, transparent, and soluble in
packaging have many components mounted very close together. lacquer thinner or xylene.
With low-density packaging, you have more space to work with, and  Epoxies are hard, may be applied thickly or thinly, may be
it is easier to get at the components in order to remove them. But transparent or opaque, and are non-soluble in mild solvents.
with high- density packaging, circuit runs are much narrower and
more closely spaced, and components may be mounted so close  Silicone varnish is soft, may be applied thickly or thinly, is
together that some may be totally inaccessible. In this case, you may transparent, and is soluble in most mild solvents.
need to partially disassemble the board to get at them. This is where  Polyurethane may be hard or soft, may be thickly or thinly
your knowledge of how the board was put together is useful; you coated, is always transparent, and is non-soluble in mild
have to "de-manufacture‖ it to get at the parts, and then "re- solvents.
manufacture‖ it when you replace them.
 R T V Rubber (or Silicone Rubber) is opaque, soft and usually
very thick. The colour is normally white, red/brown or black.
Coatings
 Parylene is uniformly thin, non-soluble, transparent, and very
A major problem in the repair of some printed circuit board tough.
assemblies is the removal of conformal coatings that cover circuitry
and components. These coatings are used for a variety of reasons: Coatings are applied in a number of different ways:
to provide electrical insulation, to cushion against mechanical shock
and vibration, to prevent abrasion, to help support and bond the  Dipping, spraying, brushing or vacuum condensation. Spraying
components, to function as a heat sink, or to protect against humidity is used for thin applications, while the dipping method is used for
or fungus. In most cases, these must be partially removed to gain thicker coatings. Parylene is applied by vaporising the required
access to the solder joints during component test or removal. The quantity of material in a vacuum chamber; the coating then
general characteristics of coatings, for purposes of removal, are condenses uniformly on the entire assembly. Masking is used
hardness, degree of transparency, thickness, solubility and thermal over areas not requiring coating and is removed after the
properties. coating process.
 Once they are applied, coatings must be dried or cured. This is
Here are some of the main types of coating materials you will done in a number of ways, depending on the type of coating
encounter in electronics, along with a few of their identifying used. Air drying and heat curing are two of the most commonly
characteristics: used methods.

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For Your Notes

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For Your Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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4.3 SERVOMECHANISMS
Introduction

"Servo mechanisms‖ exist in two basic forms:

1. Open loop - HUMAN interface.

2. Closed loop - AUTOMATIC error actuated.

A "servo mechanism‖, is a power, assisted device used for

controlling movement, for example, with a motor car, servo assisted
brakes and servo assisted steering.

1. Typical open loop, human interface.

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With aircraft systems, there are servo operated control mechanisms

such as ailerons, elevators and rudder used to control the aircraft as
it flies.

The "servo mechanism‖, required for moving these is a hydraulically

powered actuator, the actuator has a mechanical input from a control
cable. The pilot applies an input to the control surface by turning the
control wheel or pressing on the rudder pedals. The cables then
move hydraulic valves on the power control actuators, which in turn
allows hydraulic pressure to drive the actuator, which in turn will
move the control surface.

When the control surface moves to its commanded position, the

hydraulic pressure is shut off to the actuator this is achieved
mechanically by the actuator backing off the hydraulic input to zero
pressure. This then is a closed loop system although there is human
interface, the system itself is a self-contained, in that an input
command is followed up by an equal and opposite feedback
command.

Typical closed loop system mechanical feedback

Other "servo mechanisms‖ used extensively throughout aircraft

systems, are electrical in operation and are of the closed loop verity,
Electronic or Electro - Mechanical.

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A typical Electro Mechanical system is a servo altimeter.

The servo altimeter consists of twin aneroid capsules, "E and I bar,‖
electric motor, amplifier, gear train, cam follower, pointer, dial, and
digital counter.

The capsules expand or contract, with an increase or decrease in

atmospheric pressure, or with a change in aircraft altitude. Attached
to the twin capsules is the I-bar of the E and I bar assembly.

When the capsule is displaced by an altitude change, the I-bar will

move its angular position with respect to the E-bar; thus a voltage is
induced in the windings of coils on the E-bar.

The voltage is applied to the amplifier to amplify the signal then to

the servomotor. The servomotor will then drive the gear train to turn
the pointer and digital counters to show the change in altitude. As
the gear train drives, the cam follower assembly repositions the E-
bar back to null "no signal output‖.

Shown in the diagram, a typical servo altimeter closed loop system.

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Open Loop and Close Loop

Introduction

Servo mechanisms exist in two basic forms to provide both manual

and automatic control of linear and angular position:
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
1. Open Loop few application in aircraft systems
The control element controls the magnitude and direction of the input
2. Closed Loop commonly used in aircraft air data, flight data to a power amplifier, whose output drives the motor at the desired
and autopilot/flight path control systems and indicators. speed in the required direction. The motor, in turn, moves the load in
accordance with the input demand.
Open Loop
The control element could be calibrated with a scale indicating the
A control system in which HUMAN interface between input and required position of the load. Then when we set the control dial for
output determines system accuracy, response time and stability. the required position, we hope that the load (possibly unseen) is
doing what we are telling it to do.
Manually operated servo systems tend to suffer from overshoot
leading to poor response times and instability. In practice, however, the accuracy of control is limited because there
are several factors, other than the input, that affect the output (e.g.
Overshoot depends upon the inertia of the system and the output variations in the output load, in the amplifier characteristics or in the
loading. motor circuit). We have no means of controlling these variations in
the open loop system and, because of the resulting inaccuracy; open
Suppose that we wish to control the position of a radar scanner. loop systems are hardly ever used.
Suppose also that we have a motor capable of driving the scanner
and some means of controlling the motor. Such an arrangement is
illustrated

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Closed Loop

An automatic error actuated power control system. However, to measure the error and take the necessary correcting
action, we have 'built in' the human operator as an essential
Error is the difference between the required state and the actual element. A more effective and efficient control can be obtained by
state of the load. replacing the human operator with an automatic control system. The
response of the automatic system is generally quicker and more
Closed loop systems have a circuit or means of automatically limiting accurate than that of a human operator, and the automatic
overshoot, which gives a significant improvement in system arrangement is not subject to fatigue. In addition, of course, the
ACCURACY, RESPONSE TIME and STABILITY, over manually automatic system gives a saving in manpower.
operated open loop systems.
The essential features of the closed loop system are as follows:
If we observe what the load is doing and make appropriate  The feedback of information concerning the behaviour of the
corrections at the input, the system is no longer open loop; it is now, load.
in effect, a closed loop system, the human operator completing the
loop between output and input. He/she compares the desired effect  The comparison of this information with the behaviour
with the actual effect and adjusts the system so as to reduce the demanded by the input. The production of an error signal
error between them. He/she is thus, in this connection, an 'error proportional to the difference between the desired behaviour
detector', and the amount of error which the person observes and the actual behaviour.
determines how adjustments are made to the input to produce the  The amplification of the error signal to control the power into
desired results. a servomotor.
 The movement of the load by the servomotor in such a
direction as to reduce the error signal to zero, at which point
the output is the same as that demanded by the input.

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The block schematic diagram of a basic closed loop control system  The error signal operates the amplifier which, in turn, causes
is illustrated below. In this arrangement: the motor to rotate until 0 equals I (output equals demand);
 I is the input demand, which in this case is in the form of a at this point the error signal is zero and the drive from the
shaft angle. motor ceases, the output load having taken up the position
demanded by the input.
 0 is the output shaft angle of the load.
Classification
 The control element converts the demand I into some form
suitable for operation of the error detector, e.g. produces a
Closed loop servo mechanisms may be dc, ac or pulse operated and
voltage proportional to i.
can be classified by:
 The feedback element does the same for the output angle 0,
e.g. produces a voltage proportional to 0.  Application
 Method of damping
 Degree of damping

Note: Damping refers to the means of limiting overshoot.

Types of Closed Loop Servo Mechanisms

 Positional Servo : Control of position

 Rate Servo : Control of rate and direction
 Computing Servo : computes output functions from input
information

Basic Requirements of Closed Loop Servo Mechanisms

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
 Accept an order
 The error detector has two inputs applied to it, one due to I  Evaluate the position of the input and output
and the other due to 0; it produces an error signal e  Evaluate the magnitude, direction and rate of change of any
proportional to the difference between the two inputs, error
i.e. (I - 0).  Carry out correcting orders

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Practical Closed Loop Control System

The input demand I sets the angle of the transmitter (CX) rotor. The
resulting alternating field in the control transformer stator induces a
voltage in the transformer rotor and this voltage is fed as an error or
misalignment signal to the amplifier. The amplifier output is used to
drive an ac servomotor that turns the output shaft and also the rotor
of the control transformer through output angle 0.

PRACTICAL CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

When the output shaft is turned into alignment with the setting of the
input shaft (0 = I) the transformer rotor is at right angles to the
transmitter rotor and its own stator field. In this position there is no
error signal induced in the transformer rotor, there is no input to the
amplifier or servomotor, and the motor stops. The output has now
taken up the position demanded by the input.

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Servomechanisms

To be classed as a servomechanism, an automatic control system Finally, continuous operation is assured in a servomechanism
must have: because any variation in the output from that demanded by the input
automatically produces a difference between output and input, and
a) Error actuation. hence an error signal. The error signal again starts the correcting
b) Power amplification. action.
c) Closed loop control.
A servomechanism has many applications, covering a wide range of
d) Continuous operation, or 'follow-up' properties, i.e. if the load
power requirements.
is disturbed from the demanded position, it always tends to
return.
Types of Servo
The system is said to be error-actuated because it is the error
There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote position
between the output demanded by the input and the actual output
control (rpc) servos and speed control servos.
which starts the action. The final net input to the amplifier is the error
signal and not the input demand.
a) RPC servos - These are used to control the angular or linear
position of a load.
We must have torque amplification to be able to drive heavy loads.
b) Speed Control Servos - These are used to control the speed
The servo therefore contains an amplifier that supplies the
of a load. In this case, the speed of the driving motor is made
necessary driving power to the servomotor; the motor provides the
proportional to the input demand usually a voltage.
required torque.

The servo also has a closed loop system;

Error detector - amplifier - motor and load - error detector...

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Inputs

Two types of input to a servo are:

2. RAMP INPUT - created when the input shaft is rotated at a
1. STEP INPUT - created when the input shaft is suddenly constant angular velocity.
rotated from one angular position to another.

STEP INPUT RAMP INPUT

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Performance of Servomechanisms
Response

The response of a servo is the pattern of behaviour of the load when

a change is made to the input condition. It has so far been assumed
that if the input moves to i the load will simply follow, its response
being a reproduction of the input movement.

SIMPLE SERVOMECHANISM

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Step Input - No Friction

For this discussion we will assume that the input and output were
aligned at 0, until the input suddenly changes to i. An error signal
proportional to 0 - i appears at the amplifier input and the motor is
energised to null the error.

One important point must now be emphasized. The torque delivered

by the motor to the load is directly proportional to the error; it acts
only on the inertia of the load, which therefore accelerates at a rate
proportional to the error. As the error reduces so the acceleration
reduces, until it reaches zero with zero error.

But this is not a satisfactory state of affairs, for the load acceleration
is in one sense only and that to increase its velocity. Saying that the
acceleration is zero at zero error simply means that the load has
reached a steady speed when we require it to be stationary. Further, RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT - NO FRICTION
since there is nothing to stop it, it keeps moving past the required
position.

The error signal produced, and, therefore, the torque applied to the
load, now reverses in sense to slow down the load. Since, however,
the components operate symmetrically about the null, the pattern of
deceleration is a mirror image of the original acceleration.

The load stops when it has overshot by the initial error, and from
there the performance is repeated. The resulting load oscillation
about the demanded position is illustrated graphically in the following
figure.

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Ramp Input - No Friction

The description of the response can be followed in the diagram. In

the early states of the ramp, while the error signal is small, the load
accelerates slowly and lags behind the input.

