CHAPTER II

THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN VEDIC TEXTS

 CHAPTER II

THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN VED1C TEXTS

A. THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN RV

1. Introduction

Three entire hymns are dedicated to the eulogy

of Rudra rn RV. Besides he is invoked along with Soma in one

hymn and another hymn partially refers him. He is highly

praised by Kanva (RV 1.43), Kutsa (RV 1.114), Grtsamada

(RV
•
11.33) and Va£istha
• •
(RV VII.46). It is evident from BD
'

that Rudra is a god of middle sphere, "Then he lauds next rhe

deities of the middle sphere, Rudra and Maruts ....". Rudra

as belonging to Indra*s sphere is depicted in another context

of BD as "Now the group of the middle sphere belonging to

Indra follows here,(including) the celestial cars and the

group of the Apsaras. In Indra are contained Parjanya, Rudra,

Vayu, Brhaspati, Varuna, Ka, Mrtyu and the God Brahmanaspati;

and the divine Vaifevanara and the group of Rudras is praised

2
with (him), the Maruts, ....". A critical analysis of Rudra

concept may begin with the recounting of the attributes

conferred on Rudra.

1. Macdonell, The Brhaddevata attributed to £aunaka - A Summary

of the Deities and myths of the Riqveda, Translation
and Notes, Part II, HOS, Vol.VI, 1904, p.23.

2. ibid., p.28.
 26

2. Concrete Depiction of His Physical features

Weak characterisation of deities is considered as

a peculiar feature of vedic mythology. Their description is

pale as compared to the colourful description of the Greek

Gods. But Rudra appears to he quite different m this regard.

As remarked by R.N. Dandekar, "Rudra possesses a distinct

individuality of his own, which clearly bears the stamp of

3
concreteness about it". Rudra occupies a subordinate position

in the hierarchical vedic mythology. But his physical posture

is portrayed in RV in a greater detail than normally would have

been. As Rgvedic deities are having anthropomorphic physical

feature, Rudra is also described as a vigorous deity with

strong limbs, assuming many forms, fierce and of tawny colour.

Rudra is also extolled as having white complexion. One of his

attribute is £vitic
•MWMMI- I'll '"I'"
(RV XI.33.8) which is explained by Sayana
^ #

as &vai tyamancate - he who goes to or obtains whiteness. The

white complexion of &iva, the latter representative of Rudra,

has its origin in this idea.

Rudra is an illustrious deity (RV 1.114.4). He is

brilliant as the Sun (RV 1.43.5) and radiant (RV 1.114.5).

3. R.N. Dandekar, VMT, "Rudra in the Veda", p.200.

 27

He is soft bellied and is possessed of handsome chin (RV II.33.5).

Rudra's hand is joy dispensing. His hand is also healer and

delighter of all. He holds m his arms illustrious medicaments.

Vigour is inseparable from his body (RV II.33.9). He is mighty

and wise. He is possessed of braided hair and kapardm is a

regular epithet of Rudra in the RV. It has corne from kaparda of

which one meaning is the jata or braided hair. It is more usually

an epithet of £iva, expressing the meaning of a braid of hair,

Rudra shines with brilliant golden ornaments and bears an

adorable and omniform necklace.

Thus Rudra's physical appearance is anthropomorphic

and this representation is done in a more concrete form as

compared with other gods. He is attributed with head, face,

mouth, cheeks, hair, belly, arms, hands. Rudra is one among two

or three gods who are invoked as having or assuming all forms

(vi§varupa) as he is extolled as (pururupa) one having many forms.

In the vedic pantheon every deity is surrounded by a

set of attributes that are exclusively his own by some specific

terminologies. The terms like varaha, kapardm and vanku are

predominantly applicable to Rudra which describe his

anthropomorphic form. His epithet, varaha literally means a

boar, which is explained by Sayana as one who is possessed of

strong limbs like a boar varahavad dirqhanqam or otherwise one

having excellent food (varaharam). Sayana seems to prefer

the explanation varaharam as one having good or excellent

4 -
food. Another peculiar epithet Rudra is kalmalikin which
5
is explained by Sayana as radiance or rays, it is derived as

v/kal + mala which means dispelling darkness# splendour# etc.

In the post Rgvedic literature Rudra's physiognomy has some

added attributes which will be discussed later.

3. His Weapons

Rudra is armed with strong bow and fast flying arrows.

He is possessed of sharp weapon (RV VII.46.1) . His lightning

shaft (didyut) discharged from the sky traverses the earth

(RV VII.46.3). He is invoked with the archers on the car-seat

(RV 11.33.11). in the &B and AV his bow# arrow and weapon are

frequently referred to. In the post-vedic period this description

becomes one of his prominent character where his arrow is often

named as Pinaka-T-hus as the holder of this arrow# he becomes

Pinakin or PinakaPani. As the weilder of thunderbolt he is

vajrapani like Indra (RV 11.33.3).

4. RV,1.114.5 (Sayana's Commentary).

• •

5. RV,II.33.8 (Sayana1s Commentary) - jvalato namadheyamerat

(Nir.1.17)/ jvalantam/ kalayati apaqamayati malamiti
kalmalikam tejah/ tadvantam rudram ....
 29

Rudra xs propitiated not to inflict the fatal

weapons upon the cows. His missiles which are cow-killing

and man-slaying are prayed to be far away from the invokers.

His blazing weapon discharged from heaven traverses the earth.

Rudra is repeatedly invoked not to harm the friends and

relatives of the invokers as well as their domestic animals

being inflamed with anger.° His malevolence is best represented
u
in RV as: Injure not Rudra, those, amongst us, v/ho are old

or young, who are capable of begetting or who are begotten,

7
not a father, nor a mother; nor afflict our precious persons".

He is invoked to remove his celestial xvrath far from the

invokers. He is wrathful and he is evidently provoked to wrath

by imperfect adoration and by unworthy praise when he is busy

otherwise. He becomes angry by the invocation of other deities.

This brings out his character as being self-conceited and

touchy. Rudra is reverently invoked So that his malevolent

8
disposition that causes destruction may be pacified. He is

invoked to turn away his weapons which constitute strong bow

and javelline. The invokers are often afraid of his anger. Thus

they declare “Let us not fall under the bondage of thee when
g
displeased11.

6. RV,I.114.10.

7. RV,1.114.7 (Wilson's Translation).

8. RV,11.33.5.

9. RV,VII.46.4.
 30

Rudra is chiefly a wrathful deity and the pacification

of his wrath is the chief tone of several verses. This

wrathfulness of Rudra is his special feature m post Rgvedic

literature also. Similarly in a passage of AB, the Rgvedic

verse is altered to avoid the mention of Rudra's name. Weber

views his beneficent traits to be only flatteringly conferred

10
upon him to pacify his anger and to render him gracious.

4. Rudra/ a Malevolent Deity

Indologists like Max Muller, Oldenberg are of uhe

contention that the gods of the vedic mythology being mainly

the personification of natural phenomena, appeared to the

successful and optimistic vedic Indians as almost exclusively

beneficent beings. But a sign of exception is found in the

character of Rgvedic Rudra for which Macdonell has rightly

said “The only deity in whom injurious features are at all

11
prominent is Rudra".

Rudra is destructive and fierce like a terrible

12 13
wild beast. Rudra's very name is frightening. He is

10. J. Muir, OST, Vol.IV, New Delhi, 1975, pp.396-97.

11. Macdonell, VM, p.18.

12. RV,11.33.2; X.126.5.

13. RV,11.33.8.
 31

14
extolled once as man-destroying. in the second mandala
« •

it is desired that Rudra may not be irate, nor slay the

15 -
invokers. Sayana explains the term 'nrghne' as the killer
• •
— 16
of wicked men. 'Ksayadvira1 is a regular epithet of Rudra

which means that Rudra is the destroyer of heroes.

5. Rudra. a Benevolent Deity

Along with these malevolent characters there are

certain positively beneficent traits in Rudra's personality.

He is repeatedly invoked as Vrsabha in a number of verses which

• •

17
means showerer of benefits. He is propitiated to make free

from the bondage of sin and he is the destroyer of sm.

Rudra*s hands are joy dispensing. He is the delighter of all.

He even dispels the sins of the gods. He is the bestower of

wealth and also he is the protector of virtues. Being invoked

he bestows happiness upon invoker's sons and grandsons (RV 11.33.14).

14. RV,IV.3.6.

15. RV,11.33.15.

16. RV,X.92.9? 1.114.0; 1.114.10.

17. RV,11.33.4; 6.
 32

Rudra is the first and foremost of beings in glory. He wafts

the invokers over the ocean of sin ana he repels all the

assults of inequity.

6. Conferring Long Life and Progeny

18
He is often praised for long life and progeny.

Blessed with excellent descendants invokers glorifiea him. He

is food bestowing (RV V.52.16) and gratifies his suppliant

with invigorating food. Thus he lavishes food upon his solicitors

and on the leaders of rites. All beings in the village are

nourished by the food granted by Rudra (RV 1.114.1). Rudra

has compassion upon the cows (RV 1.169.1). being propitiated

by praise he grants happiness to him who praises, along with his

sons and grandsons (RV 11.33.11). This powerful deity is

worshipped for a comprehensive and sound understanding. Rudra

is the accomplisher of good deeds (RV V.60.5). He is grief

assuaging and invoked for happiness (RV VII.35.6). He is the

encourager of hymns and protector of sacrifices and makes the

sacrifice perfect. He is the provider of habitations (RV 1.43.6).

His happiness is easily obtained. He is praised to grant health,

defensive armour and secure dwelling. Rudra*s auspicious benignity

18. RV,II.33.1-2
is the cause of delight. Ihe brilliant hero is invoiced for

protection ana prosperity. He is the fultiller of wishes and

subduer of adversaries.

7. Rudra as a Physician

ihe most significant fact m this connection is Rucra

heeling power. Rudra is invoked to invigorate invoker's sons by

the medicinal plants. Administration of medicine is a special

feature of Rudra. There occurs a passage with respect to his

presiding over medicinal plants which Manu selected, alluding

most probably to the legend as related in Mbh; took with him

into his vessel at the time of deluge (RV 1.114.2). Rudra is

prayed to give medicines (RV 11.33.12). He is the chief physici

amongst physicians (RV II.33.4). The medicaments of Rudra are

the alleviation of disease and defence against danger. Aditi

is wished to so act that 'rudriya' may be obtained. The meaning

of 'rudriya* accordinq to savana is "rudrasambandhi bhesajam" -

• . .. ,X ■’ "T "T III--I- #

medicament in relation to or presided over by Rudra. This

corroborates with the text - ya te rudra feiva tanuh,

fciva vifeva ha bhesaii feiva rtasya bhesaji - whatever are thy

auspicious forms, 0 Rudra, they are all auspicious; auspicious

19
are medicaments, the medicaments of Rudra.
 34

The terra "jalasa bhesaja" is an oft quoted eoithet

• •

of Rudra which means medicaments conf^ ring delight, the

derivation is explained as from *j_a*, one born and lasa meaning

happiness which is an unusual word, Thus the word jalasa means

that which is desired by the created being (layante iti jah/

taih lasyate iti). According to Sayana, water being the chief

• • •

ingredient of medicine is meant here. Thus this word suggests that

Rudra's medicine consists of water. It is also explained as all

vegetables depending upon water for their growth. Rudra presides

over all the sanitary drugs. He is invited to the dwellings and

to act as a guardian against disease. RV 1.114.1 runs as - "Rudra

is extolled with praises so that health may be enjoyed by

bipeds end quadrupeds ana that all beings in this village may be
20
well nourished and exempt from disease." Thus freedom from

disease and exemption from danger are the two chief facts behind

the invocation of Rudra. Rudra1s healing powers are often praised

by Rgvedic poets.

8. Rudra as a Supreme Deity

Rudra's supremacy is implied m some mantras of RV.

In the second mandala, he is described as the supreme leader

and lord of the world (RV II.33.3;4). Nobody is more powerful

20. RV,1.114.1 (Wilson's Translation).

 35

than him (RV 11.33.10). He preserves all this vast universe

and he is hrdya or cherished by the hearts of the invokers;

which is also associated with him in Upanisadic literature.

He is omniform and divine. He is renowned, undecaymg, endowed

with felicity and of pleasing aspect. He is invincible, the

conquerer and the creator. Rudra is also to be obtained by sacred

study. He is known by his rule over those of terrestrial birth,

by his sovereignty over those of celestial origin protecting

their progeny. He is wise. These facts show7 his supremacy and

importance. He is invoked for creation, for protection from

danger and disease by bestowing nourishment which brings out

his character as the creator, the Protector and the Dissolver

in the post-Rgvedic period. He is unassailable, unaging, the

ruler of the world and its father. Thus Rudra is described in

the RV by rather incompatible qualities as both fierce and

• ma
benignant, his specific province being tutelarship of medicinal

plants. R.G. Bhandarkar in Vaisnavism Saivism

* • • I - ■ ' -r- mtm.. -Ill ■■ nr 1 I—m I ■ ■
and Minor
- *

Religious Systems ascribes the name Rudra-Siva to the Deity in

whom are combined both destructive and protective activities.

Though he is extolled only in a few hymns he is not different

from the major gods in essence. There are more particulars of the

person of Rudra in comparison to the number of hymns dedicated

to him. He is handsome but not repulsive; he is fierce and

 36

powerful, yet he is the mighty helper and foremost healer.

His unique character is best represented m RV VIIJ.29.5

where the distinctive character of the deity is expressed.

9. Myths Associated with Rudra in RV

The myth regarding the origin of Rudra is

elaborately founa m a hymn of RV X.61 , which is encircled

with a series of mystic ideas, which subsequently got their

prominence in the Brahmamc texts by their elongated formations

The first mantra declares the hymn as raucira brahman which

signifies either the raudric mantra or the creation, of raudric

nature. Sayana gives the meaning of this word rauara brahman as

rudrapranltam stotram, the chants formulated by Rudra. It may

•1 ~ l-"IT T ' ■

further by added that, it "embraces the cosmic creative act

together with the form - engendering creation of the poem. The

brahman tells of the mystery and at the same time tells of its

mode of telling. It shrouds and at the same time conveys His

name in the form it gives to him by calling itself a

raudra brahman, a wild creation, or raudric creation, for this

21
poem and the creation are of Rudra, means wild of Rudra nature.'

21. S. Kramrisch, The Presence of £iva, p.5.

 37

The background of this hymn as hinted in his

introduction of Sayana, on the authority of is that

Nabhanedistha being engaged in religious study was deprived

• •

of his share in his paternal property. Aftei the completion

of the study, when Nabhanedistha approached his father, Manu

• •

recommended him to help the Angirasas to complete their sacrifice.

Nabhanedistha visualised some mantras by the efficacy of which

• • *" " " 1
the Angirasas went to heaven. These mantras form the contents

of RV X.61 & 62.

Being assigned the sacrificial remainder by the

Angirasas, Nabhanedistha while walking off with them, was

• •

obstructed by Rudra who demanaeo the remaindei as his usual

share. Nabhanedistha, being advised by his father left the cows

• •

for Rudra, who being pleased returned the same to Nabhanedistha.

• •

From the mantras chanted by Nabhanedistha some

• •

significant points relating to Rudra*s position and origin may

be highlighted as follows:

i) In RV X.61.5, the begetting of Rudra while Prajapati

was intending to be united with his daughter is suggested.

ii) In some mantras like RV X.61.2 & 5, both Prajapati

1 1 n""" • ... •

and Rudra are seemed to be inter-mingled and blended together.

iii) In RV X.61.7, Rudra* s emergence as Vastospati or the

lord of the hearth of sacrifice and as vratapa or th<= defender

of the sacred rites is depicted from the collective force

of the Gods
 38

iv) Apart from all hi& benevolence to his devotees,

he is depicted here as framing the sacrificial altar

(RV X.61.2) .

v) Rudra's emergence was made from the unwilling mind

of the deities when they were stunned at the sight of Prajapati's

incest behaviour towards his daughter.

vi) In RV X.61.9, the being created becomes the upholder

of the rite, overcoming the enemies by his might. Thus the

emergence of Rudra was made to guide the moral order.

Quire reasonably, Stella Kramnsch connects Rudra's

powerful, destructive and regulative forces with the

Prajapati-Usas event. There Rudra does not put an end to the

process of creation but the system itself. Moreover, Rudra, as

the wild-flared fire exhilerates creation though apparently

stops. For, the RV 1.71 states that Agni prepares the seed

for the father.Subsequently, Rudra is quite naturally conceived

as a mrqavyadha, who destroys Praiapati in the form of a

he- antelope running after the she-antelope. The mysterious

character of Rudra is thus indicated as forming a chief agent

in the process of first creation as well as the guardian of

the moral order.

 39

10. To Sum Up

Rudra is neither exclusively benevolent or malevolent.

Conspicuously two principles stand out above all in the course

of the universe. They are the strife and peaceful aspects. Fear

and favour are the two natural causes behind the conception of

a divinity. Judged from this point Rudra's character is more

natural and not steriotyped as that of other deities in vedic

religion as Rudra*s powers and potencies represent the normal

psychological analysis of human notion towards unseen powers,

forces and potencies. Rudra is the deity who bestows food,

health and nourishment and he has supreme power over the

universe. Religion is not a vague fear of unknown powers,

nor the child of terror, but rather a relation of all the

members of a community to a power that has the good of the

community at heart and protects its laws and moral orders.

Perplexities and dangers of daily life as well as spiritual

serenity are found mingled in the concept of Rudra.

The apparent incongruity of the conceptions of Rudra

as the terrible and benevolent with anthropomorphic attributes

points that Rudra is not a conventionalised figure. Human

nature reverences the source whenceall its blessings flow.

The religion is based on the general principle that man more

crudely and obviously in the early stages of civilisation,

 40

forms his concept of divinity from his own particular needs.

The vedic Aryan had a positive society with crops and herds.

They had a pastoral and agnculrural sociery. They wanted the

protection and nourishment of cattle and grain for their very

existence. Their prosperity depended upon the productivity of

the herds as wel] as multiplication of their kinsmen. They

worshipped Rudra to satisfy their ends.

Moreover, the character of the leading divinities

of the RV is not so much differentiated from their physical

substratum. But in case of Rudra, the physical substratum is

not clear.