The error signal grows as the lag increases, building up the

acceleration. Eventually the load speed equals the input speed but
since a substantial position error exists it continues to accelerate.

When its speed exceeds that of the input the position error starts to
decrease; the acceleration reduces and the load reaches a constant
speed at zero position error with no error signal.

The load speed, however, exceeds the input speed and an

overshoot results. That the outcome is a continuous oscillation can
be easily imagined from this point. RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT - NO FRICTION

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Effect of Restraints Steady State Errors

The oscillatory responses are obviously not desirable, and luckily, Examination of the various restraints present would show that their
restraints on the load have a stabilizing effect. Various inherent effect is in part due to a small constant magnitude force known as
factors are to oppose the load movement; they include static friction, coulomb friction and in part to viscous friction that increases with
kinetic friction, eddy currents, air resistance, viscous lubricants and speed.
many others. Coulomb friction is that part of the frictional force that is independent
Lumping them all together for the moment the general effect is to of speed, e.g. a shoe on a brake drum.
reduce the amplitude of each successive swing until gradually the The resistance due to coulomb friction tends to degrade the
output becomes steady. The oscillations are known as transients sensitivity of a servo, for a torque that overcomes it must: be
and they are effective during the transient response period, or generated before any movement of the load takes place. To provide
settling time. Once the .output has settled it has reached the steady this torque, the load error must reach some finite size and any errors
state. less than this will not be corrected. The figure below shows the effect
While restraints are beneficial in stabilizing, or damping, the of coulomb friction on the response to a step input.
response, they do have certain detrimental effects. One of these is The load comes to rest somewhere within a band of error, known as
that power is wasted; another is the introduction of error in the the dead space, the width of which depends on the amount of
steady state. coulomb friction. For most modern servos the coulomb friction is very
small, and its effect is often neglected.

RESPONSE WITH COULOMB FRICTION TO A STEP INPUT

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Viscous friction does not produce a dead space in the step input
case since it has no value when the speed is zero. It does however
produce a similar effect when the ramp input is considered.

In the steady state the load is moving with constant speed; it is

therefore being resisted by viscous friction. An error signal must be
produced to overcome this therefore an error must exist.

The response is illustrated in this figure and the error necessary to

overcome the friction is known as velocity lag.

The output shaft rotates at the same speed as the input shaft but
lags behind it by some constant angle. This positional error is
velocity lag.

Coulomb friction may be considered small compared with viscous RESPONSE WITH VISCOUS FRICTION TO A RAMP INPUT
friction during a ramp input, but, of course, it also contributes to this
error. However, the greater part is due to viscous friction, and since
this increases with speed the error is generally reckoned to vary
directly with speed.

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Response of a RFC Servo to a Step Input (Negligible Coulomb Friction)

Let us assume that the output shaft is driving a load, and that it has
taken up a position which agrees with that demanded by the input
shaft (0 = i).

The error signal is therefore zero, and the servo is stationary in a

steady state condition.

BASIC RPC SERVO

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b) The error signal, after amplification, causes the motor to

accelerate in an attempt to bring the output shaft to the new
demanded position. Because of the inertia of the load this
takes time; there is therefore a time lag during which the
output angle 0 is changing in response to the change in
demand (b in figure (b) above).

c) As the motor turns the load, the output angle 0 approaches

the demand i. The error signal, which is proportional to
(i - 0) therefore decreases but the driving force remains
until 0 equals i at point c; this is the required load position.
d) By the time 0 has reached the demanded position, the load
has acquired considerable momentum and consequently
overshoots (point d).
RESPONSE CURVE
e) The error signal now increases in the opposite direction
(0 greater than i) and the motor applies a reverse torque
Now suppose that the input shaft is suddenly turned through a which eventually stops the load and brings it back to the
certain angle in order to bring the load into a new position, i.e. an required position at point e.
input known as a 'step input' is applied. The sequence of events is
illustrated in the figure above. f) Once again, however, the momentum of the load carries it
past the required position and another overshoot occurs at f.
a) The input demand i is suddenly change to a new value at
point a. The output shaft cannot immediately follow this The load may thus oscillate about its final required position
change in demand because of the inertia of the load. many times before it comes to rest; a servomechanism that does
Therefore there is now a difference between 0 and i and an this is said to be 'hunting'.
error signal is produced.

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Improvement of Transient Response Viscous Damping

For many applications the simple servo using its inherent friction for This method is simply a controlled increase of the inherent viscous
damping is perfectly adequate. This is usually the case for small damping to achieve the required response. One device in use is the
position servos, but when large loads are involved the transient eddy current damper as shown below.
response is unsatisfactory.
Time and energy is wasted during this period, and bearing wear is
increased. It is evidently desirable to reduce the number of
oscillations, and also the response time. Two methods commonly
employed are described.

EDDY CURRENT DAMPER

This simple device consists of a thin disc of metal with high electrical
conductivity (usually aluminum), which is attached to the output
shaft. It spins between the poles of electromagnets mounted round
its periphery.

Eddy currents are induced of magnitude proportional to the field

strength and to the disc velocity. These eddy currents set up
magnetic fields that act against the inducing fields and forces
opposing the disc rotation are created.

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These forces are closely proportional to the disc velocity, and Most designs are aimed at this condition.
therefore provide parallels to the inherent viscous forces. Adjusting
The effect on the transients for a ramp input can be similarly
the current flow to the electromagnets can control them.
adjusted to reduce optimum damping. A snag arises, however, for
Varying degrees of damping can be applied. The next diagram any increase in viscous friction also increases the velocity lag.
shows some of the stages, coulomb friction being ignored for
Thus to remove the transient oscillations completely a considerable
simplicity. Using only inherent friction under damping is achieved.
velocity lag must be expected. The next figure illustrates the
Too much extra viscous friction will produce a very sluggish response for two degrees of damping for a ramp input.
response and the system is over damped. The degree of damping
which just prevents any overshoot is known as critical damping.

Slightly less damping than this, to allow one small overshoot, is

optimum damping which gives the smallest settling time.

DEGREES OF DAMPING - STEP INPUT

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Velocity Feedback Damping If the arrangement is adjusted correctly the result is that the load
comes to rest just as it reaches the required position; overshooting
This form of damping is similar to viscous friction damping in one
and hunting are therefore prevented.
respect; the compensation produced is proportional to the velocity,
or rate of movement, of the output shaft. Velocity feedback damping
For a servomechanism, this arrangement is achieved by attaching a
has the advantage, however, that it consumes very little power.
tacho- generator to the output shaft. A tacho-generator is a small ac
or dc generator that produces a voltage proportional to the angular
velocity of the output shaft.

A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the

amplifier in opposition to the error signal (negative feedback) to
provide the necessary compensation; this is known as velocity
feedback damping, because the voltage fed back is proportional to
the velocity of the output shaft.

The aim with velocity feedback is to reduce the net input to the
amplifier to zero and then to reverse it before the output shaft
reaches its required position.
DEGREES OF DAMPING - RAMP INPUT
If the amount of feedback is correctly adjusted - and this can be
In an rpc servo we are required to move the load from one position
done fairly easily by means of a potentiometer - the forward
to another as quickly as possible without causing instability (i.e.
momentum of the load, acting against the reversed torque, causes
hunting) or wasting power.
the load to come to rest just as it reaches the required position.
We have already seen that a step input applied to a servo causes
the servomotor to apply a torque, which accelerates the load. As the
load gathers speed and approaches the desired position we require
some arrangement that will 'anticipate' that the load is going to
overshoot and so reverse the motor torque before the desired
position is reached.

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The action is illustrated by this graph here.

Initially, when the step input is applied, the
output shaft does not move and the full
amplified error is applied to the motor (no
velocity feedback since the load is at rest).

The motor accelerates the load and as the

input and output shafts come into
alignment, the error falls; at the same time,
because the load is now moving rapidly, a
large velocity feedback voltage is applied in
opposition to the error voltage.

The net input to the amplifier therefore

drops rapidly and then increases in the
opposite direction as the velocity feedback
voltage becomes larger than the error
signal. A decelerating torque is thus applied
to the load before it reaches the demanded
position. As the motor slows down, the
velocity feedback voltage falls; so also does
the error signal because the output and
input shafts are coming more into
alignment.

When the required position is reached, the

motor stops; velocity feedback is then zero
and so also is the error signal, the input and
VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING output shafts being aligned.

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So transient response can be improved in two ways, by applying

extra viscous friction or by velocity feedback. Both increase velocity
lag in response to ramp inputs, but of the two, velocity feedback is
preferred since power is not wasted.

Just a re-cap on velocity lag on a servomechanism with a ramp input

and velocity feedback damping.

The feedback voltage from the tacho-generator to the amplifier is in

opposition to the error signal.

In a servo that is being driven at a constant speed there must always

be an error signal to keep the load moving, however this error signal
will have to be larger than required as it has to be greater than the
velocity feedback voltage. Therefore, velocity lag is greater than
required, i.e. greater positional error between input and output
shafts.

We shall now look at common methods to reduce velocity lag in step

input and ramp input systems.

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Transient Velocity Feedback The transient velocity feedback system is designed therefore to
provide damping during changes in speed, but when the speed is
This type of damping is often referred to as 'acceleration feedback constant, provide no damping and therefore reduce velocity lag to a
damping' and is used in an angular velocity system to reduce minimum.
velocity lag.
When the speed of the output shaft is constant, the tacho-generator
As you can see inserted between the tacho-generator and the voltage is constant, after the initial charging current the voltage
amplifier is a differentiating network. across R falls to zero, no output from the network, no damping to the
system, velocity lag reduced.

When the speed changes, i.e. damping required, the capacitor

charges or discharges through R to give an output to the amplifier to
provide the necessary damping.

The tacho-generator output is therefore differentiated by CR giving

damping only when the load speed is changing.

TRANSIENT VELOCITY FEEDBACK

In a speed control servo, the velocity feedback provides damping

when transient speed changes occur, however when the speed is
constant no damping is required, however the signal is still being fed
to the amplifier and causing excessive velocity lag.

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Phase Advance Damping In an rpc system when a step input is applied, there is a large error
signal; the current through R and the charging current through C are
Stabilisation of a servomechanism to obtain a good transient in the same direction. The input to the amplifier is therefore I R + IC
response in rpc system and a good steady state response in a (modified error signal), this causes the servomotor to accelerate
velocity system, reducing velocity lag can also be achieved by rapidly. As the error signal decreases, C commences to discharge
inserting a suitable network in the input to the amplifier. through R, the total current therefore into the servo amplifier is then
I R- I C.
A typical arrangement using a correction network, known as a
phase-advance network is shown in here: By suitable choices of C and R, ie controlling the time constant of the
network, it can be arranged that the signal itself becomes zero,
before the error signal is zero, providing a retarding torque before
the load reaches the required position, overshooting is prevented
and stability during the transient period improved. Velocity feedback
damping is omitted, the network is doing the same job but is not
introducing velocity lag.

For a velocity control system (ramp input), the network provides

damping on the initial switch 'on' and for any speed change as
described for the step input system. However, at steady state the
error is very small indeed and velocity lag is greatly reduced. So this
system by removing velocity feedback damping has reduced velocity
lag, the correction network providing the necessary damping.

Other types of correct network are used, depending upon the

response required. Some rpc servos require only a rapid response
velocity lag being unimportant; in other rpc servos, velocity lag must
be taken into consideration. In systems required to rotate at a
constant angular velocity, velocity lag must be reduced to a
minimum. Different combinations of C and R in the network may be
PHASE ADVANCE CORRECTION NETWORK
used to produce the desired response.

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Error Rate Damping

Another method used to reduce velocity lag in an angular velocity

control system is error rate damping. One possible arrangement is
shown in this figure.