The critical analysis of Rudra concept also suggests

that not only the character of the post Rgveaic Rudra differs

from Rgvedic Rudra but even in the RV itself Rudra bears

so to say two distinct personalities. In the RV X. 136.7, it is

9

described that the radiant Sun along with Rudra drinks the

water with the cup. The cup is the Sun's rays, which absorb

the moisture of the earth. The entire hymn is designated as

muni sukta. The allusion in the seventh verse of the hymn to

Rudra*s drinking water (visa) may possibly has given rise

to the legend of his drinking poison (visa). In the AB, Rudra

is said to have drunk water (visa) which also means poison.

This statement made in the Brahmana is a poetic rendering

of the physical phenomena of Rudra, that is, the Sun or the

fire dying up water.

 41

From the above analysis it becomes clear that

Rudra, though invoked in few hymns of RV, still almost all

the aspects of his personality find room in it; which are

inherent in his nature throughout the veaic texts as would be

clear from the subsequent discussion.

B. THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN YV

1• Introduction

The religious setting has changed a lot from RV to YV. In

YV the sacrifice receives much importance where Rudra's

position takes a new mode. Rudra*s personality is more complex

in YV as it would be revealed from the analysis of Rudra*s

depiction in YV.

2. Tryambaka Homa

TS 1.8.6 deals with the offering of a cake to

Tryambaka# a form of Rudra. The sacrificer offers for each

of his family members on one potsherd with the purpose of

prost-rity of all of them. Rudra*s protection is sought here

 42

as he is the protector of the cattle and of the sacrifice.

The cakes are deposited in a woven basket with the utterance

of the invocation to Rudra as "Thou art the protection of

22
the cattle, the protection of the sacrifice; give me proteccion"

Rudra's supremacy is also expressed here by the text

23
"Rudra alone yieldeth to no second", which is uttered when a

brand is taken from the southern fire (daksinaqni). In this

.* • •

offering a cake is thrown down on a mole-hill with the text,

24
"The mole is thy beast, 0 Rudra, rejoice m it".

An interesting feature of this offering is that

Ambika, the sister of Rudra, receives'the oblation along with

Rudra. This offering is made after going north-west, at a

cross-road, from the cakes upper edge with a pala£a leaf, with

the text "This is thy portion, 0 Rudra, with thy sister Ambika;
. 25
rejoice m it".

The physician character of Rudra which is expressed

in RV as well as in AV is also recognised here. He is identified

with the healing medicine (VS XVI.49). Thus he is implored to

bestow the healing balm for the cow , horse and man and to

dispense happiness to Ram and sheep.

22. A.6. Keith, The Veda of the Black Yajus School; Entitled
Taittiriva Samhita, p.118.

23. ibid.

24. ibid.

25. ibid.
 43

The name Tryambaka is found here along with Rudra.

Rudra is appeased by these two names in order to make the

sacrificers prosperous by increasing their wealth, cattle

and making them strong. Ambika is also invoked here as witnessing

this desire of sacrificers as it is evident from the text:

We have appeased, 0 Lady, Rudra,

The God Tryambaka;

That he may make us prosperous

That he may increase our wealth

That he may make us rich in cattle

26
That he may embolden us.

Another feature of this offering is the circum-ambulation

of the fire three times by the wives of the sacnficer after which

the cakes are tied up in one or more baskets and fastened to a

tree with the text; "This is Thy portion, O Rudra; rejoice in it;
27
with it for food; do thou go away beyond the Mujavats".

Rudra is also invoked here as being clad in skins,

having unstrung bow and club in his hand which are the

characteristics of Rudra in the post-vedic period.

26. A.B. Keith, The Veda of the Black Yajus School; Entitled
Taittiriya Samhita, p.118.

27. ibid.
 44

Some speciality in the character of Rudra as

revealed in the context of Tryambaka homa may be suggested

as follows:

i) Rudra is offered along with Ambika

Rudra is the only deity to be offered oblations along

with his sister Ambika. This in due course gave rise to the

concept of Rudra and Ambika as the supreme creator and creatrix.

ii) Rudra as the protector of sacrifice

Rudra is addressed here as the protector of sacrifice

on the basis of which Rudra's alienation from the rituals does not

appear justified.

iii) Magic rites

Some magic rites are to be found here as fastening the

basket to a tree, etc.

iv) New traits in Rudra's physical description

Some new traits as being clad in skins and connection

with mountain are also found here for the first time.
 45

v) Rat as the victim of Rudra

As the victim of Rudra, rat is offered to him

so that being pleased with that gift Rudra will not devour

the other animals (VS III.57).

vi) Rudra as worshipped by the daughters of the sacrificer

Tryambaka is also worshipped for immortality.

Moreover in the VS III.61 Tryambaka is addressed as husband

finder and -worshipped by the daughters of the sacrificer. Then

Rudra is desired to depart beyond the Mujavat.

3. Rudra and Cow

Further in VS TV.20; 21, Rudra, as the lord of

cattle is prayed for the safety of the Soma-cow and the cow

is addressed as 'a Rudra'. In the TS I.11 the first mantra,

in the context of dar£apuraamasa sacrifice, refers to Rudra

as the lord of cattle, and Rudra is prayed here to protect

the cattle of the sacrificer. Befall of Rudra*s dart is

prayed to be avoided. This reference is absent in MS and VS

in the context of dar&apurnamasa.

 46

Similarly in the context of the description of

sacrificial cow in the Soma sacrifice Rudra is prayed to

9Q
guide the cow to the altar in the path of Mitra. That cow

is addressed as Rudra. This epithet of sacrificial cow is

repeated twice in the same mantra of KS and MS.

4. Rudra and Aqni

A story of TS suggests that the Rudra concept has

been emerged from Agni mythology. In TS 1.5.1 in the context

of the rekindling of the fire, the origin of Rudra is alluded

to the weeping of Agni through a legend according to which

gods deposited the riches with Agni while going to contest

the Asuras. When gods after defeating the asuras approached

Agni to return back the wealth?to their surprise Agni fled away

with the wealth. The gods pursued Agni for the recovery of the

wealth and violently shouted. As a result of which Agni wept

and thus became Rudra.

28. TS,I.2.4-5 : Thou art vasvl, thou art a Rudra, thou art
Aditi, thou art Aditya, thou art Sukra, thou art
Candra.
 47

Further in VS V.34, the fire is invoked to protect

the sacnficer by the face of Rudra. According to Mahiokara •

the force of fire is furious having the power to kill enemies.

Agni will protect with his rudra anika or furious army. Or it

may be explained as Agni will protect by the face of the deity

29
Rudra/ the sacrificer ana his army.

5. Rudra as Associated with the Eastern Quarter

In T[]S V.2.5. in the context of xhe ploughing of the

sacrificial ground, Rudra is stated to be related wixh ease

quarter. If the bi-peds and quadrupeds were sex free by the

sacrificer to the east he would give them over to Rudra, if

to the south, he would deliver them to Ritrs; if to the west,

Raks"^as would kill them. So they were to be set free to the

northern reqion which is the auspicious quarter of Gods and men.

In the context of Tryambaka homa and &R sacrifice Rudra is

connected with the northern region. But curiously enough here

east-quarter is ascribed to Rudra and north region to the Gods

and Men.

29. VS/V.34. rudrenanikena pata magnayah/

 48

6. Rudra as Identified with the Sacrificcr

In SYV X.28, Rudra is identified with the sacrificer.

The Brahman priest puts the five dice m to sacrificer's hand

in the shape of golden shells, which represent the four

quarters of the sky and the zenith and says unto him that he is
Rudra, the very kind and gracious."^0

7. Rudra as the Lord of Hosts

In the context of ukhasaitibharanadi mantra, the

• 1 1 1
™ '' 1 '

adhvaryu without touching the animals makes them move eastward

and addresses the horse as pra turvann e'ny avakramann a£asti

— . — 31
rudrasya qanapatyam mayobhur ehi, which means come speeding

on and urampling imprecations, come gladdening to the

chieftainship of Rudra. From this reference it becomes clear

that at the time of YV Rudra has become qanapati or lord of hosts.

30. VS,X.28. rudro'si sufeevah

31. VS,XI.15.
 49

8. Offerings to Different Names of Rudra

SYV XXXIX. 7-9 enumerate all the names of Rudra as

Ugra, Bhima, Agni, Asani, Pasupati, Bhava, £arva, I&ana and

Mahadeva along with Rudra and different parrs of rhe body of

a horse are offered to Rudra by all these names individually.

In T3S 1.4.34. also m the context of horse sacrifice different

limbs of the body of the sacrificial horse are offered ro

different names of Rudra. In this text Bhava is offered xhe

liver, Rudra is offered taniman, Pafeupari is offered the thick

heart, Agni is offered the heart. Again Rudra is worshipped

with blood, Sarva with kidney, Mahadeva with intestinal flesh

and the entrails are offered to one who slays most quickly.

Here along with Bhava, Sarva etc. the most popular name of

Rudra, “Mahadeva" also occurs which suggests that during the

period of TS Rudra is the deity par excellence. By this time

Rudra*s personality has already expanded. Sacrifice of

different limbs to Rudra indicates that Rudra presides over

different limbs of the horse in his different names ana his

ferocious character is also suggested.

 50

9. Observations

Thus in the YV a different picture of Rudra is much

more clearly delineated. New traits appear in his personality

along with new names ana epithets. Svadhiti is saia to be the

father of Rudra m YV, on -che basis of the text svadhitis te

pita £YV III.63. rather unconvincingly.

The familiar names of Rudra as Bhava, Siva, Pa&upati,

Nilacriva, Sitilcantha etc. appear in this vedic text. His

physical appearance which was attractive and powerful in RV is

completely changed in YV and it hardly resembles the other

figures. His supremacy which is inherent m RV becomes prominent

in YV and the basic character of Rudra as benevolent ancl

gracious being rudra or furious is also portrayed here.

10. The £R Section

The &R section of YV is an unique section where

mysterious concepts regarding Rudra are drawn together. As

V.S. AgrawaJ&has rightly observed “when the author was composing

that stotra he meditated on the glory of Rudra in his numerous forms

32. $• .Bhattachar ji, “Rudra from the Vedas to the Mahabharata",

ABORT, p.85.
 51

both on the universal and the human planes and coined as

many epitheus as he could lor the sake of offering his homage

by using the word namah. Thus the SR

' •
is the first namah stotra
"l"~ •

in Sanskrit literature on the model of which many more

subsequently composed.

This section of YV introduces certain dark,

inauspicious, mysterious and malevolent associations and here

Rudra imbibes traits from diverse sources. It enumerates

various disgraceful attributes of Rudra ana introduces some

malevolent associations and furnishes the transition to the

terrific and repulsive characteristics of Rudrasiva. From an

atmospheric god of the RV, he now becomes the lord of all

quarters, of forests, and fields, of trees ana plants, cf food

and moving creatures. The popularity of this section is proved

by the occurence of this litany in a number of subsequent vedic

texts* Details of the significance of names of Rudra in SR and

importance of this chapter in different sacrificial texts will

be exposed later. In the SR litany he bears the most remarkable

epithets, which designate him as the patron of robbers, high way

men, cheats, swindlers and other similar people.

The express and complete identification of Rudra

with Agni, which is first found only incidentally in the RV,

Agrawala, fciva Mahadeva The Great God, p.29.

33. V.S
 52

is now a received feature of his nature.

Exposition of this litany has been made by a number

of scholars both traditional and moaern. Among the traditional

scholars the commentaries of Sayana, Uvata and Hahidhara are

noteworthy. Among the modern scholars the exposition by

Visnusuri, M.S. Rao, the translation by J. Muir etc. are of much

• •

importance. The views and differences of these scholars on

different words of &R wilJ be treated m the subsequent chapter.

In this chapter the different dimensions of Rucra's personality

as revealed in SR arc being analysed.

This section appears to manifest Rudra as a

mythological deity as well as Rudra as the spiritual bliss,

as the originator of Agni, Vayu and Aditya?that constitute the

heart of the devas. The almighty Brahman is worshipped here as

Rudra and at the same time he is the much celebrated mythological

figure having a dark neckj a bow unstrung, and matte4 hair and

clad with skin. From the sacrificial basis the fire is here

Rudra. Obeisance_ is thus first made to the Rudra, who is ready

with his bow strung to dart his shafts and to his wrath. The

auspicious look which proceeds from his benign eyes is earnestly

prayed for. The analysis of SR can be made on the following

grounds j

i) Omnipotent Rudra.

ii) His mythological figure.

 53

ill) Overlordship of different beings and tribes etc.

iv) His identification with different walks of life.

v) Rudra as the microcosm and the macrocosm.

vi) As the chastiser of immoial acts.

vii) Observation on his nature.

i) Omnipotent Rudra

In the SR all pervading character of Rudra in cosmic

world is found. He is now the originator of Agni, Vayu and

Aditya, - the three principal representative deity of the three

regions. So here Rudra is not a provincial or parochial deity

but he is rhe almighty Brahman. He is thousand eyed (VS XVI.8).

He is implored to protect on every side (VS XVI. 11). He is the

lord of regions, lord of beasts,, lord of spirits (VS XVI.21).

He is the source of prosperity and happiness.

ii) His mythological figure

Although in the SR Rudra is identified with different

agents of nature yet the conventional mythological figure also

receives much importance. In the former case Rudra may be a

concept, but in the later case he is the mythological great

god Siva.
 54

Reference is rnc.de uo his two arms. His form is

auspicious (siva tanuh). Me dwells m the mountain. He holds

«

a bow in his hand. He is copper coloured, ruddy and brown,

blue necked, red coloured and he has braided hair. He is

frequently prayed to throw away the arrows which are in his

hand. His bow is prayed to be curingless. He is also prayed

to protect the invokers with his bow. Thus from frequent

references to his bow and arrow Rudra appears m this chapter

as a figure having the bow and arrow.as a principal weapon.

He is £itikantha and the most beautiful one, claa m skin

• •

(VS XVI.52), the feipivista like the Visnu.

• • ”"* • •

So in YV in comparison to RV, the mythological

*~"r' •
feature of Rudra receives a more concrete shape, though in

SR Rudra is identified with different agents of nature. But

at the same time any significant myth is conspicuously

missing in YV in comparison to the stories of Nabhanedistha

1 "J • *

etc. in RV.
•' ™

iii) Overlordship of different beings and tribes

Rudra in this chapter is the lord of diverse

personalities and places. By the addition of the suffix

pati or adhipati, Rudra is prayed as rhe overlord of different

 55

types of being. He is taskaranem patih or the lord of robbers,

• •

musnatam patih• the lord of thieves, pustanam patih• the lord

" • • • •

of prosperous beings, vikrntanam patih the lord of pick-pockets,

• •

stavunam patih the lord of pilferers, stenanam patih the lord

• *

of thieves who steal by breaking doors, sainyanam patih - the

lord of the soldiers, the lord of vratas or vratapatih, as

artsapatih he is the lord of intelligent persons as well as

• •

the greedy ones. Thus different types of criminals are his devotees.

Not only that he is lord of different tribes and hosts;

for he is known as the ganapatih

• •
or the lord of hosts, but also he
*

represents all the tribes as stated in £R. They are mrqayus -

the holders of ropes of the animals or hunters, nisadas -

the tribe of carnivorous rockmen, punjistha - the tribe of bird

• •

killers and the dogsmen (fevanibhyah).

Besides he is the lord of different places as

ksetrapati etc. and he is the lord of the whole cosmic world

(jagatam patih).

iv) His identification with different walks of life

A unique feature in Rudra's character is his

association with the people of common folk, who used to pray

him as their intimate friend. For that he is adorned with

many adjectives of common folk as the lord of all sort of

criminals, hosts, army, addressed as rathibhyah, sarfigra'nitrbhyah

) ...
 56

taksabhyah, mrqayubhyah, kulelebhyah, karrnarebhy ah,

• • • • “~~l • •

sthapatibhvah/ So also he is connected with carpenter, potter,

smith, architect, the charioteer etc. These epithets make him

the lord of all starting from the Army Chief to the fowler one.

People of all walks of life pray him. This presupposes the

popularity of the worship of Rudra. No other god in VecdLc

pantheon has been parallel of Rudra in representing the various

traits of human character.

v. Rudra aS the Me roc o sin and Macrocosm

Another feature of Rudra is his depiction m one

absolute form and in manifold forms. Rudra is conceived

as one - without - a second (eko rudra na dvitiyaya tasthau).

But there is also depiction of numerous Rudras as eleven or

hundreds or thousands or beyond all numbers. Thus m his

absolute form he is one and m his immanent form, his number is

not subject to computation.

Rudra has diverse manifestations and each one of them

is paid reverence as the different forms of one and the same

Rudra. In the YV XVI.54, the thousand numbered Rudra m earth,

intermediate regions and in heaven is depicted (asamkhyata

sahasrani). The KYV IV.II depicts the microcosmic aspect of

 57

Rudra. The entire army aka refers to -thousands of Rudra who

are the created beings whether living or non-living. Here

the word rudrah does nor refer to eleven rudras but to

multiple manifestations of Rudra. The rudras on this earth, the

rudras in the great ocean i.e. antariksa and the rudras in the

great sky, and the rudras m rhe netherland are here prayed

to be pacified. The presence of this multiple manifestations

then is indicated in different places having different forms,

and the best example of this idea is to be lound in the mantra -

namo rudrebhyo ye prthivyam ye antarikse ye divi/

• 0

yesam annam vato varsamisavo.....

• ■ 1 , <■ ii.- ■_ "" ' " r • " ' 1”
ram vo lambhc dadhomi/

The three categories of multiple manifestations are paid

reverence from all quarters.

vi) As chastiser of immoral acts

Even if he is widely prayed by different types of

criminals in rhe sociery he is rhe upholder of ethical values

and moral standard of rhe society, for that he punishes as the

chastiser of immoral acts. The epithets like drape (giver of

troubles to sinners) etc. prove this. The sinners are cursed

to dungeon holes by him. Another epithet called fiarva depicts

Rudra as one who kills the sinners. Rudra, being the

stayunam patih is also prayed as the upholder of moral order and

punisher of sinners.
 58

vii) Observations on his nature

Rudra^being the lord of both manifested anc uumanzfested,

conceivable and inconceivable world^is quite naturally prayed

as all. In order to eulogise Rudra, the seer leaves no stone

unturned. Starting from the behaviour of gods to men and beast,

he is prayed as the lord of better offs, nobles, learneds,

affluents, paupers5murderers, dacoits, robbers, thieves,

pickpockets, pilferers, ailing weaker persons, heroes a-nd

warriors, artisans and craftsmen. lie is among those who move,

stay, run, sleep, sit, eat and drink. lie is the animal hunter

and protector, the bird and the fowler, the green-leaf forest,

rocks, rivers, streams, lakes, oceans, deserts, beaches, river

beds, sands, gravels and all the other possible creatures and

phenomena. He is not only among the chariot-riders or owners

but also the chariot-makers, chariot-drivers and the

car-mechanics. He is the chief among horse-riders and the horse

himself. He exists not only on earth, on sky and other planets

but also he is the lord of all the hemispheres. Thus he is

conceived as the sum-total of all sorts of incongruities.

As has been referred earlier the most celebrated name

of Rudra as Siva occurs for the first time in YV. In the VS III.63,
34
the word £iva occurs which has been taken by some scholars as

34. S. Bhattacharji, "Rudra from the Vedas to the Mahabharata,"

ABQRI,Vol.XLI,1960, Parts I-IV, p.85.
 59

a proper name of Ruara. But the commentators like Uvata and

Mshiahara explain this as referring to a blace ana m this

context &iva is prayed as the presiding deity of the Ksuxa or

the blade to shave the hair of the head. There the edge of

blade is prayed, not to harm the worshipper other than cutting

. . , . 35
his hair.

But with much clarity the word Siva occurs in SR

(vide VS XVI.42) along with his quality sivatara. This

occuraence appears to be significant for the £iva character

of Rucra which is yet to be found in RV. So both auspicious

and in_jmspicious characters are thus attributed. Both the

ends ana opposits are met here in order to shOu) Rudra's all

pervasive transcendental as well as the immanent form which

remains within. With this Rudra appears to be one and at the

same time to be many. Even though codified monistic thought is

not expressed here^yet the undercurrent can distinctly be marked

from the whole section of &R. The concept of para and apara .

is thus told here in a different way. God has created the

brighter world and the darker as well. So there can not be

compartmenta^isation. Since all of them are His creation, all

the aspects are told thus in detail.

35. YV, Kanva text.

‘ " - 0 -
 60

As "the Purusa sukta of RV exposes the nature of

r~ ^" ' "r • ' •

purusa to be all pervading and all creating, so also m the

&R Rudra is summarily incomprehensible.

viii) All-pervading character of Rudra

^Since attempts have been made to identify Rudra with

Agni on the basis of Rgvedic references, much has been found m

this regard which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

But excepting very few references, the vedic seer in

VS XVI has exercised his whole intellect in visualising Rudra.

Even if this chanting is intended for aqnicayana, yet Rudra is

not limited to Agni or Vayu or Parjanya alone - Rudra comes

out of the limited sheath of these phenomena of nature, but

becomes all to the farthest exxent of the vision of the seer.

Even the kernel of this mammoth growth of Rudra is prevalent

in RV; yet he outlives the limited scope of Agni-Rudra. He is

quite individual and independent entity having inconceivable

dimension to it. For this^ about two hundred and twenty epithets

are attributed to him.

Metaphysical significance of Sr m this connection is

more; while considering the generation sustenance and the

 61

dissolution of this creation. The epithets like purusa, tare,

avarya, pratarena, avasanya, £ciftkara, mayaskara, etc. apeak

this. Thus Rudra in the £R is not only a deity of the vedic

pantheon but he is the mystic representation of absolute,

supreme and all-pervading entity.

C. THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN AV

1. Introduction

AV is different from all other vedic samhita texts.

This veda contains some- ideas which are much ancient as well

as of later vedic period. The magic, sorcery and occult rites

receive much importance here. The position of Rudra in AV

also forms an important basis for the study of the evolution

of Rudraeiva worship and specially to asses-the growing

personality of Rudra in vcuic period.

2. Physical Feature and Weapons

„ 36
Rudra in the AV is dark-crested, archer and his

36. AV,II.27.6 - Rudra ialasabhesaia nlls&ikhanda karmakrt/

 62

~\ *
*~i

arrow is set upon his bow. He is thousand eyed-3 and vigorous.

Rudra bears a yellow golden bow, which is the thousand slaying

and hundred weaponea. He is extolled as feikhandm or the

• •

tufted one. Rudra's arrow goes invincible which is a divine -

38
missile. Rudra is depicted as associated with dark horses
39
or drawn by brown horses. He is black or of black garment.

But Griffith maintains that the black colour is to be assigned

to the chariot of-'Rudra and Rudra is the Kefem or the lone haired

deity possessing such a chariot. In the AV XI.2.39, the long

37. AV,XI.2.3 - namaste rudra krnmah sahasraksayamartyah/ &

trrm" " "r_r—' "r ' L • •

AV.XI.2.7 - astra nilaSikhandena sahasraksena vaiina/

■ r ■-,n_L . ■ -ii -i # • 1 ■ " 1 ~l 1 " u ' 'L ' '** "”"J" "_1

rudrenardhakaghatina tena ma Samaramahi//

38. AV,XI.2.12 - dhanurbibharsi1 haritam hiranyayaifi

' r J i ■ ii 'I ■ r-m # ' •

sahasraghni £atavadham fcikhandin/

• •

rudrasyesu£carati devahetistasmal namo

yataroasvam difeitah// &

AV#XI.2.26 - ma no rudra takmana ma visena ma nah sam sra

divvena qnina anyatrasmad vidyutam patayaitam//

39. AY,XI.2.18 - svavasvam krsnamasitam mrnantam

bhimam rath am kesinah padayantam/

purve pratlmo namo astvasmai//

 63

haired beings are mentioned as the followers of Rudra. As

compared to the bright and luminous description of Rudra in

RV?here in AV Rudra becomes associated with black horses,

with black garments and with black colour.

3. Rudra in connection with sorcerers and yatudhanas

The most prominent character of Rudra in the AV

is his supplication to destroy the yatudhanas and sorcerers

etc. Rudra is desired to break the necks of pifeacas and to

- - 40
split the ribs of the yatudhanas. In one mantra, yama, death,

the evilkiller (aqhamaro), the destroyer (nirrtho) the

tawny coloured Sarva, the blue-locked archer are described

41
as risen with their army. Rudra is here closely associated

with some other deities like Bhava and fiarva, who appear to

be aspects of Rudra. AV IV.28 and XI.2 are completely addressed

to Bhava and Sarva. They are the twin divinities and invoked

to make free from grief and trouble. They are called

upadravakarinah as they cause disturbances and fiarva is mentioned

• •

here along with nilafeikhanda*Although the name Rudra is not found

here still the word nlla£ikhanda may refer to him. Bhava and
" " " " 11 •«

40. AV,VI.32.2.

41. AV VI.93.1.
 64

Sarva are prayed to conduct the evil poison away from the

invokers.

In the tenth kanda Bhava and Sarva are prayed

to cast the flash of lightning, the weapon of the gods,

against the sinner who fashions the evil thing, who deals

with witch-craft.

In AV XI,2.2. Rudra is prayed so that the jackles,

the portents, the dogs and the wild-haired women with their

dishevelled hair may remain far away.

4. Rudra : A Formidable Deity and Slayer of Enemies

Rudra is often invoked in AV to slay the enemies,

whether he be own°*stranger to the invokers wixh his arrows . ^

In AV II.27.6, a medicine plant is invoked as Rudra and prayed

to refute the speech of adversaries and to make them dull and

savourless. Bhava and iSarva who are the aspects of Rudra, are

invoked to make free from distress. They are the lords of all

near and even that of distant. They are famous as the beast and

42. AV, 1.19.3. vo nah svo yo aranah sajata uta nistayo

"1 1 • • •

vo asman abhidasati/

Rudrah sara vya yaitan mamamitran vi vidhyatu//

 65

skilful archers and slayers of vrtra. They are the

formidable ones. They have showed to the mankinc many

unhappy omens. No one escapes from their destroying weapon

whether among gods or among men. They are prayed to bless the

invokers in fights and to make free from distress and trouble.

Bhava and £arva are invoked to conduct the evil poison away

from the invokers.

Rudra's special character of killing enemies is

so prominent that an entire hymn of the VIII kanaa of AV,

13
depicts how to conquer the enemies. There Bhava ana Serve

are invoked to destroy the armament. With the entangling snares

and nets^arva and Indr a are prayed to slay the host.

AV XI. 2.7, depicts Rudra as ardhakaghatm, the

_ 4A
meaning of which is not clear. Sayana * mterpretes the

word ardhakaghatin as one who is able to destroy half an army

at once. No variant of this is reported from Fpp. But m the

notes Roth reports ardhaka as adhyaga. The minor Pet. Lex.

43. AV,VIII.8.

44. AV,XI.2.7?- senava ardham hantum Silamasya

c
 66

points out that this word is found in Fpp as adhyeoa and

and suggests the meaning of this word as andhaka. Bloomfield

in SBE opines that the MSS. read unanimously ardhaka qhatina,

but there is no ardhaka to slay. A demon named Andhaka is a

familiar victim of £iva m the Epics, and Rudra is styled as

Andhakaghatin in Mbh XXI,10356, and Siva is the later

_ f
representative of Rudra. The PPP reads adhyagaghatin, the

slayer of the wayfarer. This suits admirably, since the hymn

is intended as a prayer for protection against the dangers

m a journey. Though the reading adhyagaghatm is quite

suitable here, for the purpose, yet as this word is not

universally accepted, so it opens the suspicion of an easy

reacting of ardhaka which though less familiar is a more

available reading.

The formidable character of Rudra is revealed in

a mantra where the invokers sincerely desire that they may

45
not come into collision with such a deity. Homage is paid

to Bhava so that he will avoid the invokers from every side

as fire avoids the waters. It is sincerely intended that Bhava

may not be against or threaten the invokers. Thus incessant

homage is paid to Bhava and pafeupati. All that has life, that
 67

is breathing upon the earth, belongs to Rudra. Sayana thus

concludes - tasmat sarvesam anugra’nava tvameva namaskaryo

- - 46
bhavasiti bhavah/

Homage is also paid to the arrow of Rudra. Rudra's

special character of killing enemies is expressed in a much

exalted way as Rudra follows closely the foe who lies m

wait to conquer him as a hunter who pursues the footsteps

of the wounded game. Bhava and Rudra also forming allies are

very formidable deit-ies.

In eighteenth kanda Rudra is stated to be the

• •

formidable assailant. The outraging angry character of Rudra

is brought about by the mantra:

sahasraksa matipa^vam purastad rudrasyantaiii

■i ii - m- i #

bahudha vipa£citam/

mopahama 1ihvayeyamjnam// AV XI.2.7.

where the invokers declare not to outrage wirh their tongue

far seeing Rudra. Rudra is overthrowing, slaying and terrible.

He is repeatedly appealed to not to hurl at the invokers the

clubs, the divine missile. He is also requested to not to

be angry with the invokers. The lord of cattle is repeatedly

prayed to shake out his heavenly weapon which is streauched

like the branch above some others but not upon invokers.

46. AV,XI.2.9; 10
 68

He is invoked to rather avoid the invokers than to be angry.

The worshippers desire to never contend with him. The

formidable one is supplicated to roll forth his missile and

to smite the progeny of the mockers. Rudra stands propped

up in the atmosphere and kills the non-sacrificing, God-despisers.

Bhava is all existant. There is no distance for him

nor hindrance for him. At once he looks upon the whole earth.

Rudra is also extolled not to harm either the aged one nor the

small one, not the carrying one and not those who wil3 carry.

Ke is also implored not to harm father or mother. He is

invoked not to slay the invoker’s own self. The ^verse

containing this idea is an oft quoted verse in RV 1.114.7;

VS XVI. 15; TS1TV.'5»10; thus is of much importance.

5. Rudra*s All-pervading character

The all—pervading character and supremacy of Rudra

is well depicted in the mantra of AV.

VO annmi rudro vo apsvantarya osadhirvirudha 5vxve|a/

v, vifty?. bhuvanani cSklrpR tasmai rudraya ngj°

J -1 —..... * 4.7
astvagnaye//

47. AV,VII.92.1
 69

Rudra's presence in Agnx, in waters, in herbs and plants

is depicted here and he is also the creator of al] the beings.

In the eleventh kanda incessant reverence is paid to Rudra.

Rudra is also extolled as residing in the firmament as the

presiding deity.

6. Pafeupati aspect of Rudra

Rudra is Pasupati and lord of cattle. He rules

over the bipeds and quadrupeds. Bhava and Sarva are famous

as the beast. At the same time Bhava and Serve are prayed

to remain away from pastures (gavyutx). it is desired m

many mantras of AV that Rudra's weapon may avoid the cow.

From the contents of some maniras it can be said

that the disease of the cattle was blieved to be inflicted

by the arrows of Rudra. Thus while applying medicine it was

desired that the medicine may turn away the deadly dart of

Rudra:

vifevarupam subhagamacchavadami jivalam/

si no Rudrasvastam hetim duram nayatu qobhyah// AV VI.59.3.

In AV VI.141.1 Rudra is invoked to multiply the cattle by

curing them fr&m diseases (Rudra bhumne cikitsatu).

 70

Mahadeva or the great god is praised as the

four-legs of the ox, which n to be sacrificed. The mantra

runs as:

mitrasca varunafecasau tvasta caryama ca dosanl

• " .. . " " ♦ • T
« •""""

fflahadevo bahu/
48
Sayana explains that medhyavrsabhasya yam

bhinna bhinna nyanqani tani bhinna bhinna aevatarupani

bhavanf lti tasya prasamsa/

or the different limbs of the bull which is to be sacrificed

are identified with different deities.

The missile of Rudra was desired to be far away

from the kine. Rudra is requested to take care for the

increase of the numbers of the cows. It is intended that

Rudra’s weapon may avoid the cow. Bhava and £arva are also

invoked as Pasupatl. They are prayed not to do any harm to

the bipeds and quadrupeds. They are prayed so that the dog,

the jackle, the vultures etc. may not find .the dead’bodies

as food. Animals of five several classes like cows, horses,

49
men, sheep and goats belong to Rudra. He is supplicated

so that the jackles, the dogs may remain far away. Rudra is

also prayed to be not greedy for the invoker’s kine, for

their goats and sheep. The wild animals in the woods are

48. AVIX..7.7.

49. AV,XI.2.9
 71

assigned to him. The geese (haftea), eagles, hawks, birds

are of him. All the aquatic animals like tortoises, serpents,

strange aqQiatic monsters, fishes are for Rudra. Rudra sends

his weapon by his strength towards them. Bhava, the Lord

of Pafeu^is prayed to be gracious to the quadruped and biped.

In the twelevth kanda in the context of the cow

(vasa) as belonging exclusively to the Brahmanas, request

is made to Bhava and Sarva to hurt the arrow towards one

who declares the vafea to not to become the cow, the deposited

deposit of the gods and also in AV XII.4.527 it is declared

that they who seduce the owner of the cow and say - “bestow

her not" they through ignorance go to meet the hurled missile

of Rudra.

In the second kanda, a mantra clearly depicts

• •

that Rudra*s power to kill the animals was very much dreaded

at that time and probably for that reason the animal which

is to be sacrificed was intended to be free from the Rudra.

Thus the verse states;

ya i§e pa&upatih pa£unam catuspadamuta yo dvijbadam/

r' " • - ' ' •

niskritah sa yajniyam bhagametu rayasposa yajamanam

sacantam// AV II.34.1.

The animal which is to be sacrificed is stated here

as niskritah or purchased and that animal is desired to come

'" • " 1 " 1 •
 72

to the sacrificial portion. Here Rudra is described as the

ruler of all the beasts^ quadruped and biped. Whitney

commenting on this verse says that "Apparently it is the

lord of cattle who is to be bribed to content himself with

50
his sacrificial share/ m lieu of taking the whole." Bhava

and £arva are implored in AV IV.28 and the last two hemstich

of each mantra of this hymn repeat the fact of the over

lordship of Bhava and Rudra upon cattle as:

yavasyefeathe dvipado yau catuspada

stau no munc atamamhas ah/

7. Rudra as the Physician

Rudra in AV is the lord of the healing balms.

A medicine plant (pata) is addressed as Rudra where he is

«

invoked to destroy the spech of the adversary and to make

them dull and savourless.

A self-shed cow-horn is addressed as Rudra*s

urine and the navel of the immortal. It removes the illness

caused by wind-(AV VI.44.3). Another incantation of AV (VI.57)

is uttered with a certain remedy against disease. Kau. Su (31.11)

50. W.D. Whitney, The Atharva Veda, 11.34.1, p.78

 73

uses it in a healing rite, while treating a bruise with foam

of urine. The remedy is extolled as Rudra*s remedy; where with

the one shafted, hundred tipped arrow may be spell away. The

jalasa is the medicine relating to Rudra. RV 1,43*4 runs

as gathapatirh medhapatim rudraifi jalasabhesajam/. Sayana is

•'' ' '• •

of the opinion that jalasa is the water. But in AV 11.27,6.

• 1
Jalasa is the cow urine. The jalasa is a formidable remedy.

Rudra is invoked to delight the invokers along with .jalasa.

The attendants also are instructed to besprinkle the wounded

place with this .jalasa. Thus special importance to Rudra's

healing remedies is given in this hymn of AV.

A plant is appealed as all-formed, well-portioned,

vivifying one. This plant is invoked to conduct the hurled

missile of Rudra. In AV VI.20.2 Rudra is the presiding deity

4

of feaver (Rudra jvarabhimanl devah). Thus reverence is paid

to Rudra and to fever. AV VI.44.3 refers to the use of a horn

which is described by kau£u as a self-shed cow-horn

(svavam srasta qosrnqa - quoted by Sayana in his commentary

on AV
mmmm
VI.44.3). That horn is addressed as visanaka and the
 74

51
urxne of Rudra and the navel of immortal.

Frequent references are made to the medicine of

Rudra. Some instances may be cited heres

AV VI.57.1 - idamid va u bhesaiamidam rudrasya bhesaiam/

• •

yenesumekatej anam featafealyamapabravat//

AV VI.57.2 - ialasenabhisiScata jalasenopasincata/
*1 *
*' • 1 " ~1 • ♦ •

ialasamuqram bhesaiam tena no mrda jivase//

• •" l,r^ 1 1 " L" * ■ ■ ■ - ,

AV VI.57.3 - sam ca no mayafeca no ma ca nah kirn canamamat/

ksamo rapo visvam no astu bhesaiam sarvam

—• I' """ '' ' T II " lull 1-1 I--L. """-LI- ..II.... Ill' #

no astu bhesaiam//

51. The mantra is - rudrasya mutramamrtasya nlbhih/

• «

visanaka nama va asi pitrrnam muladutthita

"■ ■" in ■ # —i--uir ji i i- - i in ..-i i. •i.iii-i >--• # « # 1 ' ' "" “ .......

vatxkrtanafeanl// AV VI.44.3.
1 " • 11 " '

Griffith's English rendering iss “Thou art the stream that

Rudra pours; the closest kin of Amrita. Thy name is called

Vishanaka s £hou sprangest from the father's root,

removing illness caused by w£nd.“

Hymns of the Atharvaveda p.268. * «

 75

In this hymn reference is made to the remedy

of Rudra. Sayana explains that the remedy m the first verse is

used against (vranaroga) abscess and he explains the arrow

as the arrow of Mahadeva used at the time of tnpurasaifihati.