One tacho-generator is mounted on the output shaft and produces a

voltage proportional to the speed of the shaft. A second tacho-
generator is mounted on the input shaft produces a voltage
proportional to the input speed. There are therefore three input
signals to the amplifier. The combined input is a voltage proportional
to the error plus a voltage proportional to the input speed minus a
voltage proportional to the output speed.

If you remember in a velocity feedback system in the steady state

i.e. input and output shafts rotating at the same speed, the velocity
ERROR RATE DAMPING
lag was mainly caused by the signal from the output tacho-
generator.
In this system the input tacho-generator is cancelling this signal in
the steady state, so velocity lag is reduced to a minimum. The
position error reducing any velocity lag that does exist.

In principle, this arrangement seems fine but it is very difficult to get

two tacho- generators to give exactly the same output, especially
with time.

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However a simplification of this arrangement is possible. The two Therefore by combining the derivative of the error signal and
tacho- generators are producing voltage outputs proportional to input combining it with the actual error, the net input to the amplifier is a
minus output speed, or proportional to the speed of the error signal. voltage proportional to the error plus a voltage proportional to speed
The velocity of this error is equal to rate of change of error with (input minus output). So therefore in the steady state the system has
respect to time. This can be achieved by using a differentiator, i.e. very low velocity lag. In the transient state the differentiator will
differentiating the error with respect to time. provide the necessary damping signals.

At start up rate of change of error signal is high and the input to the
amplifier will be high to accelerate the load. As the input and output
shaft speeds come into line the output of the differentiator opposes
the position error signal to provide a retarding torque before the load
reaches the required speed. At steady state the differentiator output
is zero, position error signal reduces velocity lag.

ERROR RATE DAMPING WITH DIFFERENTIATOR

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Integral Control

The methods so far described reduce velocity lag, but have no effect When the servo system reaches its steady state with a small residual
on lag and dead space caused by inherent friction. A common error, the integrator output will have built up to provide an additional
method of dealing with these residual steady state errors is known signal to drive the load to the alignment position.
as Integral Control.
Adjustment of the integrator output can be made to ensure that when
the error signal is zero its output is just sufficient to counter inherent
friction.

INTEGRAL CONTROL

The differentiator, D (figure above) acts as previously described for

error are damping. The integrator, I is connected as shown, i.e.
integrating the error signal and feeding into the amplifier. An
integrator is a device that takes on input signal and slowly builds up
that input signal on its output.

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Control Response
There are two basic types of input function:
Damping
1. Step input function (change of input angle)
Simple servo systems have a tendency to overshoot the required
position due to the inertia of the load and the effect of the I/P 2. Ramp input function (rate of change of input angle, or input
suddenly causing a large error signal (step I/P). As the O/P shaft shaft velocity)
overshoots the required position a reverse error signal is applied. As
The requirement is to reduce the servo motor speed before it
the O/P shaft returns, it will again overshoot the required position.
reaches the required position. Damping is introduced to reduce this
Neglecting friction, these oscillations will continue unless some form
hunting to a minimum. Damping acts against the error signal to bring
of ‗damping‘ is applied to improve the control response.
the system to rest sooner.

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Position Servo
System Damping

The simplest form of damping is the use of external friction. The two
basic types are:

1. Coulomb friction

2. Viscous friction

Coulomb Friction

Constant force independent of speed, e.g. two plates rubbing

together. In practice coulomb friction is not used as it causes an
error. Coulomb friction is always present but is kept to a minimum.

Viscous Friction

Force proportional to velocity, e.g. copper disc rotating between the

poles of a permanent magnet. Removes the positional error of
coulomb friction and number of oscillations remain the same
independent of the size of the step I/P.

The disadvantage of mechanical friction is that it generates heat,

wastes power and reduces accuracy of the system.

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Position Servo
The tacho generator output signal is added algebraically to the
Instead of mechanical friction, electrical friction may be used. control signal to the amplifier. The phase is arranged to oppose the
Electrical damping is applied, as in friction damping, against the error control signal (negative feedback) when the system is approaching
signal. This is done by generating a signal proportional to the speed line up.
of the O/P shaft and applying it against the error signal. This is called
When the system overshoots the line up position, the generator
Velocity Feedback Damping or Negative Feedback.
signal phase remains the same, but the control signal phase now
Velocity Feedback Damping inverts.

Velocity feedback is provided by including a tacho generator in the The tacho generator signal and control signal (in phase) are
system. summated and amplified and will provide a strong braking effect on
the motor and so reduce any tendency to oscillate.

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The disadvantages of velocity feedback damping are the:

Transient Velocity Feedback Damping
Input to the amplifier is reduced when the system is following a
moving input. During steady state conditions, the constant output voltage from the
tacho generator, charges up C, which then blocks further signals to
Tacho generator adds to the viscous friction of the system. the summation point.

To overcome these problems and their effect on angular or velocity During transient conditions, the charge on C must change, the
lag, transient velocity feedback damping may be used. current required to charge or discharge C being algebraically added
the control signal at the summation point.

Thus, feedback is only available from the tacho generator during

changes in servo motor velocity and the input to the amplifier is not
reduced when the servo motor is rotating at a constant velocity.

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Summary
Most servos in aircraft systems are damped by inherent friction, extra viscous friction or velocity feedback. However in some application,
improved sensitivity and reduction of velocity lag are required. The diagram below shows a comparison of damping methods.

COMPARISON OF DAMPING METHODS

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Servomechanism Components

Servomechanisms may be ac or dc operated.

DC Servo Components

The positional feedback signal would be from a potentiometer in

most cases. The error detector would be potentiometer circuits or
electronic circuits producing an error signal proportional to the
difference between input and output shaft rotations. The servo DC OPERATED SERVOMOTOR
amplifiers must produce sufficient power to drive the servomotor; this
power requirement will depend on the system. The power amplifiers The dc tacho-generator mounted on the output shaft of the
used in conjunction with voltage amplifiers (to provide gain) will thus servomechanism. It is small, separately excited dc generator. It will
vary in power output. therefore produce a dc voltage that is directly proportional to the
speed at which it is driven and whose polarity depends upon the
DC servomotors must be capable of being reversed and the torque direction of rotation.
developed must be proportional to the error signal input. As torque is
proportional to the product of the armature current and the field
current, the armature current is kept constant, and the torque can be
controlled by varying the field current (error signal).

So, separate supplies are used, the armature current being fed from
a constant current source and the field being fed from the servo
amplifier. The diagram shows a de-operated servomotor. Attached to
the motor is a servo amplifier, feedback is provided by a
potentiometer, the wiper of which is driven by the motor.

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Simple DC Remote Position Servo System Position Feedback

DC servo systems are not often used in aircraft systems on modern A Voltage (Vo) proportional to the output shaft angular position is
aircraft due to practical problems of: applied in opposition to the input voltage (Vi) at a signal summation
point. This position feedback signal must always reduce the input to
• Reliability of potentiometers and input/output transducers the amplifier (error signal), from the summation point, towards zero.
• Temperature stability of dc amplifiers
• Maintenance of brush gear of dc motors Output Torque

The system does two basic things: The torque available for positioning the output load is limited only by
the amplifier and dc motor. Due to inertia of the load there is a
tendency for the load to overshoot the required position.
1. Determines difference between input and output positions.
2. Corrects difference between input and output positions.

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AC Servo Components The two-phase induction motor (figure above) requires two ac supply
voltages 90° out of phase with each other. One phase is fed to the
The positional feedback signal may be from potentiometers, control system and then through the servo amplifier to one stator
synchros, LVDT's, RVDT's. The servo amplifier is a conventional winding of the motor; this supply is controlled by the error signal. The
transistorised amplifier with voltage and power amplifiers. other phase, known as the 'reference phase', is fed directly to the
other phase winding of the motor.
AC servomotors capable of producing moderately high torque are
usually induction motors. Induction motors run at a constant speed When the reference phase to one stator winding and the error-
(related to the frequency of the ac supply), but their torque and their controlled phase to the other winding are both present, a rotating
direction of rotation can be controlled fairly easily by the amplified magnetic field is produced; the squirrel-cage rotor follows this field
error signal, without the use of complex circuitry. and so rotates.

Two-phase and three-phase induction motors are in common use in The direction of rotation depends upon the sense of the error signal,
ac servo systems; the two-phase type is more usual. i.e. on the direction of misalignment between input and output shafts
of the servo.

As the misalignment signal passes through the zero error signal

position, the phase of the error-controlled voltage reverses and this
reverses the direction of rotation of the motor. When the error is
zero, the error-controlled phase voltage is zero also and no rotating
magnetic field is produced; the motor thus stops.

The torque developed by the motor depends upon the magnitude of

the error signal; the greater the error, the larger is the torque.

TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

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Hysteresis motors may also be used as ac servomotors. A typical

arrangement is shown in this figure. A two-phase supply is required,
the reference phase voltage being applied to phase windings AA1,
and the error-controlled voltage to BB1. At one instant, A will act as
a N-pole and A1 as a S-pole; B and B1 will be neutral.

The rotor - a cobalt steel ring - will therefore have a S-pole induced
at X and a N- pole at Y. A quarter of a cycle later, B will act as a N-
pole and B1 as a S-pole, A and A1 will be neutral. However, the
rotor, which is made of a large hysteresis loop material, will have
retained its S-pole at X and its N-pole at Y. So point X on the rotor is
attracted to the B stator winding and Y is attracted to B1.

Since a torque is being exerted on the rotor it will turn to follow the
rotating magnetic field and will continue to do so until the error signal
falls to zero. The direction of rotation depends upon the phase of the
error-controlled voltage relative to the reference voltage and this, in
turn, depends upon the sense of the error. The torque developed HYSTERESIS SERVOMOTOR
depends upon the magnitude of the error.

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Simple AC Remote Position Servo System Error Reduction

Servo systems using control synchros, ac amplifiers and ac servo The servo motor must always position the CT rotor to reduce the
motors are more commonly used on modern aircraft. error and position the load to the required angle.
Error Detection The Control Transmitter (CX) is isolated from the load and can be
turned freely at all times, with the load accurately following its
The relative positions of the input shaft angle (CT stator field) and
the output shaft angle (CT rotor position) can be compared in the movement. However, if no damping is provided, as before, the inertia
of the load in a simple servo system will give a tendency to
Control Transformer (CT).
‗overshoot‘ with consequent effect on response time and stability.
Position Feedback

The CT rotor position is directly controlled by the output shaft which

is in turn positioned by the ac servo motor.

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AC Servo Motors
2 Phase Servo Motor Combined Characteristic
The servo motor must have good starting torque, be easily reversed
and stop quickly when required. By the choice of materials and construction of the rotor (relatively
high resistance) a motor can be designed to have a ‗negative‘
Conventional 2 Phase Induction Motor combined characteristic.

A conventional two phase induction motor will continue rotating on a This servo motor characteristic provides a form of damping which is
single phase, due to its ‗positive‘ characteristic makes it unsuitable similar to viscous friction. When the control voltage is reduced, or
as a servo motor. becomes zero, a positive speed will produce a negative (braking)
torque.

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Servomotor Construction
The squirrel cage rotor consists of iron laminations with the
The servo motor shown has a two phase winding accommodated in conductors and end rings cast in position.
slots in the stator which is comprised of iron laminations cemented
Aluminum conductors are generally used to ensure that the required
together. The squirrel cage rotor slots are ‗skewed‘ to minimise slot
speed/torque characteristic for the servo motor, which differs
effect (or cogging), which is the reluctance of the rotor to move from
significantly from a conventional two phase ac motor, are obtained.
one of a number of positions where the slots in the rotor and stator
are aligned. Skewing the rotor slots ensures a smoother torque Servo motors, in general, are subject to standardisation of frame
output. sizes.

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The ac tacho-generator is used to provide velocity feedback

damping in ac servo systems, is mounted on the output shaft so that
it rotates at the same speed as the load.