In the second verse the jalasa, which is a formidable remedy

is prayed to be sprinkled and Rudra is invoked to be

gracious with that jalasa and lastly all the remedies are

supplicated to belong to the worshippers.

An entire hymn (AV VI.90) is dedicated for

safety from Rudra*s arrow which is used by kau.su (31.7)

in a healing rite against sharp pain feula. This is reckoned

to raudra qana. Sayana understands the disease inflicted is

• •

the fularoqa. In this hymn Rudra is the feularooabhimanideva/

or the presiding deity of the disease called £ula. Thus here

he causes fatal disease. The shaft of Rudra has shot forth

against the members and the heart of the deasesed person.

That shaft is removed from the affected person by this

hymn. Rudra is prayed not to unite the invokers with fever

or the takman, nor with poison, nor with fire of heaven.

Thus the physician character of Rudra which

is depicted in RV and YV appears to become more lively in AV.

 76

8. Benign character of Rudra in AV

The benign character of Rudra is also to be

met in AV. Rudra is invoked for good intellect along with

Agni, Indra, Mitravaruna, A&vins, Bhaga, Pusan, Brahmanaspati

• • t

and Soma at the morning. In AV III.22.2 Rudra along with

Indra, Mitra and Varuna is invoked for conferring splendour.

Rudra along with Indra, Visnu, Savitr and Agni is invoked

• • •

to bind the charm on the yajamana for armour.

Homage is paid unto Bhava and Sarva, m whichever

direction they remain. Homage is also paid to Rudra who is

approaching and departing from the invokers, who is standing

still and also when seated and at rest. The seer is earnesty

paying homage to Bhava and to Sarva, in the evening, in the

52
morning and by day and night.

In the nineteenth kanda, Rudra is invoked along

with the Rudras for the well being of the invokers.

But as. compared to.-these the formidable and

dreadful character of Rudra receives much prominence in AV.

 77

9. New Traits in his character in AV

The significant feature of Rudra in AV is the

enumeration of new trends which are introduced in his

personality here for the first time.

Reverence is paid here to the elavakaras. The

Pramathas here are termed as elavakarah or those who are

of instigating activities. The other hosrs of Rudra are the

asamsuktagilah/ Sayana interprets this term as samyak suktam

• •

sobhanam bhasitam samsuktam/ tadviparitam asamsuktam

asamicinam asobhana vacanam qrnanti bhasante iti

asamsuktagilah/ Thus it refers to those who speak in

auspicious words or (yadva tadrq bhasanam yatha bhavati

tatha giranti bhaksayanti iti), who swallow unhymned or eat

the food not prescribed in &astras and those which are of

biq mouth. Whitney interprets these three words (elavakarebhyah,

~ 1 “•

asamsuktagilebhyah and mahasyebhyah) as the adjectives of

• •
the dogs."^

53. Thuh he gives the translation as "To Rudra*s howl-making,

unhymned - swallowing, great - mouthed dogs I have paid
this homage." Atharva-Veda-Samhita, p.625.
 78

Rudra is followed by some loud - shouting

hosts and homaqe is paid to them (qhosinibhyah)

• • •
'mmm
and to the

lonq haired followers of Rudra (keSinibhyah), The armies

of Rudra are also mentioned here.

The eighteenth kanda contains the funeral verses

• •

and the AV XVIII.1.40 contains all the later traits of

Rudra £iva cult. As in RV (II.33.11) Rudra is depicted here

as qartasada or the famous sitter in the hearts of the invokers.

Another meaning of this word is one who resides in the

— 54
femafeanas or crimatoriumV He is also prayed ro be gracious

to the singer.

Rudra also maintains here his character of

bestowing food AV XIX.55.5. as m RV. He is sabhyah or

...... « rn imAvm #

belonging to the assembly as in the YV and prayed to protect

the invoker's assembly and to them who are in the assembly.

In AV XI.2, the large variety of names which are

customary with Rudra are met with as Rudra, Bhava, Sarva,

Pa^upati, Ugra and the partial reference to the name I&ana is

made (AV XI.2.27). These words are at times proper names and

at times seem.to be epithets. Connected lists of these names

54. &ma£anasancavo * pi garta ucyate (Nir III.5) iti

niruktokterqartah savadahapradefeah/ Sayana on AV XVIII.1.40.

 79

55
are found frequently in the vedic and later vedic works.

In the eleventh kanda, Bhava and &arva are prayed so that

the dog, the jackle, the vultures etc. may not eat the dead

body and the flies and the birds may not find the dead - bodies

at food.

Thus the above analysis shows that the Atharvanic

Rudra contains many features which are of importance in the

career of Rudra-Siva ih the post-vedic age.

55. AV,XV.5.

VS,XXXIX.8; 9.

KB,VI.2ff.

£B,VI.1.3; 10-17.

&SS,IV.18.5.

Kau. Su 51.8.

PGS,III.8.6.

AGS,IV.8.19.

HGS,II.8.6.7.

Markandeya Purana, 52.2ff.

 80

10. Rudra in AV as associated with Allied Cults

i) Introduction

A special characteristic in the personality of

Rudra is that he is most closely connected with a number of

tribes of vedic age. This feature is to be marked in all the

vedic texts as in RV with the munis# in the YV, he is

identified with nisadas, punjisthas and krivi, in the AV

with vratyas, Brahmacari etc. The nature and the mode of the

connection form an interesting study pertaining to Rudra which

explains the influence of allied cults in the personality of

Rudra-Siva.

ii) Rudra : Vratya and Ekavratya

The fifteenth kanda of AV is completely

• •

dedicated to the description of vratyas; which has much

similarity with that of the Pancaviifi&a Brahmana.

Whitney.enumerates the different authorities on the meaning

of the word vratya and states “ The word vratya is defined

by BR. as ‘belonging to a roving band (vrata), vagrant;

member of a fellowship that stood without the Brahmanical pale.’

 81

It is further applied to the son of an uninitiated men

(Baudhayana, i.(8)l6; cf.Kanu, X.2C5), or also to one who

has let the proper time for the sacrament of initiation slip

by (Manu, ii.39). And the MBh., at V.35.46 = 1227, classes the

vratya with the off-scourings of society, such as incendiaries,

poisoners, pimps, adulterers, abortionists, drunkards, and so

on. In the St. Petersberg Lexicon, vi.1503, BR. express

the opinion that the praise of the vratya in this book is an

idealization of the pious vagrant or wandering religious

56
mendicant."

The Anukr. of AV determines adhyatmam as the deity

of fifteenth kanda. of AV. Ihe Culika Upn. declares vratya as

one among the many forms of Brahman mentioned m AV. Sayana

in his introduction to the 15th kanda of AV gives an exalted

nTin •*"" . '

explanation of vratyas. According to him the vrauyas of the

fifteenth kanda of AV are not devoid of religious sacraments.

.....'• • T” *irr

In order to refute the general hatred about vratyas m uhe

public opinion, the eulogisations of high order as assigning

56. W.D. Whitney, Atharvaveda SaiTihita, p.769.

 82

a hightened position to vratyas are made in the fifteenth

kanda.^

Rudra's relaxion with the depiction of vratyas

of the fifteenth kanda of AV may be discussed as follows s~

Ekavratya: ££L ^*
*5.1 is regarded as raudra gana by Sayana

as reckoned in Kaufe Su 50.13. In AV . Rudra is more akin

to Ekavratya, the chief of the vratyas. The Ekavratya or

vratya par excellence is declared in AV. XV. as the great god

or Mahadeva which is a characteristic appelation, exclusively

of Rudra Siva. As Rudra he is also conceived as iSana. Ekavratya

57. Thus Sayana states : atra kande vratyamahima prapa'ncyate/

• "" "" ■ " • •rn ' ""r"" ■■--1111-r-r- I ILI- - r-r-1-

vratyonama upanayanadi saifiskarahinah purusah,

so'rthad vedavihita yajnadikriyah kartum na'dhikarl,
na sa vyavaharayogyafeca, ityadi janamatamanadrtya
vratyo1dhikari, vratyo mahanubhavo, vratyo devapriyo,
vratyo brahmanaksatriyorvarcaso mulam/ kiift -vahuna,
__ — •”1 ' " ' "“^2" .......... " ...' ... .. r 11

vratyo devadhideva eveti pratipadyate, yatra vratyo

qacchati visvam jaqat viSve ca devastatra
tamanuqacchanti, tasmin sthite tisthanti, tasminscalati
' ' " ' "" " ” ' 11 ' • •L ' "" ,r^r .... Ul''" ' ' ' 1

te calanti.vada sa qacchati rajavat qacchati/ ma

punaretat sarvavratya param pratipadanam, apitu kaificit
vidvadtamam mahadhikaram punyafeilain visvasammanyaJi
karmaparairbrahmanairvidist^aifi vratyam anulaksya
vacanamiti mantavyam/
 83

also holds a bow, his belly is blue and back is red. This

Ekavratya moves towards all the quarters and pervades all the

gods. It appears from the mystic ideas about the origin and his

peculiar associations that this Ekavratya in the golden form,

- 58
originets from Prajapati. and this mystic creation becomes

supreme, powerful and pervades every quarter and deity. It can be

reminded that the origin of Rudra from Prajapati in the form

of a child is a much discussed fact in the Brahmana literature.

This vratya ascends a seat (asandl) after being stood erect for

one year. The Summer, Spring, Autumn and the Rains form the

four feet of that asandl. The rcas form the forward cords
• 1
(bantu ) and the sacrificial formula (yajus) the cross ones. The

veda formed the astarsna or cushion ana brahman the pillow

(upavarhana). The Saman formed the seat and the udgitha the

support. This appears to signify that the Ekavratya presides

over time and the veda.

This Ekavratya is closely associated with the

different names of Rudra which is clear from rhe description

that the archer Bhava is made his attendant from the eastern

quarter. One who knows this neither Sarva, nor Bhava nor

"i&ana injures him nor his cattle nor his fellows. The archer

58. AV,X7.1.2 - sa prajapatih suvarna matmannapafeyat tat

P.rajanayaty
 84

^arva is the attendant from the intermediate region of the

southern quarter. The archer Pa&upati was made his guardian

frpm the intermediate direction of the western quarter. From

the intermediate direction of the northern quarter, the archer

IJgra becomes his attendant. The archer Rudra became his

attendant from the intermediate direction of the fixed quarter.

Mahadeva (the Great God) was made his attendant from the

intermediate direction of the upward quarter and I Sana was

made has attendant from all intermediate directions. One who

knows this, these deities never injure him or his cattle or

fellow men. These names are very much the same as conferred

upon the newly born child of Prajapati and Usas. From this

depiction it appears that the gods of different names which

are associated with Rudra are mystically made followers of

Ekavratya. Though the reason of this depiction can not be

discerned still it becomes evident that there was certainly

a close relation between Vratya concept and mythology associated

with Rudra.

Then that Ekavratya moved towards different

directions as towards the fixed quarter, upward quarter, the

highest quarter, the great quarter, the most distant quarter,

towards an unindicated quarter, towards an unreturned quarter,

towards all the intermediate directions and with him moved out
 85

both the earth and fire and herbs and forest trees and they

which belong to forest trees and plants, the right and truth,

the Sun and moon and asterisms, the rivers and the chants

and sacrificial formula and the Brahman, itihasa and purana

r~Tni 1 a _r .. 1 •

and the qathas and the narasamsis (eulogies), the fire of

offering and the householder's fire and the southern fire,

the sacrifice and the sacrificer and the cattle, the seasons

and they which belong to the reasons, the worlds and they

which belong to the worlds, the months and the half months,

the day and night, both Diti and Aditi and Ida and Inaranl,
• •

Viraj and all the gods and all the deities, Prajapati and the

most exalted one and the father and the grandfather

(paramesthin) . Thus he became followed by all these. The all

1 . . • • '*

pervading character of Ekavratya is testified by the above

descriptions.

Rudra is called Vratapati (VS XVI.25; TS IV.5.4.1).

Rudra-Mahadeva is described as the chief of the ganas or

vinayakas or of the kuluficas and taskaras and thus became

closely similar to the Mahadeva of the Vratyas. The Vratya-Chief

has a silver niska and he is the possessor of kalmali. Rudra

is also depicted as kalmalikin and Rudra is the only deity as

having niska and he is extolled as chiefly associated with the

bow and arrow. The commentators give the meaning of kalmali

 86

as Sun or radiance. In RV Rudra is prayed as associated with

59
all these objects. The above similarities suggest

the under current of close affinity between Rudra and Ekavratya.

Associating vratyas with the worship of Rudra-5iva,

S.A. Dange states, “The importance given and reverence shown

to the vratya in the vedic texts indicate that they were a

cult among the Aryan clan; and followed slightly different

practices. They were hence on the outer verge of the set Aryan

society that practised slightly different sacrificial rituals;

and in all probability, followed the Rudra-Siva cult." Another

point of similarity may be discerned on the basis of the word

nllalohita applied to both Ekavratya and Rudra.

The red and black colour in the bow of vratya

corresponds to the epithet idllalohita ascribed to Rudra. It is

not clear whether the vratyas were fire worshippers or not.

The red black attire of vratya may suggest the fire. The AV

further states that “with black (nilena) one vanquishes the

59. RV,II.33.8, namasya kalmalikinaiTi namobhih grnimasi, tvesam

• • • 1BJ'r "_ _1 "r • ' 1
rudrasva nama;

RV,V.10. arhan
• —'1
rimi-i
vibharsi sayakani dhanva arhan nxskaifi
■■ -T n L . ■ 1
. Ill # 1 • "

yajatam vifevarupam/

60. S.A. Dange, Cultural sources from the Veda, Bharatiya

Vidya Series; 35, 1977, Bombay, p.32.

61. AV,XV.1.8.
 87

disliked enemy, with red (lohita) he smites the hating enemy;

so say the Brahmavadins." The nilalohita garmant was also

used during the marriage in vedic period to ward off the

_ f\0 __
krtya (RV X.85.28). So the word nilalohita is mystically
« • 11 1 ' 1
associated with the evil aspects.

From the statements of the Pa'ncavimsa Brahmana

and from the opinion of Sayana, Vratyas appear to be some how

different from the Vedic sacrificial worshippers but their

position was not looked down. Though they were not adhering

to the Vedic sacrificial rituals still they were devapriya.

dear to the gods and the Ekavratya was devadhideva lord of

deities. They were following a different path. Such

characteristics are often attributed to Rudra, who is said to

be away from vedic sacrifice even though he is accepted as the

god of gods. Thus a line of equation can __ be drawn between

*

both of them.

iii) Rudra and Muni

The austere cult of muni has much relation with

Rudra. Again munis are found to be connected with the ke§in.

62. RV,X.85.28; - nil’alohitaift bhavati, krtyafeaktirviiayate/

 88

The mystic way of life of both ke£ins and muni have also

its genesis in vedic references and Rudra's association with

them is not a later development but is very much present in

the Veda itself for RV X.136 hymn is known as ke£i sukta.

• l-in -f ^

This hymn has much similarity with the later traits of

'saivism - though Rudra is mentioned in this hymn only for once.

The mantra which bears the name of Rudra runs as:

vayur asraai upamathat pinasti sma kunannama/

• «

kefel visasya patrena yad Rudrenapivat saha//

' 1 11 1 1 11 * • •

Vayu agitated him? the long-haired (being) breaks down the

things which are underting, by means of the vessel of water

, \ 63
(visa) which he drank alonq with Rudra.
•
The first mantra ,«i n«-w

of this hymn is explained in Nir X.26. Roth while explaining

the subject of the hymn states “The hymn shows the conception

that by a life of sanctity (mauneya, verse 3) the muni can

attain to the fellowship of the deities of the air,

the viyus, the Rudras, the Apsaras and the Gandharvas; and

furnished like them with wonderful power, can travel along with
64
them on their course.*1

The muni who is the kesi is the long-haired one.

During the time of his austerities he does not shave his hair,

63. OST,Vol.IV, p.318.

64. ibid., p.319.

 89

upholds fire, miosture, heaven and earth and resembles

the world of light. Rudra is the possessor of braided hair as

in RV, he is the kanardin and in YV he is depicted as harikefca.

The later saiva cult contains these ideas largely. Another

mantra (RV VII.56.8) may be cited here which celebrates the

unusual power of muni where it is said of the Maruts : feubhro

vah Susmah krdhmi manaiftsi dhunirmuniriva Sardhasya dhrsnoh/.

The Maruts while traversing the airial region produce some sounds

like the intonation of the invokers or munis. Savana explains

the word muni as mananad munih stota - or the word muni is

•

derived from the root man which means one who praises. The

purport of the hymn RV X.136 has it's origin in this idea.

It is significant to state here that the word

’muni1 does not essentially indicate a class of people who

adhere to austerity and meditation for the realisation of the

supreme entity as distinguished from vedic ritualistic path.

The BDU states that "The Brahmanas try to know the Brahman
through vedic studies, through sacrifice, through alms giving

(charity), through austerities, through fasting; he who has

known it becomes a muni. Here sacrifice is also included as a

means for realising Brahman and one who realises this is known
 90

65
as muni." So the ideas associated with the muni are not

strange to the vedic culture.

Indra is described as the friend of munis in RV

VIII.17.44. Roth explains the muni of RV X.136, as one who is

driven by an inward impulse, a person inspired or in a state

of ecstacy. His explanation agrees with the RV X.136.2;4 as

devesito munih (the god impelled muni) . It is also described

»Ti«T- ^ iii-i i. - - «

in the AB VI.33, Ahyagni, the son of muni Aita&a regards him

as mad. By the reference of RV X.136 the identification

between ke£m and muni can be determined.

In RV X.136.7, it is described that Rudra drinks

in a vessel visa with ke£i or the long haired muni and the word
u Tr • ."" ..
visa is generally explained as water, fluid etc. in comparison

to the first verse of the same hymn. But the word visa has
mmm •
another meaning of poison. Rudra*s association with poison is a

much popular legend in post-vedic literature where Rudra drinks

the poison during the churning of the ocean in order to protect

the universe. So he is known as Nilakantha, Garagira etc.

m m

This presupposes the identity of Rudra-oiva and his relation

with the muni cult in the vedic texts.

65. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 4th Brahmana,22 quoted by Paul Deussen,

Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.499.

»
 91

Moreover in AV, the kesins are made the followers

of Rudra. Homage is paid to the long haired followers of

Rudra - AV XI.2.31. In AV XI.2.18, Rudra is praised as

crushing the chariot of ke£ins (ke£xnah ratham padayantam).

Sayana refers to ke&in as the name of a Asura or demon.

Whintney translates this as making to fall the chariot of the

hairy one (ke£in). In RV 1.164.44 Agni, Vayu and Surya# these

three deities are meant by ke£xn. Two views are maintained

about kefein on the basis of this mantra as “possibly the

66
chariot of the Sun is the object of Rudra*s attack*1.

However Eloomfield accepts Rudra and ke&in as separate from

each other when he states “possibly the chariot of the Sun

67
is the object of Rudra*s attack11. But on the other hand

Bloomfield identifies Rudra with ke&m as he states/ “The

entire stanza may# however# be taken differently:'The crushing

chariot of the long-haired (ke&in# i.e. Rudra)... we approach

first'*'.68

The above discussion shows Rudra*s relation with

muni and ke§in on the basis of similar epithets, deeds# etc.

66. W.D. Whitney on AV#XI.2.18.

67. M.Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharvaveda, SBE# Vol.XLII# p.621.

68. ibid.
 92

This relation cannot be said simply to be influenced by

non-Aryan impact as the vedic evidences behind this

affinity cannot be denied.

iv) Rudra and Krivi

68
Rudra has a peculiar name as Krivi. The meaning

of this word is not certain. Sukumari Bhattacharji explains

Krivi as a leather-bag, the name is directly associated with

storm, cloud, lightning and rain as is amply clear from

VS XVI.38.39, yesam vata isavah VS XVI.65; raudra nabhorupa

• ' ' "" 111 1 1 • • " "n"

parj anyah/ 24.3.69

In RV 11.17.6 Krivi appears to be the name of a

•

demon as Indra chosed Krivi with his thunderbolt and made him

sleep on the ground.

Krivi is also the name of a less prominent tribe

referred in RV and there is indication that they lived between

the Sindhu and Asikni(Cenab). In RV VIII.20.24, the reference

•

68. VS,X.20 - rudra yatte krivi Param nama/

69. So Bhattacharji, “Rudra from the Vedas to the Mahabharata11,
ABORi/Vdl.Xtl, 1960,__paftS uIr JV7 pp. 85-127 i ' ~
r Xi_ . *
 93

is made to the Krivi king. 6b XIII.5.4.7 states that

krivaya iti ha pura pancalan acaksate/ On the basis of

these references S.A. Dange opines that "There is clear

indication that Krivi was the former name of Pafrcalas".

Zimmex is of the opinion that the Krivis and the Kurus formed

the later known Vaikarnas (Altmdische Leben, p.103). The

Vaikarnas have fought against king Sudasa Bharata(RV VII.18.11

• •

vaikarnayoh janan raja(sudas) nyastah); and in Mbh

-II ■ m. * * "r 1 (Bhisma
# . —... - • ——

51.15) they are described as a formidable tribe, who helped

the Kuru king Duryodhana. S.A. Dange further says "If the

Vikarnas or the Vaikarnas are the same as the people staying

• «

m Vaikereta of the Avesta, it is clear that it was a very

ancient tribe, which, later, got merged in the Kuru-PaSicalas.

Darmesteter (Vendidad, SEE) identifies the Vaikereta region

as Kabul# and it is also said to be a part of Kashmir

71
(St. Petersberg Diet)".

Now on the basis of above discussion it may be

said that the special region of Rudra is the north quarter

and Rudra is often prayed to go to the Mujavat hill which is

70. S.A. Dange, Cultural Sources from the Veda, p.27.

71. ibid.
 94

also said to be in the northern region. Thus it appears

that one tribe of northern region known as krivis have

worshipped Rudra and Rudra received the name Krivi on this

basis.

v) Rudra; Siboi

Some tribes mentioned m connection with the great

event of the "war-of-Ten-Kings". They are the Paktha, Bhalana,

Alina, Visamn and the Sivas. Sivas are the Siboi who were
• •

living between the Indus and the Asikni, called uSinara, in

the northern vicinity of the Kuru-Paficalas. The name Siva

72
occurs as the name of a tribe in RV VII.18.7.

These Sivas as a tribe belonging to the northern

region also appear to have received such name due to their

worship to Rudra-Siva. As the devotees of Rudra-Siva, these

people might have received such name.

72. a pakthaso bhalanaso bhanantalinaso visaninah Sivasah/

a ye*nayatsadhama aryasya gavya trtsubhyo ajaganyudha//

 95

vi) Rudra: Balhlka

It is interesting to note that in £b, Bhava

is stated as to be the goa of Bahlikas. Again in AV V.22.5,

the Balhikas are mentioned and the fever (takman) is intended

to go towards them. S.A. Dange identities them as a northern

73 -
tribe near 'Mujavat. . ~ They were most probably non-Aryan

tribes as the fever is directed towards them. Thus Rudra

in one of his aspect (Bhava) is connected with tribe like

Bahlika.

vii) Rudra: Nisadas

The association of Rudra with nisada can be viewed

"nnr •" 1

m three ways. He can be said to be the Lord of nisada tribes,

the lord to whom nisadas

' " •' ' “ V
worship or he is the » ll-M
nisada
T # . “'ll I”-
himself.

In the VS reverence is paid to nisadas as "Bow to puftjisthas

rnrn^mm u- "* " ’ • ■■■ ' 11 • •

(fishermen), bow to the nisadas"(TS IV.5.4.2; VS XVI.17).

Prom the evidences of later literature, they appear to be

non-Aryan tribes. The Mbh Adi 28.1 refers to them as living in

the vicinity of the Sarasvati, where the river vanishes into the

73. S.A. Dange, Cultural Sources from the Veda, p.35.

 96

desert (vana, 130.3,4 "Due to whose sins the Sarasvatl

entered the earth thinking may not the Nisadas see me").

But on the other hand they are found to be included in the

Aryan fold and were closely associated with Rudra. Raudra

isti (a ritual to appease Rudra) was prescribed to be

• •
_ 74
performed by the nisadas. Aupamanyava also enumerates
- • 75
the nisadas under the panea_janas of RV. S.A. Dange is of

the opinion that "lhe term is applied to all non-Aryans, and

their special reference is in connection with fishing, as is

indicated by the reference from the VS above. Aryans not only

settled among the Nisadas, but even married their women

(Suparnadhyaya, X.18.5; dvijastu sanisadakah sa sutah). The

ritual at the Vifevajit sacrifice required a temporary stay

— 76
among the Nisadas".

viii) Rudra and &isnadevas

The 6i&na-devah are never described as clashing

with the Aryans. Only ritualistic difference is found. They

occur only in VII mandala and X mandala. S.A. Dange opines

74. Purvamlmamsa-Sutra, VI.1.25 sthapatirnisadah feabdasamarthyat?

• •

and etaya (rudrestaya nisada-sthapatiife yajayet).

" • • •

75. Nir,III.7 - catvaro yarnah/ nisadah paficamah/ quoted by Yaska.

76. S.A. Dange, Cultural Sources from the Veda, p.34.

 97

that “Had there been any tribal difference, their ruin

77
or defeat might have been referred to. Nowhere it is donel"

But RV VII.21.5 states that “May not the magic-crafts

«

(yatavah) torture us, 0 Indra, nor the evil powers; ....

may not the Sisna-devas come to (or cling to) our rite", and

also RV X.99.3 states that Indra surpassed the Sisna-devas

with his vargas. S.A. Dange further opines that India only

defeats them but does not use his mighty weapon, the bolt

to kill them. “The absence of a tumultous fight in such cases

indicates in all probability, an internal strife of ritual-

78
behaviour rather than an inter-tribal conflict*'. Moreover

these &isnadevas do not conclusively refer to the 'phallus'

worshippers as in RV I.105.8 and X.33.3 this word is used in a

different sense upon which Yaska says “asantani sutrani" or

“coated cords"(Nir IV.6). The unclean things may be the

meaning of this word. Yaska renders this word si&nadevah

a

as abrahmacarvah (Nir IV.19) and thus it means the "non-

practicers of brahman" or the rituals. Nir 1.8; XII.34 also

give the meaning of Brahmani as the rituals or karmani.

1 ri " " "" * 1

77. S.A. Dange, Cultural Sources from the Veda, p.30.

78. ibid.
 98

Thus it is not sound to explain feisnadevah

-1 -■ TUI > L "r #

as the phallus worshippers and they are the worshippers

of Rudra-6iva by whose influence the Linga worship of

Rudra-£iva became prevalent. One has to search the genesis

of Linga worship somewhere else as inherent m vedic culture

and subsequently evalved out of it. This necessiates to

discuss on the Skambha and Brahmacari sukta of AV.

ix) Rudra and Brahmacari

Special attention must be laid on the Brahmacari

hymn of AV XI.5. The Brahmacari has been enumerated as a form

of Brahman in the Qulika Upn. Some scholars specially Whitney

79
regards this hymn as extolling the vedic student (brahmacarin)

Deussen entitles the hymn "The Brahman-pupil as incarnation

80
of Brahma*1. But the context of the hymn at times appears

mysterious and a few of the characteristic features of the

Brahmacarin are found to be against this theory. The hymn as

referring to the concept of Brahman also cannot be entirely

understood. From the depiction of the nature and the features

79. Whitney, Atharvaveda Samhita, p.636.

80. ibid.
 99

of Brahmacann, the existence of a separate cult may be

assumed. The Brahmacari leads the life of rigorous discipline

•which is suggested by the words like bhiksa, gharma, tapas,

11 1
ferama, etc.

Some points of striking relationship between

Brahmacari and Rudra are cleanly traceable as follows:

a) -'Brahmacari specially possesses the fervour, which

is a characteristic feature of &aiva cult of later period.

Like the ke£in of RV, he maintains earth and heaven (sa dadhara

prthivim divam ca AV XI.5.1). He is associated with Gandharvas

• n - ■ n .... ii mmmrnm

as they went after him (AV XI.5.2 gandharva enamanvayan). The

Brahmacari, clothing himself with heat (gharma), stood up

with fervour (qharmam

"rn* 1." ~1
vasanah
■ 1 •
tapasa udatisthat
* *'
AV XI.5.5).
«<—-■

He is long beared and goes to the northern ocean (sa sadya

eti purvasmaduttaram samudram lokansamgrbhya

«
muhuracarikrat/)

AV XI.5.6.

The most obscure mantra is:

abhikrandan stanayann arunah sitingo brhaccheponu

bhumau jabhara/
brahmacari sincati yonau retah prthivyam tena jivanti
pradi£a£catasrah//

AV XI.5.12.
 100

Whitney renders the mantra as "Roaring on, thundering,

the ruddy white-goer has introduced m the earth a great;

virile member; the vedic student pours seed upon the

surface (sanu), on the earth; by that live the four directions".

In order to give an integrated interpretation as

relating to brahmacari or a celebate student Sayana introduces

82
Varuna in the first part of the mantra.
• 111 1 1 1
But here this contention may be adduced that

the reflection of linga worship which is so closely

associated with Rudra-Siva cult has to be met with.

Rudra-^iva is the great ascetic, at the same time he is

the creator of this cosmic world. The words like

abhikrandan and stanayan refer to the tormentation or

expression of great power which is procured by high celebacy.

The power of celcbacy, austere fervour are the essential

prerequisites for any noble creation. This idea is repeatedly

found in the Upanisadic literature, where Prajapati performs

81. W.D. Whitney, The Atharvaveda Samhita, p.638.

82. Sayana on AV,XI.5.12 - abhikrandan abhitah§abdam kurvan/

• •

etadeva vivriyate - stanayan meqhesu stanitaft qanitam

kurvan feyatingah feyetavarnam jalapurnam meqham
• • •

praptah evambhuto varunah brhat prabhutam £epah

• *■■■« -• ' T ' ' - " - - I '■■■ “T “ '* *

atmiyarfi prajananaifi bhumau prthivyam anu jabhara

jahara, etc.
 101

austere fervour when he desires to create. Again the word

Sitingo can only refer to Rudra but not to Varana as Rudra

m

in RV is described as svitic or one whose lusture is white.

The same idea is depicted by the word £itingo, whose literal

meaning is one whose limbs are of white lusture. The creative

power of the great celebate is extolled here. All the animals

as parthivah, divyah, aranyah, gramyah, apaksah and paksinah

* • • • • • • • ,l,“ •*** •
are depicted as Brahmacarl.

The Brahmacarl is described as performing the

penance upon the surface of the waters. He is anifeaift snatah,

which may be compared to constant pouring of waters on the

divine Linga, which represents the Rudra-Siva.

The Brahmacarl cult and muni cult are related

to Rudra. The vratya cult is also related to Rudra. "Siva's

phallus is like the great monotheistic phalli of ancient times,

supposed to have influenced over the fall of rain and the

83
fertility of the fields." Many legends are centred round Siva

depicting his relation with the fertility aspect.

Incidentally it may be stated here that a legend

in this context is associated with the Ka&I Vifevanatha. In

1494 A.O., Sikandar Lodi completely destroyed this temple,

banning further reconstruction of the temple. During the

83. J. Gonda, Selected studies, Volume IV, p.102

 102

following seventy years, Benarus had virtually no temple,

no Visvesvara. Uprecedented draught and epidemic afflicted

the people. Even the Muslim residents were said to have

approached the wise and learned Narayanabhatta for divine

• • •

help. Narayana Bhatta apprised the Muslim ruler that the

trouble had asisen due to the absence of Vifeve&vara. The Muslim

ruler lifted the ban on the condition that Narayanabhatta would

• • •

cause rainfall within a specified period. The miracle happened

and the shrine was rebuilt in 1569 a.D.

Rudra and Agni are identified on many

occasions. The fire in the sacrificial altar needs the pouring

of clarified butter. When the incessant offering of ghee is

made, the flame of fire stands erect on the surface of the

altar. This sacred act brings rain water and subsequently all

sorts of blessings to the living world. In sacrificial texts,

the alter is addressed many a time as the basis of fire.

Can this be connected with the evolution of Linga worship?

The flame of fire in the sacrificial altar

might have been conceived in a mystic way as the sustainer and

procreator of everything. Sacrifice is the cosmic device of

creation, so the altar and the kindled fire have symbolically

contributed to the emergence of the idea of Liflga. In RV Agni

is called urdhva-socis or upward flaming (RV VI.15.2).

 103

The sacrificial altar is conceived as the yoni

or origin place of Agni as;

agne tvam purisyo rayiman pustiman asi/

• •

Sivah krtva difah sarvah svam yonimihasadah//

~ " •l“—* • 1 “r 111 T —n —r- - Mwm • ■' ' 1 .r- . ■ ■ ii i. —. in i« r ^

84
VS XII.59.

The sprinkling of ghee upon the fire resembles the abhiseka

of Siva linga with waters..

Sivapuranam states that the term liftga originally

meant the form of the Lord Almighty conveived by the thoughtful

devotees. This form again was divided into two kinds, i.e; one

as the soul in a living body and the other as the endless body

of the entire universe. The former was conceived as the tiniest

and the latter as the crude form of the Lord.

limgam tu dvividham proktam bahva mabhyantaram dvilah/

bahyam s&ialam samuddistam suksmamabhyaifitaraife matam//

^Sivapuranam, Rudrasamhita sratikhanda, Chap.12, Verse 51^

Linga signifies the eternal power of crdation. The Liflqa Furana

99.8. states:

layam qacchanti bhutani samhare nikhilarfi yatah/

srstikale punah srstistasmalliflgamudahrtam//

84. Some other references VS,XII.61; XIII.2; 38;XVII.<B;

and XII.16; 17.
 104

In the 1sauptikaparvan1 of Mbh, where Sanjaya

describes that being invoked by Asvatthama, £iva appeared

before him as a huge galden altar, with flames of fire

emanating out of it:

iti tasva wavasitam jnatva yogat sukarmanah/

• •

purastat kancani vedi praduraslnmahatmanah//

tasyam vedyam tada ra.iam fecitrabhanurajayata/

sa difeo vidi£ah svam ca pvalabhirivopurnayan//

Mbh "Sauptikaparvan", VII,13.14.

As it was very difficult for an ordinary devotee

to meditate upon any one of the above forms because of their

inconceivable shape, the idea of making some symbol of the

said forms gradually arose in the minds of the thoughtful

devotees.

x) Rudra; Skambha

The Linqa form of Lord Rudra-£iva is also

supplied in the vedic text which is evident irv the skambha

hymns of AV (X.7; 8). The supreme entity is celebrated under

the applation skambha in these two hymns. Skambha means prop,

support, pillar, the fulcrum of the universe. The word skambha

and stambha are synonymous with a little phonetie dissimilarity.

 105

In these hymns Skambha stands for the pillar of the cosmos

which “is sufficiently magnificent to serve as the basis for

85
a metaphysical concept.14 Here in the Skambha hymns, the

poet philosopher winds up all the possible phenomena along

with the concepts in one roll which he terms as Skambha. Thus

the pillar shape of supreme entity must have credited much

to the emergence of Linga cult.

xi) Rudra and Ucchista

• •

AV XI.7 is the hymn which extolls the remnant

(ucchista) of the offering. Deussen does not consider the

1 _T"~~ * • —

ucchista as the remnant of sacrifice, rather 'residuum in

. • • —*
general*. These imo ideas may be correct on the ground that

the remnant of the sacrifice is here exalted as the 'residue

in general'.

85. E.A. Solemon, "Skambha - hymns of the Atharva-Veda"

(X.7; 8), JOIB,Vol.lX, March 1960rNo.3, p.233.

 106

86
The remnant of the sacrifice is offered to Rudra

and thus Rudra is the lord who possesses the glories of the

Ucchista. Verse six of ucchista hymn gives the idea that

•• "1 ••
within the remnant are contained all the members of the

sacrifice, like an embryo within a mother. Thus Rudra is the

lord who receives the entire sacrifice by accepting the remnants.

The ucchista waters m the Raiasuya abhiseka are offered to

" _1 ' '• •""* -— ------- -—— “1r-ri ”

Rudra. (TB 1.7.8.5).