The ac tacho-generator is usually a drag-cup generator that

produces an alternating voltage of the same frequency as the ac
supply. However, the amplitude of the voltage depends upon the
speed of rotation; and the phase of the voltage leads or lags the ac
supply depending upon the direction of rotation.

The drag-cup generator has a two-coil stator whose axes are at right
angles, as in a two-phase induction motor. The rotor, however, is a
copper or brass cup with a stationary iron cylinder fitted inside it to
complete the magnetic path for the stator.

AC is applied to only one stator coil - the primary coil. As the output
shaft drives the rotor, voltages are induced in it by interaction with
the field produced by the current in the primary stator. At any instant, AC TACHOGENERATOR DETAILS
maximum voltage is induced in that part of the cup passing through
the primary axis.

Maximum circulating (eddy) currents are therefore in this axis, and

these currents produce a secondary magnetic field that is at right
angles to the axis of the primary field.

This secondary field alternates at the frequency of the supply current

but its magnitude depends upon the amplitude of the circulating eddy
currents induced in the rotor by the primary field; this, in turn,
depends upon the speed or rotation.

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The secondary stator winding of the tacho-generator is at right

angles to the primary axis and so has a voltage induced in it by the
secondary field only.

This is the output voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the

speed of rotation and whose phase relative to the reference ac
supply depends upon the direction of rotation. A typical ac tacho-
generator provides a velocity feedback voltage of 0.5V per 1,000
rpm of the rotor.

DRAG CUP ROTATION

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Inertially Damped Servo Motor

When accelerating, there will be relative movement between the
The two phase ac induction servo motor shown has an inertial wheel wheel and the motor shaft. The motor speed will lag behind the
assembly attached to the rotor shaft. The inertial wheel provides control voltage.
transient viscous or velocity damping by mechanical means, for
control of the servo motor response. One of the disadvantages of When the system is approaching the lineup position after
this method is that the degree of damping is preset. misalignment there will be a large overshoot initially, but the
oscillations will die away quickly.
At uniform speeds the inertia wheel rotates with the shaft.

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Servo Motor - Tacho Generator Assembly

The rotor consists of a thin hollow aluminium or copper cylinder.
Tacho generators are used to provide an ac voltage which is
proportional to servo motor shaft speed. Typically the output voltage Ideally there is no magnetic coupling between rotor and stator when
can be from 0.6 to 3 volts per 1000 rpm, depending upon its the rotor is stationary.
construction.

The tacho stator has two windings at 90º; one winding is the
reference winding, which has a constant ac voltage applied to it. The
other winding is the output winding, in which is developed on ac
voltage proportional to speed.

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Tacho Generator - Operation

With the Rotor Rotating
With the Rotor Stationary
The induced eddy currents will provide a coupling between reference
The flux patch from the energised reference winding will cut the winding and output winding, via the cylindrical rotor.
cylindrical rotor, inducing an emf and circulating eddy currents.
A voltage will be induced in the output winding.
There will, however, be only minimum coupling with the output
Output Voltage Amplitude Will be independent upon the degree of
winding.
coupling (i.e. rotor speed).
Output voltage will be minimum (zero).
Output Voltage Phase Will be dependent upon the direction of
rotation.

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Remote Indicating Synchronous Systems

Introduction

Remote indicating system consists of two distinct items, a transmitter This requirement was provided by the use of electrically remote
and an indicator. reading indicating systems in which a sensor detects changes in a
measured quantity or position and transmits this information
When flying was in its infancy, the aircraft were quite small which electrically to a remote indicator in the cockpit for the pilot to view.
enabled the pilot to see all around the aircraft. The pilot could see all
the control surfaces just by looking from the cockpit, looking left and The system introduced was a synchronous system consisting of a
right he could see the ailerons, and by looking over his shoulder he transmitter at the source (the medium to be measured) and
could see the rudder and the elevators. transmitted electrically and synchronously to the indicator remote
from the transmitter and the medium being measured, for example
The same could be said of engine parameters, many of the surface positions or engine parameters.
instruments then available operated on mechanical principles, for
example engine speed, oil pressure and temperature, and displayed There are several systems of this type used on aircraft and require
to the pilot in the cockpit by direct reading instruments. either DC or AC power for operation.

With the advent of larger and multi-engine aircraft the pilot could no
longer see the control surfaces from the cockpit, and mechanically
operated instruments became severely limited in application.
Therefore, an improved means of providing reliable and accurate
indication of engine parameters and control surface position to the
pilot became a requirement.

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Direct Current (DC) Transmission Systems

Disadvantages, friction caused by the surface resistance of wiper
arms, which in turn causes wear on the Toroidal resistor, dirt or dust
The Desynn System
around the Toroidal resistor, which in turn causes a change in the
resistance value.
The earliest of these systems is the Desynn system and requires DC
direct current to power the system, which could be either 12 or 24
volts DC depending on the design requirement.

There are three types of "Desynn‖ transmitters:

1. Toroidal - resistor: rotary motion for the indication of position.

2. Micro Desynn: linear motion for the indication of pressure
3. Slab Desynn: also used for pressure measurement.

The Toroidal resistor transmitter is the basic system; the others are
derivative of it.

Shown are the three Desynn systems diagrams (next page):

Basic - Desynn.
Micro - Desynn.
Slab - Desynn.

Advantages, of the Desynn system, it removed the need for

mechanical coupling between the medium to be measured and the
indication. Hazardous fluids, pressures, and surface positions could
be measured at source; also the system is not subject to small
variations in the power supply.

POSITION INDICATOR TRANSMITTER

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Remote Indicating Synchronous Systems

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Basic Desynn Transmission Systems In its simplest form, the transmitter consists of an endless resistance
would on a ring former (toroidal resistor), having three fixed tappings
The Desynn is a DC system of transmission that indicates at equidistant points (spaced 120° apart) which connect to the
continuous variation of shaft position. It is a relatively simple system, indicator (receiver). The control spindle carries two wiper arms which
which because it produces a low torque, is useful only for remote bear on the torodial resistor at points diametrically opposite. The
indication of angular position; as such it is ideal where a simple arms are insulated from each other at the spindle and are connected
pointer and scale indicator is adequate. The system lends itself to the supply via sliding contacts.
satisfactorily to such aircraft applications as the remote indication of
flap, rudder and elevator position, oil and fuel pressures, etc. The The indicator consists of a 2 pole permanent magnet rotor pivoted to
simple pointer and scale arrangement is generally acceptable for rotate freely within a three coil soft iron stator, with the pointer
such indications and since arrangements of this kind can be attached directly to the rotor. The stator coils are each connected to
operated satisfactorily with very small applied torques the low torque a tapping on the transmitter torodial resistor.
characteristics of the Desynn system does not present any undue
difficulties when the system is employed to given indications of this
type. The accuracy of the Desynn system is of the order of ±2%%;
such accuracy is not high by modern standards, but it is reasonably
realistic for the applications which have been mentioned.

The DESYNN system of DC data transmission is a relatively simple

low torque system designed for continuous rating on the 28v DC
supply. (The name DESYNN implies as DC synchronous system.)

As in all electrical remote indication systems, the input shaft is

connected to a transmitter element that is connected to the receiver
unit by wires. The receiver unit drives the output shaft that operates
the remote indicator.

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At the transmitter, the position of the wiper spindle is controlled by a

linkage from the appropriate aircraft component, the position of
which is to be indicated. A rotating spring loaded mechanism (to take
up backlash/) mounted on the input shaft carried two sliding contacts
or wipers that are arranged exactly opposite one another. The wipers
are fed, via slip rings and brushes, from the positive and negative
terminals of a DC supply.

The receiver has three coils (a, b and c) with axes 120° apart
(connected in star). Within them is a permanent magnet rotor which
is capable of rotation through 360° and which carries a pointer over
a calibrated scale. The three air-cored coils in the receiver are
connected to the tapping points a, b and c on the transmitter by the
three lines as shown.

When the supply is switched on, the voltages at the 3 equi-spaced

tappings will be dependent upon the position of the wiper contacts.
These voltages cause a magnetic field to be set up by the stator
coils in the indicator and the permanent magnet rotor will align itself
with this field and indicate accordingly. Any subsequent
displacement of the transmitter spindle will change the stator
voltages thus causing the indicator stator field to move in
synchronism. The indicator rotor will therefore follow the stator field THE DESYNN SYSTEM
movement to continuously indicate the position of the transmitter
spindle.

A weak circular magnet, which does not affect the normal operation
of the indicator, will return the pointer to an OFF SCALE position if
the supply fails or is switched off.

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Desynn Transmission Systems

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A weak circular magnet which plays no part in the normal operation If the input shaft is rotated 120° clockwise, as at b, the voltage
of the indicator will return the points to an "OFF SCALE" position if distribution is such that the total current flows through coil b, it then
the power supply fails or is switched 'OFF'. divides equally through a and c and flows back to the transmitter.
The vectors show that the resultant magnetic field has also rotated
120° clockwise from its initial position and the rotor magnet aligns
along itself this new axis.

The magnitude and polarity of the voltage at each tapping point on

the transmitter therefore vary according to the position of the wipers.

Thus, if the input shaft is rotated, the variation of voltage at a, b and

INDICATOR - EXPLODED VIEW
c produces changes in the currents flowing in the stator coils, and a
magnetic field rotating in sympathy with the input shaft is produced.
When a DC supply is connected to the transmitter wipers, the
voltages at the tapping points a, b and c in the transmitter cause The rotor magnet remains aligned with this field at all times and so
currents to flow through the three stator coils in the receiver, a rotates in synchronism with the input shaft. A pointer, moving over a
resultant magnetic field is produced and the rotor magnet aligns itself calibrated scale, is attached to the rotor so that a remote indication
with this field. For example, with the input shaft in the position shown of the position of the input shaft is immediately available.
in this figure, point a is at 24V with respect to supply negative, while
b and c are both +8V. A typical example of the use of the Desynn is remote indication of
wing flap angle, the flap shaft acting as the 'input' shaft.
With a positive by the same amount to both b and c, current flows
from a through coil a in the receiver; it then divides equally and half
the total current goes through coil b and half through coil c back to
the transmitter. The magnetic fields fa, fb and fc associated with
these currents and also the resultant magnetic field are shown by
vectors and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this field.

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The last two figures show a Desynn system used to indicate flap
position on a small passenger carrying jet aircraft. Note the linkage
between the flap and the transmitter and the available adjustments.

The Desynn is said to be self-synchronous because the output shaft

continuously moves in sympathy, or in synchronism, with the input
shaft.

Any change in the position of the input shaft results in an immediate

and corresponding change in the position of the output shaft; this
synchronous movement is inherent in the system, i.e. it is self-
synchronous.

The Desynn also gives a continuous indication of change of position

through 360°. It is, however, only a low power device, the current
being limited by the resistance of the transmitter potentiometer. The
Desynn is therefore only suitable for operating indicating pointers
and similar light loads.

DESYNN SYSTEM - THEORY

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Testing the Desynn Systems Typical Desynn Faults

Standard (Desynn) The table below shows some of the possible faults and subsequent
actions.
Testing of Desynn indicators and transmitters is carried out in two
separate parts.
SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY
Indicators are checked against a master potentiometer, which is
calibrated in mechanical degrees. Power Supply Check appropriate
Pointer 'OFF SCALE'
Failure/OFF fuse. Switch 'ON'
Transmitters are checked against a master Desynn indicator, with
the use of a jig or fixture to hold the transmitter.
Pointer displaced
Power supply Check transmitter for
All testing must be carried out in accordance with the manufactures 180°. Rotation
reversed correct wiring
correct
test specification.
Check wiring
A full description of construction and operation of the Desynn system
Pointer rotation 2 connections connections between
is given under Desynn – Transmission – Systems. reversed crossed transmitter and
indicator
Pointer displaced Check wiring
120° or 240° 3 connections connections between
clockwise. Rotation crossed transmitter and
correct indicator

Pointer displaced Carry out insulation

Open circuit or short
and moves in resistance check and
circuit
180°steps continuity checks

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DESYNN TYPICAL COMPONENT LOCATION

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TYPICAL TRANSMITTER SET-UP

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Maintenance Checks on Adjustment of Transmitter
On the Desynn system there will usually be two forms of adjustment,
one adjusts lever length and the other lever angle. It may be useful
now to discuss these two adjustments in a bit more detail.
Lever length on the transmitter is the distance between the lever
pivot point X and the connection to the link at Y; this arm is
adjustable as shown. It should be noted that making the extension
arm longer would increase lever length and decrease indicator
pointer movement. Making the extension arm smaller will decrease
lever length and increase indicator pointer movement.
The basic adjustment then of this type of system is to set the flap to
various positions and checking pointer indication and adjusting the
lever length as required ensuring correct pointer indication at all flap
positions.