On the basis of above references the ucchista hymn

• •

of AV (XI.7) may be associated with Rudra. This hymn is

philosophical in nature. AV extols the Brahman in the esoteric

teachings of the mantras with a series of designations which

are mentioned in Culika Upanisad (10-13) where Brahmacarin

(AVXI.5), Vratya (AV XV), Skambha (AV X.7; 8), Palita

(AV IX.9?10), Anadvin (AV IV.11), Ucchista (AV XI.7), Rohita
11 _ • ————— m # —
(AV XIII.1.2.3), Kala (XIX.53.54), Prina (AVXI.4), £arva,

Bhava, Rudra, livara all these are said to be the designations

of Brahman. It may be said that all these hymns have many things
in common with the ideas associated with Rudra-Siva in vedic

literature. In the sixteenth mantra ucchista is eulogised as

1 1 'r •

I&ana.®^

86. Rudra is told in the TB I.7.8.5 as ucchista£anabhak.

" 1
87. AV,XI.7.16.
pita janiturucchisto'sau pautrah pitamahah/
sa ksiyati vi£vasye£ano vrsa bhumyamatighnyah//
 107

xii) Rudra and Rohita

In the 13th kanda of AV Rudra is identified with

Rohita. It is stated in AVXlii.44 that Rohita is Aryaman,

Varuna, Rudra and Mahadeva. In AVXlii.4.26, Rohita is specifically

extolled as Rudra. In uttering homage he is the sacrificial

vasat. The word Rohita in its other form as lohita is very

popularly associated with the red colour of Rudra suggested by

the epithets like babhru.nilalohita, etc.

Rudra*s connection with these allied cults and

concepts suggest the association of different elements in the

complex character of Rudra.

D. THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN THE BRAHMA.NAS

1. Introduction

The Brahmanas form the chief source of information

regarding one of the most important periods in the social and

mental evolution of the vedic culture. They represent the

intellectual activity of a sacerdotal caste, where the

primitive worship of the powers of nature was transformed into

a highly artificial system of sacrificial ceremonies. The

 108

Brahmana literature bears the clear proof of the great

importance of Rudra. An analysis of the personality of Rudra

in the Brahmana literature throws much light on the evolution

of the character of Rudra. The analysis will be made on the

basis of Aitareya, Kausitaki, Taittiriya, £atapatha and 4

Gopatha Brahmana.

2. The Origin of Rudra

The origin of Rudra is alluded to in many Brahmanie

texts having certain differences among them even though the

88 89
thread of similarity can easily be marked. The SB, AB and
90
KB have referred to this story, the details of which may be

discussed as follows.

i) In AB

As to the version of AB, Prajapati being passionate

at the sight of his daughter who is identified with sky or

at times with Usas, approached her in the form of a stag, who

88. SB,VI.1.3.7 ff.

89. AB,III.33-38.
 109

bore the form of a female antelope. Being stunned by the

ignoble dead of Prajapati, Gods wishing to punish him

concentrated their wrathful forms in one place, out of which

a deity called Bhutapati is emerged. Gods said him to pierce

Prajapati. He in turn, was rewarded with a boon from the Gods

to be the overlord of cattle (Pasupati) and now pafeupati

pierced Prajapati with a three pointed arrow. Being pierced

Prajapati flew upwards and pasupati followed him. There

Prajapati is called the mrga and Rudra is the mrqavyadha,

the female deer is Rohinl. The out-poured seed of Prajapati

became a pond and mystically called tnanusa, as it was not

spoiled. That pond was surrounded with Agni vaifevanara and the

Maruts blew upon it. When kindled up, the first part of the

seed became yonder Aditya, the second became Bhrgu, the third

became Adityas* The coal became the Ahgirase^; and from the

blazing of the coal which was quenched Brhaspati came into being.

The extinguished coals became black cattle and the reddened

earth became the ruddy cattle. The different form of ashes

became buffalo, the gayal, the antelope, the camel, the

ass and the ruddy animals. Rudra claimed those as mine is this,

mine is what remains (See also TS III. 1.9.5). The gods deprieved

him of a claim by uttering RV (11.33), deliberately excluding

the name of Rudra to avoid the use of the actual name. The
 110

adhvaryu priest should recite RV 1.43.6# as this verse though

addressed to Rudra does not bear the name of Rudra.

ii) Observations

a) Rudra is an agent here in the process of creation

of this world from Prajapati.

b) Although the behaviour of Prajapati towards his

daughter was necessary for the first creation# it's immoral

side cannot . be overruled. Rudra's piercing Prajapati signifies

the prevention of immoral act.

c) These three beings are curiously identified with

the three constalations as mrqa# mrgavyadha and rohinl. As

suggested by E.N. Ghosh, "In the old astronomical works we find

that most of deities in question are the presiding gods of the

-91

various asterisms."

d) The entire process of creation may be accepted as a

sacrifice and Rudra claims the residue of the sacrifice which are

the ashes - which transformed into five types of animals. The

five types of animals are also associated with Rudra in other

vedic texts as in the AV XI.2.9.

91. Ekendranath Ghosh, Studies on Rigvedic Deities# p.83.

 Ill

e) The transformation of the rec^4arth to ruddy cattle,

which are the animals of Rudra reminds one to the practice of

besmearing the body with ashes and earth by &aivites of later

period. The upanisaaic literature gives the cosmic charcter

of ash as being identified with fire, water etc.

iii) In KB

In KB, the story of Rudra's origin is differently

alluded to.Prajapati underwent penance in order to propagate,

out of whom five deities as Agni, Vayu, Aditya, Candramas and

Usas have emerged. These five gods were instructed by Prajapati

to practise fervour. Then Usas appears before them in the form

of the Apsaras by which they became inclined towards her.

Subsequently, they poured out seed, which was collected in a

golden bowl made by Prajapati having the breadth and height

of an arrow. From this emerged the deity of a thousand eyes,

of a thousand feet and with thousand arrows.

He grasped his father, Prajapati, to give him a

name. The first name assigned was Bhava, which represent water.

Then subsequently that being again and again approached him and

received the names as &arva which is fire, Pa&upati, which is

vayu, Ugra which is plants and trees, then Mahadeva, the great

god, which is the sun, the Rudra which is the moon, Ifeana
 113

names are suggestive of the gradual development of Rudra1s

elavation towards supreme lord . This attribution involves

a special prominence in the personality of this deity than others.

v. In £b

In &3, the story is a quite different one. According

to the version of JjB, Prajapati, being intent upon creation,

created respectively the a£ = waters, the foam, the clay, the

sand and sarkara and then the earth. After creating the earch

Prajapati spread it out. It became prthivi. On this earth as

on a foundation, the beings and the lord of beings consecrated

themselves for a year. Ihe lord of beings was the master of

the house and Usas, the dawn was the mistress. The above

created beings are identified with season and the lord of being

is the year. These evolutes as well Prajapati led seed into

Usas. Then a boy (kumara) was born in a year and cried. Being

asked by Prajapati about the cause of his cry, the boy said

that he is not guarded against evil as no name is bestowed to

him. Prajapati first declared him as Rudra. Because he cried#

therefore he is Rudra. As Rudra is Agni, the child becomes

identified with Agni. Thus, here the child who is born to

Prajapati is referred to as Agni and Rudra is his first name.

 114

Then the child cried again and again and the names as Sarva,

Pafeupati, Ugra, Afeani, Bhava, Mahandevah and ifeana are conferred

upon him successively.

vi) Observations

a) This story seems to imbibe the ideas of both the

legends. Here neither Prajapati nor the beings created from him

are singularly responsible for the creation of Rudra but both

the Prajapati and the beings are responsible for the birth of

Rudra.

b) Secondly each of these names successively possess

higher power as it appears from the text that each time the

boy becomes dissatisfied by declaring'surely, I am mightier

than that; give me yet a name!' This is suggestive of Rudra*s

pining for supremacy.

c) Thirdly these names are identified with the different

natural phenomena by curious phonetic resemblance as;

a) Rudra; Agni
k) Sarva; Apah
c) Pafeupati; Plants
d) Ugra; Vayu
e) Afeani; Lightning
f) Bhava; Parjanya
g) Mahandevah: Moon as well as Prajapati
h) Ifeana: Sun
 115

These are the eight forms of Agni and these eight

names are more closely associated with the Rudra-Siva myth in

later literature. But curiously enough, here we do not get the

much popular name Siva. But rather, kumara is the ninth name.

d) Thus here these primarily important aspects of

creation are allegorically said as born from Prajapati in the

form of a son. This idea is further proved by the text of SB

as That boy entered into the forms one after another; for

one never sees him as a mere boy (kumara), but one sees those
92
forms of his, for he assumed those forms one after another.

e) As to another explanation of 6b, the kumara,

entered into fivefold animals as man, horse, bull, sheep and

he-goat. Rudra's association with the five types of animals

has already hinted upon in AV. Moreover, the tnvrt fire and
■"""M ' ' • "*
*■“

the fire having five forms depicted in this context of SB

resembles the three faced and five faced Siva liftga of post vedic

Saiva cult. The story of primary creation is thus depicted

under the allegory of Prajapati-Rudra event.

92. Savana commentary on the text - tatah ca tatprabhrti taifi

• " 1 • • '" 1 1 "
aqnim kumararupaifi na kvacana pafeyanti kintva etanya
etaiivalanadini rupanva apurusavidhani pafeyanti/
 116

3. Supremacy of Rudra

AB III.9.10 depicts that the gods gathered together

their virtue and brilliance (potency). From these originated

Bhutavat (the possessor at creatures) who asked for the

overlordship of the animals and become Pa&umat. In the KS

(XXVs13) in the context of the recitation of Svayamaruta and

Agnimaruta hymns, Rudra is stated to be xhe oldest and best

of the gods. These references show that during the period of

AB and KB. Rudra has already attained the position of a supreme

deity. Rudra's black garment and the north quarter are also

frequently referred to.

The AB (III.33) depicts the incest of Prajapati

and the creation of Bhutapati from the most dread forms of the

gods. The Rqvedic verse is to be ultered or omitted in order

to avoid the mention of his name. This Brahmana also narrates

1" "" " 1 L • """

the account of Nabhanedistha, which depicts Rudra's relation

• •

with cattle, with the black garment and the north quarter

(AB V.14). The KB gives a long list of the distinctive names of

Rudra as Bhava, fiarva, Pafeupati, Ugradeva, Mahandeva, Rudra,

Ifeana and A§ani. The remarks of Aufrecht as quoted by

A.3. Keith is significant in this context. He remarks, "the

 117

period of the Brahmanas was one when the old polytheism was

in a condition of decline and the new faith which presents

itself in Indian religious history as Saivism was gaining

93
ground. Thus the personality of Rudra has a very different

reality from the other deities.

But as we have seen, the two prominent facts, i.e.,

the story of Nabhanedistha and the different names of Rudra

• •

had it's origin in the RV X.61 and most of the names of Rudra

as found in KB were already referred to in AV. This growing

personality of Rudra is not foreign at all but it was hidden

there in the samhita literature. In £b_ as well as m KB, Rudra's

significant character as the frightful aspect of fire receives

more emphasis and becomes crystally clear. Thirdly oblations

were offered to him not out of his benevolent character but

because of his malevolent nature and he is always appeased to be

away from the sacrificial site.

It may be incidentally mentioned here that the north

quarter which is related to Rudra is depicted in AB as uhe home

94
of the correct speech.

93. A.B. Keith, Riqveda Brahmanas, p.26.

94. ibid., p.387.

 118

4. Rudra as Agni

In the TB, the reverence is paid to Rudra, many times,

but almost m each place. Rudra is conceived not different from

Agni rather he is a form of Agni or at times merely Rudra is

an epithet of Aqni. Rudra is the svistakrt fire and the vastavya

" • • '." ' •**“
fire. In TB 111.3.2.5? Rudra is related with Agni as it becomes

evident from the texts etadastu hutam tava svahetyagni

sammarjanyagnau praharate/

5. Rudra as Associated with Cattle

Avoidance of cattle from his sight presupposes his

dreadful character. The cattle are intended to be kept away

from him (TB 1.1.6.6-7) . This may mean his hostile attitude

towards animals. But on the contrary a quite good number of

95
passages depict Rudra's close relation to the animals. The

relative contradiction cannot be concluded with any objective

opinion. The same text (TB II.2.5.2) prescribes cow as the

95. TB, II.2.5.2 - rudraya gamityaha/ raudri vai gauh/

svavaivainam devatava pratiqrhnati/
 119

daksina of Rudra. Similar is the case in SB (V.2.4.13and 3.1.10}

. "• mm~
of offering the yoke-trained cow in Indraturiya sacrifice.

This cow is the appropriate fee as she contains the nature

of all four gods. She is of Agni's nature as her shoulder is

fireburnt. Being a female, she is of the nature of Varuna as

she improperly draws the cart and she is of Rudra's nature

as she is a cow. This is also not all. Rudra‘s relation with

animals is multidimentional. He is lord of the cattle, the

devourer of them and nourishes them. Another reference depicts

Rudra as the slayer of the calf if it drinks the milk from

the cow after the samgava period. Rudra is also the slayer

of animals in TB III.7.2.6;7, which runs as rudro1 sya

pafeunghatukah syat. TB III.11.4.2 states Rudra as the lord

• 1
of the animals (Rudra pafeunarft pate). In TB III.7.8 the

mantras relating to sacrificial animals are uttered where

Rudra is addressed. The relation of Rudra with pafeu is again

97
established by this.
98
The 6b stressing importance on Rudra, as the lord
99
of cow gives an injtonetion that the Adhvaryu makes the horse

96. TB, II.1.1.3.

97. y asmadbhi s a' vafei sthah/ tato no abhayaifi krudhi/ pralabhyah
sarvabhyo mrda/ namorudrayamidhuse iti/ The homa mantra
relating to the resting of the pafeu is next followed as
yasmadbhisanvasadah/ tato nu abhayaifi krudhi/ prajabhyah
sarvabhyo mrda/ namo rudraya mllhuse iti/

98. SB, III.6.2.20; I.7.3.8; V.3.3.7.

99. SB, VI.3.2.7.
 120

walk on by saying - "come delighting into Rudra‘s chieftainship*

* -

beasts belong to Rudra; thus 'come thou, delighting, into the

chieftainship of him who is thy deityi* he thus searches for

him by means of the horse."

Further in the content of shievering, flying or death

of a sacrificial animal three mantras are enjoined where Rudra

is^also addressed as yasmad bhisa vepisthah palayisthah

~• • •1,11""" m • •' ' •

samainasthah/ tato nu abhayam krudhi/ prajabhyah sarvabhyo mrda/

j t . r ii # --n - -i-m. m ur . .i- ——' # 1 ~± '• •

namo rudraya midhuse/

Thus it can be concluded that Rudra is connected with

animals in different dimensions. He is the lord, the protector,

the killer and at the same time associated with them in his

multifarious circumstancial existences. Rudra is the presiding

deity of animals like other deities presiding over different

spheres which is evident from TB III.11.4. Rudra is here the

lord of the animals, as Agni is separately mentioned to be the

lord of the earth, Soma is the lord of creepers, Tvastr is the

• « •

lord of sacred fuel, Visnu is the lord of quarters. Mitra is

• •

the lord of truth, Varuna

•
is the lord of dharma,
" 1
Maruts are
the lord of gana and Indra is the lord of ojas.*00

Thus Rudra is invariably connected with cattle.

Offerings are made to him for the destruction of enemies and

100. aqne prthivipate/ soma virudhaiTipate/ tvastah samidhaift pate/

• V • **“ • mm

mitra satyanam pate/ varuna dharmanampate/ maruto gananam

• • •
pat ay ah/ rudra pafeunaifi pate/ indrauj asampate/
 121

to appease him for the well-being of cattle and offspring.

The SB (III.6.2.20; I.7.3.8; V.3.3.7) depicts Rudra as lord

of cows. According to SB VI.3.2.7, the Adhvaryu makes the

horse walk on by saying - "come, delighting into Rudra* s

chieftainship! - beasts belong to Rudra; thus, come thou,

delighting, into the chieftainship of him who is thy deity!

he thus serches for him by means of the horse.

The identification of Rudra and soma cow is known

from the somakrayana vidhi of Jyotistoma sacrifice, where the

cow is addressed as rudra. Further the soma-cow (the cow

which is given for the purchase of soma) in the context of

purchase of soma-plant is addressed as "May Rudra guide thee

back! for her safety. The explanation to this injunction as

given in this Brahmana is that as Rudra rules over the cows,

1 1 #■“

'101
the cattle do not pass beyond Rudra." Again in TB III.3.2.5,

Rudra is depicted as closely associated with the animals. The

text runs as rudrastanticaro vrsa/ pafeunasmakaifi ma himsl/

etadastu hutam tava svahetyaqni sammarjananyagnau praharati/

esa va etesaifi yonih/ esa pratistha/ svamevaitani yonim/

101. SBE, Vol.26, part II, pp.58-59

 122

Here Rudra is identified with tantiearo vrsa; which

means one roaming neax the cord of cattle or one who is present

in a series of activities# i.e.# tanti karmasaifttana statxa

caratlti.

Amongst these two meanings, the first one appears to

be relevant here as Rudra wonders nereby the cords of the

animals. Rudra is also referred here as the lord of the beings

yo bhutanamadhipatih/ So that he will not injure the animals.

Curiously Agni is connected with Rudra as well as

the recent-burnt-pasture (navadavya). The recent burnt pasture

is cherished by the animals who is again related with Rudra.

In this cycle of relation Rudra# in a form roams by the side

of the rope of animals. This depiction prompts one to connect

him with the animals as well as fire and the pasture. This

relation can be extended further.

A new name of Rudra is to be found in the TB as

krayiparam. Rudra kills by this name. Rudra in TB is also

connected with Yama by the text ; tasmai hutamasi yamestamasltyaha/

yamadevasya mrtyumavayajate/ TB 1.7.8.5.

 123

6. Kudra and the Ardra Constellation

In the astronomical works the deities are the presiding

gods of the various asterisms. Rudra is the lord of Ardra.

TB 1.5.1 states that rudrasya bahu/ mrqayavah parastad viksaro'-

vastat, iii/

Sayana explains this as bahufeabdena dv iv ac an a n t en a-

rdranaksatramupalaksate/ bahuvatpraya^tnahetutvat/ mrgayavo

vyadhavi&esah devah/ viksaro vifeisto laksavedhah/ Ihe

Yajusajyotisa St.10, 32; ana Arcaiyorisa St. S, 25; and

• • *’’** “"** •
- - 102
Somasiddhanta 4.6.9 also state Rudra as the lord of Ardra.