PRINCIPLE OF LEVER LENGTH ADJUSTMENT

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It should be noted that adjusting lever length generally only

counteracts a regularly increasing or decreasing error, e.g. for each
1 unit movement it only moves 0.8. In other systems, adjustment of
lever angle may be possible. This is the angle between the
adjustable link arm and the extension arm. (Note: It cannot be
adjusted on this system).
Unlike lever length adjustment, lever angle adjustment is not a
constant value, i.e. for each adjustment the pointer deflection
becomes progressively greater for each indication position.
Therefore on systems with both types of adjustments, it will be
necessary to adjust each in turn to obtain the desired pointer
indications.

PRINCIPLE OF LEVER ANGLE ADJUSTMENT

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Micro Desynn The contact arms are mounted on a rocker shaft supported between
the vertical parts of a U shaped bracket and movement of the
In applications where the movement of a prime mover is small and transmitter's mechanical element is transmitted to the arms via a
linear, the use of a basic system transmitting element is strictly spring loaded operating pin and crank arm connected to the rocker
limited. The micro Desynn transmitter was therefore developed to shaft. Two beryllium copper hairsprings conduct current to the
permit the magnification of such small movements and to produce, contact arms and also act together to return the rocker shaft and
by linear movement of contacts, the same electrical results as the contact arms to their starting position.
complete rotation of the contact arms of the basic transmitter.

Each resistance bobbin is secured in place against a set of miniature

spring contact fingers accurately positioned so as to provide the
necessary tapping points.

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Desynn Transmission Systems

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Slab Desynn Transmission The Slab Desynn transmitter assembly is supplied with 28 volts dc
and consists of a resistor over which a contact plate assembly
The purpose of the Slab Desynn System is to provide more accurate carrying three contacts 120° apart rotates on a pivot. The shaft of the
indication than can be given with the standard Desynn system. The contact plate assembly carries a pinion, hairspring and hairspring
transmitter construction lessens the friction between the resistor and guard. The whole is supported in a frame assembly to which a brush
pick off brushes and provides a sine wave output to the indicator, holder with three brushes fitted. The brushes make contact with slip
which has high resistance coils. The Slab Desynn system is rings on the contact plate assembly. Backlash between the sector
therefore not interchangeable with standard Desynn transmitters and and pinion is taken up by the hairspring, the free end of which is
indicators, nor can it be tested using the standard test set. anchored to the Desynn frame assembly. A clamping ring holds the
Desynn transmitter assembly in position so that the pinion meshes
with the toothed sector.

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Alternating Current (AC) "Synchronous" Systems The advantages of the AC synchro, is the size they are much smaller
in comparison to the Desynn system, therefore, are easily installed
These systems are generally referred to as synchro systems and into multiple instrument displays.
operate in a similar way to the Desynn system, as a remote reading
and indicating system. They are much more accurate, and not prone to were and tear,
consume far less power, and when in multiple combinations can be
Synchro systems are powered by AC power and operate on the used to add, subtract, or multiply, for example computing air data
transformer principle, the primary windings being the rotor and the computations for airspeed and altitude within an air data computer.
secondary windings the stator.
Disadvantages none, AC SYNCHROS are the most common and
Shown is a basic AC synchronous system. Basically the system widely used means of synchronous data transmission.
consists of a two pole single phase rotor, and a three phase stator
for both the transmitter and the indicator. Testing is carried out with a test fixture, where the stator is clamped
stationary and the rotor is rotated through 360 degrees and
Using the transformer principle, when power is applied to the compared to a master ―Indicator‖ for accuracy.
transmitter and receiver rotors, an equal and opposite voltage will be
produced between the connecting lines of both stators. If both rotors A full description, operation and construction of the various synchro
are in the same angular positions, and then no current will flow in the systems, is given under AC Synchros.
stator coils, the synchros could be said to be at electrical (null).
When the rotor of the transmitter is rotated, an Electro motive force
(emf) is set up between the rotor and the stator causing a unbalance
between the stator coil voltages, this in turn will cause current to flow
in the stator coils. The effect of this will produce a magnetic field in
the stator of the indicator (receiver).
This in turn will induce a torque on the rotor, which will then rotate to
the same position as the transmitter. When the voltage and current
unbalance become equal to the transmitter no further torque will be
applied to the rotor of the indicator where once again the synchros
will be at null.

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AC Synchros
These induced voltages must always be either IN PHASE or 180°
In many cases on modern aircraft it is necessary to transmit OUT OF PHASE with each other and with the supply.
information from a remote point and transfer this data to control box
or instrument. A typical data transmission system used to do this Transformer Principle
uses 'synchros'.
The amplitude of the emf induced in the secondary winding depends
Principle of Operation on the degree of ‗magnetic coupling‘ between primary and
secondary winding.
The components of an ac synchronous transmission system are an
application of the principle of the transformer to an arrangement in
which either the primary or secondary windings are wound on the
rotor, which can be turned with respect to the fixed or stator
windings. The amplitude of voltage induced into the secondary
depends upon the relative angular position of the primary/secondary
windings.

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Standardisation of Synchros Succeeding letters identify the function of the instrument:

The basic ideas of synchros is not a new one, but in the past many
D Differential
manufacturers working independently have produced individual
R Receiver
systems such as Aysynn, Telesyn, Selsynn and Autosynn. While all
T Transformer
these work on the same principle they are in no way standardised
X Transmitter
and are therefore not interchangeable.
Types and Codes:
In order to distinguish the different types of synchros a code system
is employed. A synchro is designated by a series of letters and
CX Control Transmitter
numbers.
CT Control Transformer
CDX Control Differential Transmitter
Example 1
TX Torque Transmitter
TR Torque Receiver
11 TX 4a) TORQUE SYNCHROS
TRX Torque Receiver Transmitter
11 TR 4a)
TDX Torque Differential Transmitter
TDR Torque Differential Receiver
Example 2
The addition of the letter B indicates that the stator is rotatable.
15 CX 4a) CONTROL SYNCHROS
15 CT 4a)

Standard Synchro Types and Symbols

The type of synchro is indicated by a code of two or three letters

immediately after the frame size figure in the type designation.

The first letter classifies the instrument as control or torque:

C Control
T Torque

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Synchros Torque Synchros

There are six types of synchros: Torque synchros are particularly useful in pointer indication systems.
Torque systems incorporating differentials may be used to add or
1. Torque Synchros subtract angular data.
2. Control Synchros
Apart from the necessary alternating supply, the torque system is
3. Differential Synchros
completely self-contained and needs no auxiliary equipment. The
4. Resolver Synchros
error in positioning is typically one degree when unloaded and can
5. Slab Synchros
often be substantially reduced by gearing up the system. It must be
6. Synchrotels remembered that the error in positioning increases with any increase
in the torque being transmitted and the torque required to position
the load has to be applied to the torque transmitter and loads the
associated equipment, as there is no torque amplification.

Where more accurate transmission of angular data is required, a

control system may be used.

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Torque Synchros Construction

The stator body is made up of internally slotted laminations, in the

slots of which are fitted three sets of windings S1, S2 and S3 spaced
120° apart. Despite similarity these must not be confused with
normal three phase ac windings, where the voltages are equal in
magnitude and 120° apart in phase relationship - in a synchro unit,
the voltages are NOT equal in magnitude - as previously stated, the
amplitude will depend upon the relative angle of the rotor with each
stator winding.

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TYPICAL SYNCHRO DETAILS

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The simple torque synchro circuit is shown below. It consists of a Operation of Torque Synchro System
torque transmitter (TX) and a torque receiver (TR).
In this system AC is fed to both synchro rotors, assuming the rotors
are in identical position then the ac applied to the rotor is acting like
the primary of a transformer and emf's will be induced into the stator
windings.

These emf's will depend on rotor position. If the rotors are in identical
position then the emf's in the TX and TR stator windings are identical
and no current flows between the two-synchro stators. This is known
as the 'NULL' position.

The TX is usually mechanically coupled to an input shaft and the

rotor of the TR is coupled to a pointer of an instrument. A typical
application on older aircraft would be flap position indication; the TX
being in the flap transmitter near the flap and the TR being in the flap
The TX and TR are similar but the TR has some form of damper indicator on the flight deck.
mechanism to prevent oscillation. The TR can be used as a TX but
the TX cannot be used as a TR as it has no damping. Note the If the flap is now moved (TX input shaft moves, say 20°) then the
circuit symbol below. emf's in the TX stator will change due to change of rotor position.
These emf's are no longer equal to the TR stator voltages, therefore
current must flow between the two stators. This causes a resultant
magnetic field in the TX and TR stators.

The TX rotor cannot move as it is mechanically coupled to the flap.

The TR rotor is free to move and lines up with this resultant field
(which is 20° from the NULL position). As the rotor lines up with this
field, the two rotors are again in the same position, the emf's induced
in the stators are the same, no current flows and the flap position
indicator now shows the new flap position.
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Torque Transmission System

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The effect of interchanging the rotor and stator connections are as It should be noted that the output of the TR produces a very low
shown, particularly notice that reversal of rotor connections (b) torque, enough only to drive a light pointer mechanism.
produces an output that is 180° out from the input rotation and
changing over any two stator connections gives reversed direction of
rotation of TR.

EFFECT OF VARIOUS INTERCONNECTIONS IN THE TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM

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Typical Synchro Faults

SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY

No movement of receiver Power failure/OFF Check appropriate fuse. Switch ‗ON‘

Receiver displaced 180° from transmitter.

One pair of Rotor Connections reversed Check rotors for correct wiring
Rotation correct

Reverse rotation of receiver 2 Connections between stators reversed Check stators for correct wiring

Receiver displaced 120° or 240° clockwise

3 Connections between stators crossed Check stators for correct wiring
from transmitter. Rotation correct

Receiver displaced 0°, 60°, 120°, 180°, Carry out insulation resistance check
Short circuit between 2 stator lines
240°, 300° and moves in 180° steps between stator lines

Receiver oscillates between 2 points

Open circuit on one stator line Carry out continuity check on stator lines
approximately 75° apart

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Connections in Torque Synchros

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Control Synchros Indicating mechanisms now in production have large moments of

inertia and require much greater torques to operate them than are
For many applications it may be better to transmit movements by available from Torque Transmission Systems. Comparatively large
means of control synchros used in conjunction with the servo torques becomes available by the addition of a servo mechanism to
systems. The accuracy with which data can be conveyed is closely the torque system. Control Transmission Systems are so called
related to the electrical errors of the synchros, usually a few minutes because the displacement signal from the transmitter is used to
of arc. No appreciable mechanical restraint is imposed on the control a servo motor at the receiver. Any signal in the receiver rotor
associated equipment at the driving end. In a system where a single is amplified and the amplified output used to drive a servomotor. The
transmitter operates a number of servo mechanisms, failure of one servomotor is geared to the indicator mechanism and to the receiver
will not normally affect the others. rotor, which is turned until no signal is induced across it (the null
position).
Control synchros are primarily voltage devices and operate with
relatively low temperature rises. No mechanical load is carried by There is a 90° difference between the relative rotor/stator positions
them, so that the instruments may be smaller than in a comparable of the transmitter and the control transformer when there is no servo
torque system. signal (the transformer rotor is at its null point).

Current still flows in the stator windings of control synchros even

when at rest.

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Operation of Control Synchros

The control synchro system provides an error voltage signal in the

receiving element. This error signal is an indication of the
displacement of the two rotor windings relative to each other. The
control synchro system comprises two synchros the control
transmitter (CX) and the control transformer (CT).

The control transmitter (CX) is similar in construction to the TX

except the windings are of high impedance.

The control transformer (CT) also has windings of high impedance;

the rotor winding is wound on a laminated cylindrical former and
distributed in slots that are skewed to prevent 'lock-on' effect.

The control synchro can be used to indicate control surface position

CONTROL SYNCHRO
with the CT in the indicator, or used in a servo system to provide a
signal to a control surface servomotor.

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One of the two important things to note is that the AC supply is fed If the CX rotor input shaft is moved the voltages in the CT rotor will
only to the CX rotor and the discriminator amplifier, and the other is change, due to change of rotor position. These new voltages will
that in the NULL (no error signal) position the rotors are at 90°to one change the currents flowing through the CT stator windings and
another. therefore the position of the resultant magnetic field.

In the null position the AC voltage applied to the CX rotor acts like Whatever angle the CX rotor had been turned, the resultant
the primary of a transformer and voltages are induced in the CX magnetic field across the CT will also have moved that amount. As
stator windings. These voltages will be different, and this difference this resultant field is no longer at 90° in the rotor but at an angle to it,
in potential will drive a current through the CT stator windings. then an emf is induced in the rotor winding.

This induced emf is fed to the discriminator amplifier where its phase
relationship is compared with that of the supply to provide the correct
error voltage and phase relationship to the two phase induction
control phase and drive the motor in the correct sense.

The motor drives through a gearbox to the indicator (in this example)
and also to the rotor of the CT. When the motor has driven the CT
rotor until it is 90° to the new field, no voltage will be induced, motor
stops, and indicator shows the movement of the CX input shaft. The
two-synchro rotors are once again in the NULL position i.e. 90°to
one another.
CONTROL SYNCHRO - APPLIED & OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Again in this system if two of the stator windings between the CX
and CT are swapped then for a clockwise input to the CX rotor the
These currents produce magnetic fields around each coil; the fields
output signal to indicator will be anti-clockwise, i.e. the indicator will
combine to form one resultant field. In this null position this resultant
show reverse indication.
field cuts the CT rotor at 90°so no emf is induced into the CT rotor
winding.

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Differential Synchros

These are used as an additional synchro (TDX or CDX) inserted The stator windings are the normal star connected windings at 120°
between a TX and TR in a torque differential system and between a to one another. The next diagrams show the basic construction with
CX and CT in a control differential system. They give an output electrical and schematic diagrams. The CDX has higher impedance
proportional to the sum or difference of two inputs. windings than the TDX.

The torque differential transmitter (TDX) is similar in construction to

the control differential transmitter (CDX).

The rotors have three windings instead of the usual single winding,
spaced 120° wound on a slotted core connected in the star
configuration. One end of each winding is connected to a slip ring on
the rotor shaft.

ROTOR DETAILS STATOR/ROTOR COILS & SYMBOL

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Operation of Torque Differential Synchro System
This produces a field which cuts the TDX rotor and this induced emf
With reference to the figure below, note the input shaft 1 is attached drives currents through the TR stator windings, producing a field
to the TX rotor and input shaft 2 is connected to the rotor of the TDX. which has moved 15° clockwise and the rotor, free to move, will line
The TR rotor is connected to a pointer, giving the sum of difference up with this field, indicating the movement of input shaft 1. So in this
between the input shaft angles 1 and 2. Power supply is connected condition the TDX is acting as a transformer.
to the TX and TR rotor.
Assume input shaft 1 is kept still and input shaft 2 is rotated 15°
If input shaft 1 is rotated, say 15° clockwise and input shaft 2 is kept clockwise. Moving the TDC rotor clockwise is equivalent to moving
still, the voltage changes in TX stator windings to cause current to the field 15° anti- clockwise. The induced emf in rotor produces
flow in the TDX stator. voltages that drive currents through the TR stator that causes the
field produced to rotate 15° anti-clockwise and the TR rotor will line
up with this, indicating the movement of input shaft 2.

TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

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TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTING SYSTEM

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If now input shaft 1 in rotated 45° clockwise and input shaft 2 is Crossing over (S1-S3, S3-S1) between TX and TDX produces an
rotated 15° clockwise then the output will be the difference between output that is the reverse of the sum of the two inputs.
the two inputs i.e. 30° clockwise output of TR.

TWO INPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED

SYMMETRICAL CONNECTION

If the stator windings between TX and TDX are crossed (S1-S3, S3-
S1) and TDX to TR (R1-S3, R3-S1) are crossed then 45° clockwise Just crossing over (R1-S3, R3-S1) between TDX and TR produces
rotation of the TX rotor and 15° clockwise rotation of the TDX rotor the reverse difference between the two inputs.
will give the sum of the two inputs.

TWO INPUT & OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED TWO OUTPUT LEADS INTERCHANGED

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Control Differential Synchro System

As can be seen this is very similar to the torque differential system
with the CDX between the CX and CT. AC supply being fed to the
CX only, the output being an error signal proportional to the sum or
difference of the two shaft rotations.
The operation is similar to that of the torque synchro system.

CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

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Frequency and Supply Voltages

SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY
The supply frequency will be 400Hz and input voltages are 115 volts
or 26 volts giving induced line voltages of 90 volts and 11.8v Power Failure / Check appropriate
respectively and control transformer maximum outputs of 57.3v and No Movement of receiver
OFF fuse. Switch ON
22.5v respectively. The following table gives a list of the possible
faults and subsequent actions. Receiver displaced One pair of Rotor
Check rotors for
180°from transmitter. Connections
correct wiring
Rotation correct. reversed

2 connections
Reverse rotation of Check stators for
between stators
receiver correct wiring
reversed
Receiver displaced 120°or
3 connections
240° clockwise from Check stators for
between stators
transmitter. Rotation correct wiring
crossed
correct
Receiver displaced 0°, Carry out insulation
Short circuit
60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, resistance check
between 2 stator
300°and moves in 180° between stator
lines
steps lines
Receiver oscillates Carry out continuity
Open circuit on
between 2 points check on stator
one stator line
approximately 75°apart lines

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Resolver Synchros Unless the transformer rotor coil in use is at right angles to the
energised cos winding, a voltage will, by transformer action, be
The resolver is a form of synchro which exploits the sinusoidal induced across the rotor, the output of which controls the servo.
relation between shaft angle and output volts. Resolvers lend
themselves to the solution of trigonometrical problems and are used Angular displacement of the transmitter rotor through 360° from a
in analogue computers and other applications. Standard synchro datum position will induce voltages across the two stator coils which
frame sizes are used. will vary sinusoidally.

Besides being used to compute trigonometrical functions, resolvers

are also used for data transmission, phase shifting and radar sweep
resolution.

Resolver Synchro Control System

The system is basically the same as the Synchro Control
Transmission System, except for the electrical construction of the
Synchro units. The resolver control transmitter consists of a two
phase stator and a two phase rotor free to turn within the field of the
stator. In each case, the two windings are physically at right angles
to one another. In the application under consideration, only one rotor
winding in the transmission is used and it can be seen the unused
winding is short circuited. The resolver control transformer is
electrically identical with the transmitter and the stator windings are
interconnected as shown in the diagram.

The transmitter rotor in use is energised from a 26v/115v 400 cps

single phase AC supply.

Considering the system when the respective angular positions of the

rotor/stator are as shown in the diagram, the maximum voltage will
be induced across the stator coil cos winding which is aligned with
the rotor. No voltage will appear across the stator coil sine winding,
which is at right angles to the rotor flux. The voltage at S1 and S2
will energise, via the connecting leads, the cos winding of the control
transformer whilst no current will flow in the sine winding.
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Resolver Synchro Control System

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Operation of Resolver Synchros Where x = r cos ϴ and y = r sin ϴ

An alternating voltage can be represented by a phasor length r and These are called the CARTESIAN co-ordinates of the phasor.
the angle it makes with the x-axis.
A resolver synchro can convert from polar to Cartesian i.e. feed in an
AC voltage and rotate the shaft ϴ and it will give two outputs
r sin ϴ and r cos ϴ. It can also convert Cartesian to polar i.e. feed in
a sine and cosine voltage and it resolves them into a voltage and
shaft rotation.

The resolver synchro as shown in next diagram has two windings on

the stator at 90°to one another and two windings on the rotor at
PHASOR 90°to one another.

We shall now look at the resolver synchro operation in both modes.

This is called the POLAR co-ordinates r ϴ

We can split this phasor into its two component parts as shown:

COMPONENTS OF PHASOR
RESOLVER SYNCHRO - TWO STATOR & TWO ROTOR WINDINGS

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Polar to Cartesian

In this mode the rotor winding R3R4 is shorted and we feed our
alternating voltage r onto R1R2. With the system stationary, S1S2
winding is directly opposite so maximum voltage is induced into it,
while stator winding S3S4 is at right angles to this supply and no
voltage is induced.

If the rotor is now moved angle ϴ then the voltage in S1S2 will fall
and that in S3S4 will begin to rise and at 90° rotation the emf induced
into S1S2 will be zero and that induced into S3S4 will be maximum. If
this rotation continued than a S1S2 = r cos ϴ (cosine waveform) and
S3S4 = r sin ϴ (sine waveform) will be formed.

So by rotating the rotor an angle ϴ we have split the input voltage INPUT SIGNAL
into its two Cartesian components.

COS & SIN OUTPUT SIGNALS

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Cartesian to Polar

Note here the cosine voltage (r cos ϴ) is applied to the stator

winding S1S2 while the sine voltage (r sin ϴ) is applied to the stator
winding S3S4. These two voltages produce fields in the stator that
combine to form one field that cuts the rotor windings R1R2 and
R3R4. The emf induced into R1R2 is fed to an amplifier.

The amplifier output is fed to a servomotor that is mechanically

coupled to a load and the rotor of the synchro. So the rotor and load
are turned, when the rotor winding R1R2 is at 90° to the stator field PHASOR DIAGRAM
there is no emf induced into R1R2 and the servomotor stops.
The voltage output and the angle the rotor has turned through
represent the polar co-ordinates.

The resolver synchros are used in aircraft instruments and

navigation systems.

CARTESIAN TO POLAR SYSTEM

The rotor winding R3R4 at this time is aligned with the stator field and
the voltage induced will be the resultant of the input voltages Vx and
Vy.

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Slab Synchros

These are synchros consisting of wound stators and rotors; typical

uses are in gyroscopic instruments where the rotor is connected to
one component and the stator on another. For example to measure
roll movement in a vertical gyroscope, where the stator is mounted
on the case and the rotor on the outer gimbal, so any roll movement
moves case relative to outer gimbal.

TYPICAL SLAB SYNCHRO

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Synchrotels
This can be used as a low torque control transformer or transmitter.
The next diagram shows the quite unusual construction.

The stationary rotor coil fits into the highly permeable case over the
central core. The conventional three-phase stator also fits over the
core. The rotor is an aluminum hollow cylinder with an oblique
section that rotates in the air gap between the stator and the coil.
The rotor shaft is supported in jeweled bearings.

SYNCHROTEL CUT-AWAY

SYNCHROTEL - EXPLODED VIEW

Because of the low torque required to operate the synchrotel they

are ideal for connection to capsule operated devices e.g. Pitot-static
capsules. When used as a control transformer it will be connected to
a control transmitter as shown in figure 214.

SYNCHROTEL PRINCIPLE

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The transmitter (CX) is typically fed with a 26v 400Hz supply, the
induced voltages in its stator are connected to the synchrotel stator
and the current flow through the windings produces a magnetic field
that cuts the rotor. The rotor position has been determined by the
capsule movement.