In IB III.1.1.3, the puronuvakya and the yajya

verses of fourth naksatra in the context of naksatra isri are

• J » r-l - # ILLI 1 ri_ t.J. ‘

stated as ardraya rudrah pratharaana eri/ ferestho aevanam

• " " " 1 " ~ " 1. "" • • " " " 1 "" —
patiraqhniyanam/ naksatramasya havisa vidhema/ ma nah
III -1 - ^IIIIU ill- ■ ■- " " " 1 •

praianu rlrisanmota vlrin, iti/ Here Rudra is the best among

the deities, he is also the lord of cows. He is implored to

attain the sacrifice being renowned with the constellation

Ardra. He is also invoked to not to injure sons and grandsons

102. E.N. Ghosh, Studies on Rqvedic Deities, p.63

 124

103
nor the valorous warriors or servants. Both Rudra and Ardra

are offered ohlations to destroy al3 the sms. Thus Rudra is

here intended to approach the sacrifice with the Ardra

constellation.

So also in IB III.1.4.4, the isti meant for aevas

and naksatras are depicted. In that context of naksatra isti

Rudra's close relation with the cows is stated by the text:

rudro v5 akamayata/ pa£uman tsyamiti sa etan rudraya*

1rdrayai

praivamqavam carum payasi niravapat/ tato vai da pasumjnabhavat/

pasumanha vai bhavati/ ya etena havisa yajate/ ya u cainadevam

veda/ so'tra juhoti/ rudraya svaha1rdrayai svaha/ pinvamanayai

svaha pa&ubhyahsvaheti/

In the context of naksatra isti the weapon of Rudra

,1J—" • _ • ■

is prayed to spare the sacrificers. The constellation Ardra

which belongs to Rudra is prayed hereto enjoy the havis. Rudra

and Ardra both are requested to destroy all the enemies of

103. Sayana explains the text as - yo'yam rudro devah

• 'T mj' ^

so'vamardraya naksatrena saha prathamanah prasiddhah

sannetyasmadyajnam prapnotu/ kidrs'o rudro devanarfi

1 — • r r ' " 1
madhye ferestho1 qhniyandifi gavam patih svamyasya
rudrasya sambandhi naksatramadrakhvam havisa
• •^
paricarema/ sa casmakarn prajaift putradikam ma(ri)
risanma himslt/ utapi ca viran&uran prabhrtyanapi
^ • "" " ' ' '' ' “ •

ma (rl) risat/
 125

the sacrifleers by oyerting che evils.104

7. Rudra1s Identification with hotx Priest

Rudra is not only identified with fire, but

also wirh the hotr priest. In &B^an interesting reference

105
occurs where hotr is called as Rudra. Pour kinds of gifts
•

are offered such as gold, cow, cloth and horse. By giving the

cow as gift the sacrificer preserves his own breath as cow is

the breath. I his identification of cow and breath is made on

the principle of accepting cow and breath as food. This cow

is offered to Rudra, the hotr priest. The aqnidhra priest is

the Agni as he is the fire kindler, so also Rudra is hotr,

the Yama is brahman priest and Brhaspati is the one who chants

the mantras.

The hotr accepts the cow with the text, 'let Varuna
• •

give thee to me, Rudrai' for to Rudra Varuna gave her. 'May I

obtain immortality i be thou breath to the giver, strength (v ay fits)

i na
to me, the receiverl*

104. TB,'III. 1.1-3 - hetl rudrasya pan no vrnaktu/ ardra naksatram

jusatan havimah (3)/ pramuiacamanau duritani vifva
apaqha§amsam nudatamaratim, iti/

105. i|B, IV.3.4.24ff .

106. 6be,Vo1.26, p.348.

 126

From this reference Rudra becomes identified

with the hotr priest. This idea is also reflected in the

mythology of Siva in Puranas and accepted by Kalidasa in

his introductory verse of Abhijnanafeakuntalaro as ya havir

ya ca hotri.

8. isana as Identified with Om sound and the tawny colour

In GB 1.1.25, in the context of Prajapati's

explanation of the derivation om, the third matra of om

is described as belonging to the deity Isana and the colour

of that deity is kapila or tawny. One is assured the domain

of l£ana by meditating upon him everyday in this colour.

9. Rudras and Tristubh Metre

In GB II.2.9, the Tristubh metre is associated with

1 " • •

108
Rudras. Thus the Tristubh metre is conceived as the wife of
1 • • 1
Rudras as the Anustubh of Vasus and Jagati of Adityas. This
1 11 ' • • m1 -

107. 03,1.1.25 - putro gayatra chandah suklo varnah pumso

vatso rudro devata omkaro vedanam/

108. qayatrl vasunam patni/ tristup rudranaifi patni/

1agatyadityanarfi patni/
 127

identification may be justified on the basis of the

resemblance to the number of these group of deities with

the number of the syllables of each metre, associated with

them. As the Rudras are of eleven number, so also the

Tristubh metre consists of eleven alphabets in each pada.

1 11 • • *u' l''

The share of Rudra, refused in the sacrifice of

Prajapati and the subsequent befalling of dangers^is also

found mention in GB. The north quarter as the region of

Tryambaka Rudra is also hinted here. After offering to Pitrs

the Advaryu tuacns to north quarter and thereby he enters to

the region of gods from the region of fathers.

10. To Sum up

Thus Rudra happens to be pictured as a great

divinity, a master of natural phenomenon, lord of animals

and dispeller of evils, the progenitor, the hotr priest, the

om sound, tawny colour and the Tristubh metre. All of them

1 ■■■ ' '"Ul • • 1

are highlighted in a way in Brahmanic texts. Rudra is also

found to be the lord of animals who can protect and kill at

the same time. For that he is addressed as mrgavyadha tanticara.

 128

He is again connected with the principle of

creation as related with roh ini and other constellation. He

receives the residue of the sacrifice and is the upholder

of moral order. Rudra is created from five basic elements

of the world like Agni, Vayu, Aditya, Candramas and Usas.

He has eight names like Rudra, Sarva, Pafeupati,

Ugra, A£ani, Bhava, Mahandevah and Isana^emerged out of eight

natural phenomenon Agni, Apah, plants, Vayu, lightning, parjanya,

moon as well as Prajapati and Sun respectively. The supremacy

of Rudra also finds its room in Brahmana literature, where

he is bhutapati, disampati, etc. He is also depicted as a

form of Agni.

E. THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN UPANISADS

1. Introduction

In the exuberant growth of the Upns, the number

tends to eleven hundred eighty of which a few are extant.

A collection of hundred eighty eight Upns is edited by

109
J.L. Sastri. Out of them it is apparently found that along

with fourteen £aiva Upns there are twentynine Upns, which

109. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Re-edition, 1984.

 129

contain Rudra's reference in them. Paul Deussen in his

translation of sixty Upns enumerates five as &aiva Upns.

Besides these, one from supplement and one from yoga head

can be taken as Saiva one in his collection. All of them

primarily refer to Rudra in their text, where as there is

trace of Rudra in &Upn, BDU and KU etc. in different contexts.

But from them, £upn objectively refers to Rudra. It is rather

more convenient to accept the fifteen £aiva Upns edited by

111
G. Srinivas Murti. But apart from them some more important

Upns need search. They are Culikopanisad, Nllarudropamsad,

Kalaqnirudropanisad and Maitravanppanisad. These are taken as

• 1 n" “ "" Ini" rL • •

the representatives of all the possible Rudra-Baivopanisads

in this study. All others occur are almost inclusive of this

list. Apart from them there are some more Saivopanisads like
• •

Parayanopanisad, Vilvopanisad, Mrtyulanqulopanisad, Rudropanisad,

• • • • •
Linqopanisad, VajrapiKjaropanisad, Vatukopanisad, Sivopanisad,
• • • • •
Sadanandopanisad, Siddhanta^ikhopanisad, Siddhantasaropanisad
* — ' “ • "nr~ 1 ' 1

and Herambopanisad etc.

110. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Revised Ed.,1987.

111. Adyar Library, Madras,1953.

 130

The following Upns are taken into account in this work

as they have relevancy with the worship of Rudra.

a) Culikooanisad Deussen
b) KYV £veta£vtaropanisad 11
II
C) AV Jabalopanisad
ti
d) " Atharvafeiropanisad
•
II
e) " Atharva^ikhopanis ad
If
f) " Ni1arudropanisad
II
g) " Kalaqnirudropanisad
•
II
h) " Kaivalvopanisad
i) “ £ivasafrkalpopanis ad II

j) " Aksamalikopanisad Aayar Library Publication

k) " Ganapatvupanisad II

1) " Dak sinamurtyupanisad 11

It
m) " P aKc abr ahmop anisad
n) " Brhaiiabalopanisad 11
II
o) " Bhasma jabalopanisad
p) " Rudrahrdayopanisad 11
q) “ Rudrak s aiibalopanisad II

r) " ^arabhopanisad 11
s) “ Maitrayanopanisad II

These representative Upns are studied here to show

the trace of the traverse of Rudra from Samhita to Upn.

As has been discussed earlier the evolution of

Rudra, as revealed in the vedic texts, shows how Rudra is

growing towards the concept of a supreme deity. His worship

 131

has prominence in those Brahmana texts, vvhich discarding

the vedic ritualistic idealogies, were creating some new

movements in the religious settings of the Veda. Such ideas

have culminated in the Upanisadic texts. These Upns are the

philosophical product of an entire age extending a vast period

approximately from 1000 to S00 B.C. or to 500 B.C.

2. Rudra in the Principal Upns

While going to the details it should be made

clear at the outset that Rudra does not occur so much in

principal Upns. The ancient prose Upn BDU 4_. 11 refers to Rudra

and Isana as belonging to ksatram of noble form.Indra, Varuna,

• •

Soma, Rudra, Yama;Mrtyu and Isana belong to this group. BDU

II.11.2 describes the prana (the life) as a younc animal; the

body is its stable, the head is the roof of the stable; the

breath is the posxto which prana is bound, the food is the

« ***

bond or the cord, which binds it firmly to it. Seven

divinities (Rudra, Parjanya, Aditya, Agni, Indra, Earth and

Heaven) dwell in the eyes and watch over it. Thus BDU II. 11.2

runs as "These seven immortals stand watching which are there

in the eyes : through these Rudra is bound with it and through

the water which is in the eye, Parjanya ( is bound with it)...!l^

112. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.430.

 132

Rudra is here described as being present in the scarlet

lines in the eye. This idea reminds one of Rudra's

113
association with redness. Rudra is depicted as a red god

end a deity# who emerged from the wrath of the gods and himself

a wrathful deity. This redness and wrathfulness of Rudra is not

unknown to Upanisadic thought. Mahadeva occurs as an epithet

of Rudra in Mahanarayana Upn. The third chapter of this Upn

includes the Rudra Gayatri which runs ass *

*

tatpurusaaya vidmahe sahasraksasya manadevasya dhimahi/

tanno rudrah pracodayat//3.1.

«

tatourusava vidmahe mahadevava dhimahi/

tanno rudrah pracodayat// 3.2.

The Upn prescribes these chants to be employed

during different ceremonies and on different occasions. Their

inclusion in the Upn is mostly based on the consideration that

the concerned actions would serve as preparation for knowledge.

This Upn significantly depicts that Rudra# the lord

of all# the great wise one, was already there in the beginning.

He himself saw Hiranyagarbha being bom. This God is prayed to

114
unite the devotees with a true memory.

113. R.N. Dandekar# "Rudra in the Veda"# VMT, p.256.

114. P. Deussen# Sixty Upanisads of the Veda# p.256.

• —
This also occurs in Taitticiya Aranyaka (10th Prapathaka)#
AnandaSrama Ed ., pp.827-30.
 133

In the context of the meditation of the syllable

115
Qm, this Upn declares the Veda begins and ends with this

holy syllable. MaheSvara, when merges in Prakrti, surpasses that

syllable. "In meditation, the syllable Om also dissolves,

just as the rest of the whole world: a (vifat) dissolves in

«

u (Hiranyagarbha) / u in m (mulaprakrti), m is the imaginary fourth

mora (syllable) of the syllable On which is Mahefevara (Siva) -

Sayana".
#

In the Maitravanopanisad Rudra is depicted as one

• •

of the foremost apparent forms of Brahman (tanavah) along with

Agni, Vayu, Aditya etc. The ptocess of meditation is depicted

as one should meditate over them, adore them and deny them.

Through this, one will move together with them, higher and higher

in the worlds above and during the destruction of all (everything),

117
he will enter into communion with pursusa.
— -- • —

118
In another context Rudra is declared as the

tamas-type of Brahman, Brahma is of raias-xipe and Visnu is

115. yo vedadau svarah prokto vedante ca pratisthitah/

tasya prakrtilinasya yah parah sah mahe£varah// 10.8.

116. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.256fn.

117. Maitrayanopanisad, 4th Prapathaka.

118. ibid.
 134

of sattva-nature. Rudra and his other names are mentioned along

with other gods as referring to Atman. “Indeed this Atman is

Ifeana, iSambhu, Bhava, Rudra, Prajapati/ Vifevasrj, Hiranyagarbha,

the trurh,life, bird of passaqe(hamsa), ruler, Visnu, Narayana,

* • •

Arka, Savitr, the creator, the regulator, the overlord or

119
sovereign, Indra and Indu“. This idea is repeated again in

Maitrayanopanisad (7.7).
• •

120
This Upn also accepts Rudra as Brahman and

declares that "Just as the fowler (who at the same time is

also a fisherman) pulls out the creatures living in water in the

mechanism of his net and sacrifices them into the fire of his

bowels, so also, indeed, one, as if, pulls out the pranas

■ ..~~'+ —

(the vital breaths) with the syllable Qt and sacrifices them

into sorrowless fire (of Brahman or Atman). Now this (fire) is

like a hot earthen vessel (filled with melted butxer); and just

as the butter in the hot earthen vessel flares up through

contact with the (burning) grass or wood, so also that one

(Atman) named as non-prana, blazes forth through contact with

the prana (vital breath); thus what blazes forth is the

phenomenal form of Brahman; that is the highest abode of Visnu

119. Maitrayanopanisad, 6.8.

120. ibid., 6.26.

 135

(cf. Kath.3.9); that is the Rudra hood (rudratvam) of Rudra;

and this, dividing itself into innumerable beings (cf. Chand.

7.26.2) fills these worlds*'

Maitravanopanisad defines bharga as the fiery

• ■

splendour of Rudra. While depicting the worship through Savitri,

this Upn states - "Bharqas the splendour signifies that

splendour which is in the sun or it is the (pupil) in the eye",

it is called (bharqas), because of its course or movement through

the rays (bhabhih) of light; or bharqah because it is called

• •

the fiery splendour - particularly Rudra, - which scorches the

world - so say those who teach Brahman; ...." 122

Occasional reference is made to Rudxa m Prasna

Upn, where he is identified with prana

"O prana, you are Indra in your vigour

you are Rudra, the protector,
you move in the aerial space as the sun,
you are the overlord of luminous celestial bodies
(jyotis)",

121. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, pp. 364-65.

122. ibid., p.349.

123. ibid., ..593.

 Thus stray references are found in the early

extant Upns about Rudra and he xs depicted in most cases as

one of the Deities like Brahma, Visnu, Indra, Parjanya etc.

• *

3. &uPn

But is the one, which chiefly mentions the

name of Rudra as the supreme Deity. This Upn is a clear record

of the growth of the supremacy of Rudra in Brahmana texts

. ... . " » • —

prior to this. The gradual growth of rhe supremacy of Rudra in

the Brahmana literature becomes more crystalised in this Upn.

feupn is a religio -philosophic treatise, which represents

the farthest point in the development of the idea of Rudra-fiiva

as a god worshipped in Upanisadic age. The upasana in Upns

• - ~ ~ T

is aimed at the inconceivable Brahman as in Ifea and Kena. But

they become conceivable when in the ChUpn one comes across

the pereptible prana,

.mvD*~ J
J3o also the sound Udgitha
-
and ——
himkara.

Thus from the inconceivable and formless Brahman to conceivable

and personal God, this upasana serves as a transition. The forms

are many. They are &iva or Rudra# Visnu, Ganapati etc.

• • •

In a nember of verses of fiUpn like 3.1-6 and 4.11-22,

with a flood of vedic quotations the Brahman is celebrated as

Ifea, Ifeana (personal God) and especially as Rudra (identical

with Hara 1.10); it may be due to individual inclinations or it

 137

may be an undeserving accomodation with the ruling thought

current at the period. Rudra is viewed more as a personal god

than the other gods in vedic pantheon. The designation of

Rudra as Siva# which is still not found in Atharva&iras and

which is first proclaimed with a semblance of novelity in

Atharvasikha, does not occur m this Upn; but Siva ('blessed',

•blissful') as well occurs as an adjective seven times

(3.5; 6.11; 4.14; 16.18; 5.14) in the contexts which show that

the adjective £iva is on the way towards being recognised

as proper name of the highest God.

Hare, is the immortal# unchanging one who rules

over the changeable (pradhanam)and the soul as the God.

Extending his net# he rules over the whole world with his

sovereign powers. He is the one who remains abiding during the

origin and existence of the world. Rudra is the one and to

him there is no second. He is in the beings and at the final

time burning with rage# he shatters all creation. His eyes are

on all sides and his faces are on all sides so also his arms

and his feet. With his arms he creates and with his wings he

welds together the earth and heaven. He is the origin of gods

and the Lord of all. He is Rudra# the great wise seer. He also
begot Hiranyagarbha. The gracious form of Rudra is also praised

as the greatest bestower of health. The dweller of Mountains is

 138

invoked to show his gracious form.

The joyful dweller in the mountains is prayed

agarn to not to discharge the arrow which he carries in his

hand and to make that arrow unhurtful and gracious so that

it may not hurt man and beast. He dwells everywhere in the

heart of all beings and he penetrates everything and he is the

healer.

He is finer than butter and superfine as cream.

He is Siva and concealed in all beings. He is the one who holds

the universe encompassed within Him - He, who knows him as God,

becomes free from all bonds.

There is neither being or nonbeing, except the

blessed one (Siva); who is the Om-syllable, Savitr and

attractive light; the source of the prime knowledge. He is the

eternal (unborn). Thinking Him as thus the timid ones might

approach Him. Rudra is prayed to protect the prayer with his

gracious face.

Again the RV 1.114.8 (TS 4.8.10.3; VS XVI.16 with

. 124
variants) is repeated in this Upn which proves that this

Upn contains a number of prayers to Rudra which are mere extracts

from the earlier Saifthitas.