As the rotor is around the core then a component of the flux cutting
the rotor will flow along the core and cut the rotor winding. The
output from this winding is fed to the servo-amplifier where it feeds
the control winding of a 2-phase servomotor that drives the indicator
and also the CX rotor.

This changes the CX stator voltages and therefore synchrotel stator

current and flux. This will continue until the synchrotel stator flux is
no longer producing an output from the rotor winding ie NULL
position. The indicator now shows a position of the pressure applied
at that instant.

When used as a transmitter the rotor winding is energised producing

an axial flux along the core, this causes a current flow in the rotor.
This rotor current produces a radial flux that cuts the stator coils and
induces an emf into them. The emf induced is a function of rotor
position determined by input pressure measurement.

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DC and AC Ratiometers coils and, therefore, are not affected by variations in supply voltage.
Any variation in supply voltage will affect both coils equally the
Introduction tendency for one coil to move is counteracted by an equal and
opposite tendency in the other coil, therefore, both coils remain in
Another type of remote reading indicator is the ratiometer, which can
the position determined by the resistance of the temperature bulb
be one of two versions, DC or AC powered. They operate on a
(variable resistance).
different principle to the synchronous systems.

DC Ratiometers

The first of these two systems to be described is the DC

RATIOMETER, it is used for sensing temperature and changes of
temperature, for example the measurement of engine oil, fuel, and
outside air temperature, again these hazardous temperatures can be
measured at source and displayed on a remote indicator.

The indicator is essentially a moving coil device, with a dial

calibrated in degrees centigrade to indicate temperature. The
transmitter in this case a temperature bulb (variable resistance) is
located at the source, (the medium) to be measured.

The indicator has two coils wound in opposition to each other on a

former, which is pivoted with a pointer in a magnetic field and is free
to rotate within that field. One coil (Coil B) is connected in series with
a fixed value resistor this is the control coil, and the other coil, (Coil
A) is connected in series with a temperature sensitive variable
resistance which is the deflection coil.

As can be seen in the diagram, they are connected together to form

a parallel circuit which operates on the ratiometer principle. The
ratiometer is designed to measure the ratio of currents flowing in two

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The fixed value resistor to the control coil calibrates the ratiometer
so when at a certain temperature, the resistance is equal in the
circuit, therefore, equal current will flow in both coils and the system
will be balanced. This is usually at the centre of the scale, therefore,
able to indicate an increase or decrease in temperature.

Operation

Whenever a change of temperature occurs at the variable resistor,

the resultant change in resistance will unbalance the current ratio in
the coils and cause them and the pointer to move to a new position,
where the effect of the current and flux densities are alike. Once
again, the balance is restored. This will register as either an
increase or decrease in temperature.

For example if the temperature of the variable resistance increases,

the resistance will increase and in consequence the current will
decrease in the deflection coil. (Coil - A). (Coil - B), the control coil
will now be more dominant and will be driven into the larger air gap
of the none-uniform magnetic field. Coil A the deflection coil, will be
carried into the smaller air gap of the none-uniform magnetic field.
The smaller the (air gap) the greater the effect of the permanent
magnet field on the coil assembly and vice versa.

When the effect of the (stronger coil) moving into a weaker field, is
balanced by the (weaker coil) moving into a stronger field no further
movement will take place.

The coil with least current is compensated for by an increase in flux

density.

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DC and AC Ratiometers

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Note:
When power is removed from the ratiometer, the pointer is returned
The current never changes direction; it will either increase or to an off scale position, this is achieved by a week spring to pull the
decrease in Coil A. Whereas in Coil B, the current flow is constant. pointer off scale. The supply voltage is applied to the ratiometer
coils via the hairspring. Provided the supply voltage stays within
With any moving coil indicator, the rotation of the measuring limits (26 to 29 volts), the torque exerted by the hairspring will have
element is a product of current and magnetic field strength; the no effect on the pointer movement.
direction of rotation will depend on the direction of current relative to
the magnetic field. As the ratiometer employs two coils there are two There are two types of temperature bulbs used in conjunction with
current flows, and it‘s the ratio of these currents associated with the the ratiometer, either platinum or nickel resistance bulbs.
ratio of flux densities, that will determine the position of the coils and
pointer assembly. A ratiometer temperature gauge for use with platinum resistance
bulb will be marked (PT LAW) on the rear of the instrument.

Those for use with nickel resistance bulbs have no marking on the
rear of the instrument, or they may be marked (NICKEL LAW).

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Advantages of a DC Ratiometer

1. Provided the supply variations are within limits, (26 to 29

volts) there will be no change in indication.

2. A remote reading system, without the need of mechanical

coupling.

3. Hazardous temperatures can be measured at source.

Typical Ratiometer Faults

1. Pointer off scale, check power supply.

2. Pointer shows full-scale deflection, check the temperature

bulb, which may be open circuit, if so, all the current will go
through the control coil and none to the deflection coil.

3. Pointer shows minimum temperature indication, check the

temperature bulb, which may be short circuit, if so, the
resistance in the deflection coil will be zero. Therefore, there
will be greater current in the deflection coil.

Testing the Ratiometer

Testing the ratiometer is carried out by connecting a decade-

resistance box in place of the temperature bulb (variable resistance)
the resistance values are set by the manufacture for calibration.

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AC Ratiometer
A wire-wound resistor, since it is wound in a form of a coil, has
Another type of remote reading indicating system, is the AC inductance and resistance.
Ratiometer, it is as its name states an AC operated instrument. The
power supply to the ratiometer is 26 volts AC, with a frequency of A coil has resistance as well as inductance.
400 hertz.
A capacitor has resistance as well as capacitance.
The operation of the AC Ratiometer in principle, is the same as the
However for the purpose of this explanation, it shall be assumed
DC Ratiometer, as it uses the current ratio of two coils by altering
that the components are pure, which will enable their effects in a
the resistance in the circuit. However this is an AC circuit and,
circuit that is supplied with AC power to be explained.
therefore, the resistance is known as impedance, this will include
inductance and capacitance.

The AC Ratiometer is used in conjunction with an inductor pressure

transmitter, which is used to measure fluid pressures, for example
engine oil pressure.

When pressure is applied to the transmitter, the applied pressure

produces an inductive change this output is then applied to the
ratiometer that registers that change on a scale calibrated to
indicate pressure PSI (Pounds per Square Inch).

Before the AC Ratiometer system is expanded upon, it should be

noted however, the effects obtained by applying AC power to
components having resistance, inductance or capacitance.

In practice, there is no such thing as pure resistance, pure

inductance, or pure capacitance.

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Pure Resistance

In a purely resistive circuit connected across an AC supply, the

current depends on the voltage applied to the circuit and on the
resistance of the circuit.

In other words, Ohms law applies at every instant, the current and
the voltage rise and fall in phase with each other.

As this is a purely resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in

phase, power is developed in the resistance and heat is produced.

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Pure Inductance

In a purely inductive circuit, the inductance opposes any change in

the value of current in the circuit and its effect is such that with an
AC power supply, the current through the inductance always lags
behind the applied voltage.

With a sine wave the angle of lag is 90 degrees. Since an inductance

opposes any change in value of current at all times, and because the
supply is alternating, the amount of opposition depends on the rate
at which the current is changing, this is related to the supply
frequency and the value of the inductance.

As this is an AC circuit instead of the resistance of an inductance it is

now called reactance, because the opposition or reactance of a coil
depends on frequency, reactance, like resistance, is measured in
Ohms. (In other words, AC Resistance.)

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Pure Capacitance

In a purely capacitive circuit, the phase relationship between current

and voltage is opposite to that in a pure inductance.

Voltage exists across the plates of a capacitor only after current has
flowed to charge the plates. The current leads the voltage in a
capacitive circuit and with a sine wave the lead is 90 degrees.

A capacitance opposes any change in the value of voltage applied

to it and presents an opposition to current at all times with an
alternating supply.

Opposition to current is capacitive reactance and it is measured in

Ohms just like a resistive circuit.

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The AC Ratiometer
The coil with the HIGHER CURRENT will produce a greater
The AC Ratiometer consists of two coils mounted on laminated iron magnetic field and, therefore, be the predominant coil and will
cores, the coils are arranged so as to produce an alternating flux produce a greater TORQUE INITIALLY.
across the air gaps of the cores. With a change in pressure at the
transmitter, there will be a change of impedance in the transmitter This greater TORQUE rotates the aluminium cam in such a
coils, this change; will govern the currents flowing in the indicator direction, that the amount of material in the air gap will be
coils. decreasing and as it dose so, the amount of TORQUE will also
decrease.
As the supply is AC and is alternating, the currents produced by the
coils will produce an alternating flux across the air gaps in which the Whilst in the second coil (MOTOR) the amount of material in the air
cam-shaped discs are situated. As this in its self will not produce gap is increasing and, therefore, so is the TORQUE.
movement of the cams, what is required is TORQUE to move the
The profile of the cams is such, that the predominant cam TORQUE
cams. "SHADING RINGS,‖ on the laminated iron core produce this.
will always reach a state of BALANCE with the less dominant cam
Shading rings, as can be seen in the diagram, are really LINEAR field.
SHADED POLE MOTORS; current flowing through the coil wound
With the two torques "BALANCED.‖ No further movement will take
around the laminated iron core produces a magnetic field "FLUX‖
place. The pointer will now indicate the change in pressure.
across the air gap. This induces a magnetic field "FLUX‖ within the
copper shading rings, which is out of phase with the "FLUX‖ in the
laminated iron core.

The two out of phase FLUXES acting across the air gap, produce
EDDY CURRENTS in the aluminium cam, which in turn produce a
magnetic field.

The cam field will have a phase different to that in the laminated
core, the interaction between the two fields will produce a TORQUE
on the aluminium cam, the cam will then start to rotate about its
pivoting point. The direction of rotation of the aluminium cam, will
depend upon which of the two coils is the predominant one.

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AC Ratiometer

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The AC Ratiometer differs from the DC Ratiometer in that there is no

fixed control coil or fixed deflection coil. The current ratio of the coils
depend on the transmitter and the transmitter depends on the
pressure either increasing or decreasing to alter the ratio of currents
in the stator coils, this ratio of currents in the stator coils, will then be
reflected by the ratiometer coils.

As with the DC Ratiometer, with a power supply failure, the pointer

will be returned to an off scale position by the hairspring.

Testing

Testing of the indicator, is carried out in conjunction with a test set

comprising of standard inductors, when powered, the indicators
reading is compared with the values for the particular inductors used.

Testing of the transmitter is carried out in conjunction with a

Ratiometer test set and a Dead weight tester.

All testing must be carried out in accordance with the manufactures

test specification.

Faults with the System

Faults with the AC Ratiometer system are the same as the DC

Ratiometer, an open circuit inductor coil in the transmitter or
indicator, will either give full scale deflection or zero depending on
which coil went open circuit and the position of the armature core in
the transmitter.

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AC Ratiometer
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Inductor Pressure Gauge Circuit

The AC Ratiometer inductor pressure gauge system has all three
With an increase in frequency, coils A and B would oppose the
components that were just explained, and, therefore, it must be
current changes produced by the transmitter, therefore, the coil‘s
taken into account the effects of variations in the supply voltage,
reactance will increase, but this reactance change is cancelled by
variations in supply frequency and variations in temperature have on
the capacitors because the frequency change on capacitors is
the indicator itself.
exactly opposite to those produced by the coils. This way the effect
First the effect of supply voltage. As the supply variation will be of frequency variations is cancelled.
common to both coils and the indicator being a ratiometer, the effect
An increase of temperature will reduce the ratio of impedance in the
of a voltage supply change will be equal to both coils. Therefore,
coils, which will in turn reduce the scale range of the indicator. This
what happens to coil A, also happens to coil B, the ratio of current
same increase in temperature will increase the resistance of the
will remain the same, therefore, no change in indication.
sensitive resistor across the coils, which will increase the range of
As the power supply is alternating AC, the effects of variations in the the indicator. The two reactions are opposite, and the effects of
frequency must be taken into account and compensation provided temperature are therefore, cancelled.
for this effect. This is provided for by the two frequency
compensation capacitors.

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Inductor Pressure Transmitter

The fluid under pressure enters the bellows through a 4BA tapped
Pressure Indicating System - Inductor Type hole in the base plate causing the bellows to expand and move the
armatures in their respective stator windings. The armatures are
Present day systems used to measure engine oil and fuel pressures normally displaced on the spindle such that the movement will result
make use of an inductor type pressure transmitter mounted at the in entering farther into its coil to increase its impedance while the
required locations on the engine. Electrical signals from the other is moving out of its coil and reducing its impedance. The stator
transmitters are passed to AC RATIOMETER type indicators that windings are normally supplied at a constant 26v 400 Hz and the
are calibrated in the appropriate pressure units. variation of impedance will cause the current in the windings to vary
in proportion. The pressure being measured at any time will be
Inductor Pressure Transmitters
proportional to the RATIO of the currents in the two stator windings.
A typical transmitter is shown in sectioned view and consists of a It is usually arranged that the mid range point represents equal
body containing two main sub-assemblies; a base, bellows and winding impedance and therefore equal currents (i.e. a ratio of 1).
spindle assembly and stator and housing assembly.

The base, bellows and spindle assembly consists of a flexible brass

bellows soft soldered to a base at one end and a centre spindle at
the other end. Two armatures are located on the centre spindle
with their poles at 90 degrees to each other. A cup for locating a
main spring is also attached to the centre spindle which in turn is
supported in to guides sliding in two guide bushes.

The stator is constructed so that the two stator windings are

positioned at 90 degrees to each other to reduce electrical coupling
between the windings. The main spring seated between the inner
face of the spring adjuster and the spring cup controls the
movement of the bellows and spindle and, consequently, the
armatures.

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Operation

Oil under pressure is admitted to the bellows, so causing them to

expand and move the armature spindle towards the overload stop;
displacement of the spindle alters the position of the armatures and
therefore the inductance of the stators. This results in a decrease in
current in the circuit of the stator nearest the bellows and an
increase in current in the circuit of the stator farthest from the
bellows. The current ratio so produced is denoted by the indicator.

Calibration

Calibration is carried out in the workshop by means of the spring

adjuster, using a dead weight calibrator and suitable adapter. No
adjustment can be made in situ on the aircraft. An overload stop is
also suitably positioned to prevent over travel of the spindle and
permanent damage to the bellows in the event of an excess
pressure being applied.

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Inductance Transmitters

The 'E' and 'I' Bar

This type of sensor is used in older servo instruments acceleration

sensors, air data computers.

The fixed laminated E shaped core has an alternating supply

connected to its central limb; the outer two limbs are wound with
coils connected in series opposition. The laminated I shaped core
sits parallel to the E core and is attached to whatever we are trying
to measure the movement of, e.g. in a servo altimeter the I bar is
connected to the capsules.

In the following diagram the I bar is parallel to the E bar and the AC
fed to the central limb creates a magnetic flux which will flow as
shown. The flux in the top and bottom limbs will be the same as the
air gaps between the I bar and E core are equal. The emf induced I BAR - NEUTRAL
into the two coils B and C will be the same but of opposite phase, so
the output will be zero.

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When the I bar is moved by the sensing element, the air gaps are The next diagram shows the I bar moved in the opposite direction,
now unequal, there is now more flux cutting coil B (less air gap) and in this case the emf induced coil C is greater than coil B and the
less flux cutting coil C (larger air gap). The emf induced in coil B is output will be 'anti-phase' to the input, again the amplitude will
greater than that in coil C, the output is therefore the difference depend on the amount of movement of the I bar.
between these two giving an output that is 'in phase' with the input.
The amplitude of the output will depend on the amount of movement
of the I bar.

I BAR - POSITION 1 I BAR - POSITION 2

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Example of an application of the 'E' and 'I' bar is shown in the

diagram below. In an Electro-Mechanical Air Data Computer (ADC),
as airspeed increases, a differential pressure exits between the two
capsules (P-S) and this force deflects the beam about its pivot,
which moves the I bar away from its null position with the E bar.
There is now an output from the transducer which is amplified and
fed to the motor.

The motor drives an output shaft and also the lead screw which
causes a rider nut to move up or down. This is attached to one end
of a precision spring; the other end of the spring is attached to the
beam. Movement of the rider nut alters the force applied to the beam
by the spring to move the beam to the null position; i.e. the force on
the spring balances the force due to the pressure difference. The
motor stops as E and I is nulled and the angle the output shaft has
turned is proportional to the capsule pressure difference and
therefore provides an output proportional to P-S from the transducer
shown and proportional to S from the other transducer.

Variation in temperature will affect the accuracy of the precision

spring so a bimetal strip is attached to the frame of the transducer
joined to the beam via a spring. As temperature changes the force
on the beam may increase but the strip will expand or contract and
provide an opposing force to oppose any error.

Application Of The 'E' And 'I' Bar In An Electro-Mechanical Air Data Computer (ADC)

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) If the core is displaced as shown in the next diagram (LVDT- Core
Position 1), the output of coil A increases (iron core full in line) and
The LVDT consists of a primary coil of a transformer; the secondary
that of coil B decreases (air gap only). The output is therefore the
has two coils connected in series opposition. In between the two
coils is an iron core that can be moved in a linear manner by the difference and is 'in phase' with the input, the amplitude depends on
system whose displacement is to be measured. the amount of displacement.

The LVDT is used extensively for control surface position indication,

being attached to the servo actuator. They are also used in Engine
Pressure Ratio Transmitters, accelerometers and some older fuel
flow transmitters.

The figure below shows the LVDT with the core central, the outputs
of the two coils A and B will be equal but of opposite phase, the
output of the LVDT is therefore zero.
LVDT - CORE POSITION 1

If the core is displaced downwards, as shown in the next diagram

(LVDT- Core Position 2), then coil B output increases (iron core fully
in line) and that of coil A decreases (air gap only), once again the
output is the difference between the two and is 'anti-phase' to the
input, the amplitude depends on the amount of displacement.

LVDT - CORE CENRAL POSITION

LVDT - CORE POSITION 2

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Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

There is another version of this transformer called the Rotary

Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) that works on the same
principle, but as the name implies the central core moves in a
circular movement.
One of the uses is to measure control column movement. With
reference to the figure below, as the control column is moved a cable
assembly is attached to the RVDT input drum and therefore rotates
the central core of the RVDT's to give an output to, for example, a
spoiler control module.

TYPICAL RVDT FITMENT

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Another example of an RVDT application is the Nose Gear Steering

Feedback Sensor, as shown here (Ref: A330 AMM 32-51-00):

RVDT on Nose Landing Gear Steering Feedback System

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Proximity Switch System

Introduction

The proximity switch is an inductive device that operates in

conjunction with a steel target, the purpose of the target is to
change the inductance of the inductive device.

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The inductance of the device is changed, by placing a steel target Such a device could be used to show a change of state, therefore,
next to the device. When the target is placed next to the device, the as the target is moved near or far the output state will change from
inductance will change to high inductance and current will change to high to low. This state is converted in the proximity switch electronic
low. When the target is moved away from the inductive device, the unit to a voltage.
inductance will change to low and the current to high.
A typical output voltage for such a device is target near "0.3 volts‖
Inductive Reactance XL = 2πfL ohms. and target far "13 volts‖ this change in output voltage low to high
could be viewed as a logic state, low as "logic zero‖ and high as
Placing a target near, a proximity sensor will increase its inductance. "logic one‖.
An increase in inductance will increase the Inductive Reactance.
An increase in Inductive Reactance will decrease the current. The changing state of the sensor can be termed "in proximity‖ or "out
of proximity‖ as the target is moved near or far.

A typical diagram is shown for target near and target far. When near,
the sensor/target inductance is five to eight millihenrys and when far
several millihenrys less.

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Typical sensors are rectangular or cylindrical and are designated—

Flange mount or Thread mount respectively.

Targets are made from corrosion resistant steel and can be part of
the aircraft structure or bolted to the aircraft structure in a fixed
position or on movable linkage for example landing gear linkage.

Shown are typical sensors.

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Application
These systems normally have two systems, system one and system
Proximity sensors are used extensively as signalling devices on all two. System one and system two indicate in position by illuminating
modern aircraft, for example passenger, cargo and equipment the three green lights in the flight deck. If one of the sensors were to
centres doors. These doors are indicated open or closed by indicate out of position, caused by a "damaged or open circuit
proximity sensors. They are also used to indicate the position of sensor‖ the other sensor will still indicate in position and indicate the
landing gears, thrust reversers, leading edge slats, air ground landing gear is "down and locked‖ by illuminating the green light.
sensing, valve position and failure protection.
As there are two sensors each sensor will illuminate its own light
A typical example is landing gear, the landing gear is signalled in bulb, therefore, for the landing gear to be "not down and locked‖
position both "up‖ and "down‖ and indicated to the flight crew. The both sensors must indicated out of position.
flight crew will see three green lights in the flight deck indicating
nose and main landing gears are in position "gears down and Shown is a typical sensor arrangement for a nose landing gear.
locked‖, or "not locked‖ as the case may be.

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Truck tilt sensors indicate that the aircraft is on the ground.

As the aircraft lands the truck untilts, the sensors move into proximity
and in doing so indicate aircraft on ground. The sensors through
logic and driver cards in a box called a Proximity Switching
Electronic Unit (PSEU) will cause air ground relays to energise and
indicate to the aircraft systems concerned that the aircraft is in the
"on ground mode‖ not "in the air mode‖.

The reason for the differences between air and ground modes is that
on the ground certain systems become live, while other systems
become inactive for example cargo doors are only operative on the
ground, whereas the ram air turbine is designed only to automatically
deploy in the air.

Shown is a typical sensor arrangement for truck tilt.

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Capacitance Transmitters
The most common use of capacitance transmitters is in fuel quantity
indication systems. The sensor being in principle two concentric
tubes with the fuel being the dielectric. The capacitance of a
capacitor depends on, the distance between the plates, the area of
the plates and the dielectric constant of the material between the
plates. As the distance between the plates and the area of the plates
is set the only variable is the dielectric constant of the material
between the plates.

Air has a dielectric constant of one and aircraft fuel has a dielectric
constant of approximately two. This means whatever the
capacitance was with air as the dielectric, when fuel replaces the air
the capacitance will approximately double e.g. 100pF to 200pF. So
this is therefore a good way of measuring fuel quantity as the tank is
filled with fuel the dielectric changes gradually from air to fuel
increasing the capacitance as fuel level increases.

This same principle is used for measurement of hydraulic fluid level

CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTER
in a hydraulic reservoir.
As pressure is applied to the diaphragm the two metallic films come
Another type of transmitter used in digital air data systems is the closer together changing the distance between the 'plates' and
formation of a capacitor by depositing a metallic film on a small area changing the capacitance. This forms part of a capacitive bridge
in the centre of a diaphragm to form a capacitor (figure 222). network that will change its output depending on pressure applied.
These are used as pressure transducers in some digital air data
computers.

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An example of a fuel quantity indicating (FQI) probe is shown here.

A set of FQI probes is installed in each fuel tank. Each probe has a
capacitance value which changes in proportion to the depth of fuel in
the related tank. The fuel management computer continuously
measures the capacitance values of all the FQI probes. It then uses
each set of probe capacitance values to find the quantity of fuel in a
tank.

The capacitance value of the probe changes in proportion to the

depth of fuel in the tank. When the probe is dry the capacitance
value is low, but as fuel moves up the probe the capacitance value
increases.

Fuel Quantity Indicating (FQI) Probe

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For Your Notes

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For Your Notes

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For Your Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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