124. !§Upn, 4.22.

roa na stoke tanaye ma na ayusi ma no gosu ma no a&vesu
ririsah/
• •

viranma no rudra bhamito vadhirhavismantah sadamittva

■ 'Ll 1 ' 1 ■"■■nr" '.i L .... ——- l m i... r t i ® •

havamahe//
 139

In SUpn a clear allotment of the function of

creation, preservation and destruction to Rudra-£iva is found

125
which has germinated m RV. • ***"
Contrary to post-vedic convention,

it is the one and the same god to whom all these three functions

are ascribed. He is the protector of the universe; who after

2.2 6
creating all the worlds, absorbs them at the end of time.
127
Also He is the creator of Brahma and bestows the Vedas to Him.
128
He is the creator of existence and non-existence. He is the
129 130
creator of everything? heaven and earth and the supreme
131
ultimate cause. First he has created Hiranyagarbha. He makes
132
the one seed manifold. Rudra is described here as the
133 13 /*
protector of the mountain. He rules over nature and spirit.

125. RV,II.33.9.

126. &Upn, III .2 - sancukQcantakale samsriva visva bhuvanani .aooa/

127. ibid.,VI.18 - yo brahmanam vidadhati purvam/

yo vai vedanfeca prahinoti tasmai/

128. ibid.,V.14 - bhavabhavakaram/

129. ibid.,IV.14 - vifcvasya srastaram/

130. ibid.,Ill.3 - dyavabhumijanayan/

131. ibid.,III.4 - hirnyaqarbham janayamasa purvam/

132. ibid., VI. 16 - etam vi i am vahudha yah _karot 1/

133. ibid.,III.6 - qiritrah/

134. ibid.,V.4 - vonisvabhavanadhitisthati ekah/

 140

He is the lord of the two-footed and the four-footed

135
beings. He is the cause of the worldly existence, of
13 G
liberation^of continuance and of bondage. He is the

great seer, and is prayed to endow the beings with clear

understanding. 1 J 7 He rules over this world. 133 He is the

139 140 141
author of time; the knower, the witness. He is the
142
controller of many. He alone embraces the universe and

by him this whole world is enveloped.

143
He is the all knower.
1A/L

135. &Upn,IV. 13 - ya l&e asya dvipadah catuspadah/

136. ibid.,VI.16 - samsaramoksasthiti vandhahetavah/

• •

137. ibid.,113.4 - rudro maharsi.... sa no budhya fcubhaya

samyunaktu/
138. ibid.,VI.17 - ya i&e asya jaqatah/

139. ibid.,VI.2 - kalakaro/

140. ibid.,VI.16 - jnyah/

w MliaaMakMMM

141. ibid.,VI.16 - saksl/

r"TI""rr~1 •

142. ibid.,VI. 12 - va&i nisknyanam bahunam/ • "*

* •

143. ibid.,V.2 - adhitisthati eko vi&vani rupani yoni£ca sarvah/

" 1 1 1"" 1"" • • • •

144. ibid.,VI.2 - sarvavidyah/

cf. ibid.,III. 19 - sa vetti vedyam na ca tasyasti vetta/

 141

The chief characteristic of Rudra in the &Upn

is his ruling power. Rudra rules over this world. He is the

ruler par excellence. This gives him appelation like l£a,

Isvara and l£ana and Mahe&vara. He is depicted here as one

145
that rules with his ruling powers. He is the lord of the
14.6 147
world, ruler of al3; * and the supreme master of masters.
148
Being the chief deity of deities, he rules over all forms
149
and all sources. He rules over whatever creatures are born
150 151
of a womb. He exercises his lordship over all and is
152
the one ruler over the whole world. But of him there is

no master in the world, nor ruler. Of Him there is no progenitor

145. &Upn,III.1 - sarvan lokan Ifeate Ifeanibhih/

146. ibid.,111.4 - vifevadhipo/

of. ibid.,Vl.l7 - yah Ise asya jagatah nityameva/

147. ibid.,VI.7 - patim patlnam/

l4®* ibid. ,VI.7 - tamlfevaranam paramam mahesvaram tarn

devanam paramam/

149. ibid.,V.2 - adhitisthatyeko vi£vani rupa.ni yoni&ca sarvah/

150. ibid.,V.4 - yonisvabhavanatitisthatyekah/

151. ibid.,V.3 - sarvadhipatyam kurute/

152. ibid.,VI.17 - na l£e asya jaaato nityameva nanyo hetuh

vidyate i£anaya/
 142

153
nor lord. This unrivalled ruling power of Rudra,

having no equals and superiors, indicates the impact of

monotheistic trend of Saivism which has already evolved by

the time of this Upn and this trend continues in the puramc

and post-puranic texts. The monotheistic attirude is best

expressed with the words - "He is the ruler over this whole
15 a
earth. Rudra is one, there is no place for a second".

Another noteworthy characteristic ascribed to him is his

omnipresence.He is all pervading, hidden m all things^6

157
and dwells in all beings. The wise who perceive him as
158
abiding in their selves, attain happiness and bliss.

153. 8Upn,VI.9 - na tasya kascit patirasti loke na cesita ....

na casva ka&cid ianita na cadhipah/

154. ibid.,III.2 - eko hi rudro na dvitiyava tasthuh/

ya iman lakan ifeate lfcanibhih/

155. ibid.,III.11 - sarvavyapi bhagavan ... sarvagatah £ivah/

156. ibid.,IV.16 - feivam sarvabhutesu qudham/

cf. ibid.,IV.11
'
- eko devah sarvabhutesu
"""1 1,1
qudhah/
•. """ •

157. ibid.,VI.ll - sarvabhutantaratma/

158. ibid.,III.13 - hrda manlsa manasabhiklrpto sa etad viduh

* • •

amrtaste bhavanti/
 143

He xs in fire and in water. He has entered into the whole

159
world. He is framed in heart by thought and by the mind.

Ihose who know him thus become immortal.He is m the

heart of all beings, The idea which refers to his relation

with mountains gains strong ground in the Epics and the

Puranas, which testifies mountain as the abode of &iva.

This Upn contains a number of prayers of Rudra

which are mere extracts from the earlier samhitas. He is the

X 01 162
embracer of everything, the one pervasive of the universe

He is present in all things like xhe exceeding fine film

163
that comes out of clarified butter. He is the mnei self
164 165
of all beings and the origin of all . He is invoked
166
as having no beginning and end, the possessor of all

159. £Upn,III. 17 - yo devo aqnau yo apsu yo vlsvam bhuvanam

avivefea/

160. ibid.,III.13 - sada iananam hrdaye sannivistahamrxaste

11 " " • •• • •
bhavanti/

161. ibid.,III.14 - sa bhumim vifevato vrtva/

162. ibid.,IV.14 - vi§vasyaikam parivestitaram/

163. ibid.,IV.16 - qhrtat param mandamivatisuksmam/

"'l_' ' 1-1 « L u. ■'« ■' ' 1 1 ' • *I"TT'1" ' ^ 'r“ 1 •

164. ibid.,VI.11 - sarvabhutantaratma/

165. ibid.,V.5 - visvayomh/

166. ibid.,V.13 - anadyanantam/

 144

167
knowledge, xo be seen beyond the three periods - the pact,
168
the present, and the future, the eternal of eternals,
intelligent of intelligents, the lord of qualities'*-^

. 171
and he is free from all the qualities at the sametime.

Rudra is generally addressed.as Isa, Mahesvara, Sivah and iSana.

He is the object of meditation of the seers seeking liberation

and he is -recognised as the only creator, Brahman and the

paramatman. In a verse the old fearful form of Rudra is mentioned,

from which it becomes clear that Upanisadic Rudra is the same

172
vedic Rudra. The time of £Upn is at the middle of the

Upanisadic period. It can be opined that the greatness and

supremacy of Rudra had already attaihed a definite shape during

this time. He is not only the god of the public but he is xhe

167. SUpn,VI.5 - adih sah/

168. ibid.,VI.5 - parastrikalad akalopi drstah/

"~ • • • •
169* ibid.,VI.13 - eetanascetananam/

170. ibid.,VI.16 - gunefeah/

' ~n ■ '" ^ ' 11 •

171. ibid.,VI.11 - nirqunah/

172. ibid.,III.6
 145

god of a distinct intellectual group, thus he is now

completely connected with the philosophical thinkings and

the practice of Yoga which was being taken by the seers of

Upns as the only means for metaphysical advancement. For this

reason# the worship of Rudra involves some austerity which

became characteristic feature of later £aiva worship. In the

post-vedic literature# Rudra is depicted as the Great Yogin

and the Master only because of his connection with Yoga in

the Upamsadic literature. The yogic posture of Rudra is

also maintained in RV. The genesis is traceable in RV which

is popularised in upanisadie literature.

The samkhva theory has its origin in the &Upn.

In the mantras of the £upn (IV.5; V.2) Prakrti occurs for

the first time as the active power of creation of the

universe. She is the £akti or power of purusa or parambrahman

by whom this world of multiple form is created £Upn (IV.1).

She is eternal possessing red# white and black colours. So she

is endowed with three qualities. She is the creatrix of the

jagat. Purusa is not the creator by himself but by prompting

Prakrti to create he remains only as the spectator Supn (IV.5).

The prakrti is the maya and purusa as possessing this maya

• """" ,r" 1 "" ' ~•

or as raayin is known as the creator. In the next stanzas the

distinction is made between jIva and Purusa as jlva is the

enjoyer and he is under the control of prakrti or regulated

 146

by prakrti (IV.9). He becomes liberated when he realises

* ' 'Tr
the Brahman and becomes free from the fetters of prakrti
^•r~ 1 n "r"' T •

or may a. The Purusa can be knovm through samkhya and

.. •
yoga (VI. 13). This Purusa is then identified with Rudra who

is also extolled here as £iva and Ijja. Thus Rudra is

elevated to Purusa or Parambramhan by the seer of &Upn,

17
which appears to be the early exponent of Samkhya system.

In the Mbh and puranas Siva is closely related to saifikhya

systems and this has its origin in the SUpn. Moreover this

suggests that the mark of the track of Saiva Siddhanta

has began* The.sysuem of sartkhya^found first mention m an

Upn that regards Rudra-Siva as the supreme deity/ appears

very significant. In the old Rgvedic hymns the vale is

the origin of this idea of prakrti (Suf»i,4.10). Vak has been

T
• ■

generally depicted as the power of the deities and the

strength behind the creation of the universe. It may be

said that on the basis of this idea, the prakrti concept

has evolved. This prompts one to think that in the £upn

the idea of the power of prakrti evolves along with the

corresponding idea of &iva as the adh<jatma purusa.

173. 6Upn,4.10 - mayam tu prakrtim vidyat mayinantu

mahe&varam/
 147

Yaduvam&I is of the opinion that Aryans were

influenced by the Indus civilization and as a result of

this many minor deities and local beliefs found their place

in the growing pessonality of Rudra-&iva. By the same way

the female divinities of Indus civilization have moulded

to a considerable extent and entered into the worship of

Rudra-^iva. Thus the seers of the &Upn imagined Rudra-&iva

as Purusa. But the idea of the infusion of female divinities

in the Aryanfold through cultural admixture appears to be

unsound in case of Rudra worship, as in the vedic literature

Rudra is always associated with a female deity. Vedic Rudra

fr6m the early period is always associated with a female

companion as Rudra prsni or Rodasi m RV, Rudra and Ambika

• • • •
in YV. The name Rudrani besides Rudra is mentioned in the

Hamsopanisad - Rudra and Rudrani are the hands and feet of

the bird shaped hamsa. Besides the &Upn .in the KIT the deities

receive the knowledge of Brahman through a female divinity

famous as Umahaimavati. From the description it becomes clear

that Umahaimavati was the conscious knowledge (ceranaprajna)

of the deities. In this sense she is the development of Rgvedic

vak, whose enumeration is also made in BDU and other Upns

(BDU 6.1.3). But the names 'Uma* and 'Haimavatl' remind us

of the consort of post-vedic Rudra-Siva, who has the same

 148

name 'Uma' and who is regarded as the daughter of Himavat.

It may he said that this Umahaimavati of KU has contributed

much to the idea of prakrti in the £upn and later on this

Uma was regarded as a name of the wife of &iva. The word

Haimavati which originally meant golden formed or resplendent

one is later on referred to as the daughter of Himavat.

Of the older Upns, SUpn gives some ideas about:

Rudra. In other Upns also some relevant facts are to be found.

In the 'Prafenopanisad1(2.9) Rudra is depicted as'kanraksita'

• rr-m.-r—m ^ “

and is identified with Prajapati. This reference corresponds

to the ideas proclaimed in &Upn.

In the &Upn a new trend is found for the bhaktivaaa.

It has two basis as the knowledge of the highest lord and

eulogy of Him through the praises. Two deities became

prominent under monotheistic believes, Rudra-Siva and Visnu.

• •

So excluding the impersonal older Upns, there were certain

Upns, which accepted either of them as the one and all. This

• type of worship of Rudra is to be found for the first time

m iaUpn; where Rudra is depicted more or less as the supreme

Brahman.

There are also a number of £aiva Upns, which are

evidently later and bear to some extent the imprint of

sectarianism. The analysis of the nature of Rudra m these

 149

Upns shows the gradual evolution of Rudra to Mahadeva - the

great god. The character of Rudra, as furnished by the

'Saiva Upns forms an interesting study. Host of the £aiva Upns

are related to AV. The Adyar publication enumerates fifteen

such uPns* belonging to all the vedic samfoitas. They appear to

have been composed in relatively later period and are likely to

be sectarian in form. Deussen enumerates five Upns as the Siva

Upns. They are - The Atharvasiras Upn, The Atharva&ikha Upn,

The Nilarudra Upn, The ICalaqnirudra Upn, The Kaivalya Upn.

These Upns endeavour to explain Rudra in the light

of the symbolical personification of Atman. A survey of the nature

of Rudra as depicted in these Upns is furnished below.

4. Atharvafeiras Upn

In this Upn Rudra is extolled as pnniciple

of all things and as the highest-goal-paramparam. The names

such as Isana, Bhagavan, Mahesvara etc. occur in this Upn.

But the name &iva does not occur here. Rudra is the past, the

present and the future. He is all embracing one and the

innermost of all objects. He is the visible and invisible.

By knowing him everything can be known. He is to be proclaimed

by silence. Cm is his symbol (4.10). The heart is the place of

 150

Rudra and the entire creation is pervaaea by him. He also

absorbs the world, when he coils himself roc ether a~ a

snake and the world is released through his breath. He is

the unity of the deities ana life organs. 'Ihe man who is the

creation of Rudra is bound by the cord (pafea) of earthly

existence. The liberation follows when one surrenders anger

lust, the world (which is the root of causal chain) and

all possessions to Rudra. The pafeupata system is depicted

in this Upn as the vow of the symbolical smearing with ashes

is mentioned. This Upn proclaims the attainment of the state

of the parambrahman. The non-dual, eternal and all embracing

character of Rudra is proclaimed here.

He is parame&vara, the Supreme Lord. His imanent

character is described. He is the antaryamm of all things.

He is the prime cause and the myriads of its effects. He

is also Gaun, the daughter of mountain.

This Upn proclaims the mystic significance of

worshipping Rudra. But this sheds little light on Rudra1s

character or history. Here the three gods, Brahma, Visnu

• •

and Rudra are mentioned together, along with Indra (brahma-

visnu-rudrendra). The vedic mantra of proclaiming Rudra as

 151

the omnipresent supreme deity finds mention here as:

To Rudra, who is in fire, in water,

who has entered plants and creepers,
who has become all these creatures,
174
to this Rudra salutation, as Agnil

Rudra is also depicted here as prana in human head. As it is

stated earlier, the Atharvanic Upns speak of the symbolical

personification of Rudra, so also in the Atharvsfeiropa,nisad

it is found that Rudra is depicted as the all embracing, both

internal and external and is the past, present and future

himself. Knowing Rudra everything is known. For he is the

symbol of sound 'OM1 and the kundalini or the serpent force

' '■ « « 117 —
coiled in three and half mora. Rudra dwells in the heart as

well as pervades the entire creation which consists of nine

heaven, nine atmospheric regions and nine earths. While he

coils himself as a snake, he absorbs the world and releases

it again through his breath. The man is (pa£u) his creation

and is bound by his cord (pa&a) of earthly conscioxtsness.

Man attains liberation from the cycle of birth and death if

he surrenders anger and lust to Rudra. This Upn appears as

belonging to Palupata sect.

174. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.776.

"""" ir_l~r' s
 152

5. Atharvafcikhopanisad

In this Upn, the symbolical interpretation of

the sound Om is given and the various significances of the

interpretation of the moras are given which may be represented

in the following tables

Moras Worlds Vedas Mam Host Of Metres Fires Colours

Gods the Gods

a Earth RV Brahman Vasus Gayatri Garhapatya Red

• —"

u Atmosph­ YV Visnu Rudras Tristubfc Daksma Black

• • .. ■ • • —
ere

m Heaven SV Rudra Adityas Jagati Ahevaniya White

Reverberation av ekarsi Maruts Viraj Fire of All­

(Purusa universal coloured .
•
destruction
Isana)

The deity of the three and half mora here appears as

l£ana, ekarsi and Purusa and therefore these deities are identical.
11 1 •

A remarkable feature of this Upn is that at the end, this Upn

cites Siva as the fifth and the highest god, the other four being

Brahman, Visnu, Rudra and Isana. Here ISana is represented by the

• •

sound Om (£iva) whom the Atharva&iras Upn has not yet recognised.

The prominence of £iva is rightly assertained by Deussen as "The

emphatic way m which £iva, this old epithet of Rudra, is elevated

 153

here to the top of deities makes the impression of

laterness and it should not be improbable, that our Upn

forms a transitional link from Rudra, Isana, etc. to feiva,

, 17c;
wnich later prevails as the mam name.

This Upn is a discourse between Pippalada,

Angirasa, Sanat Kumar and Atharvan. Being enquired by the

/

sages* Atharvan replies them that the syllable 'Om' is to be

known as the highest to be meditated. Ihis syllable contains

four quarters, four gods and four vedas. This syllable is

the highest Brahman.

This Om is slso called pranava as it makes all the

pranas
" •
111
bow down *(prana
Ir"'“11 •
mayati)
^
to itself. 1 1

l£ana is here proclaimed as the object of meditation.

By him the whole world is set to activity. In this Upn, Isana

is the supreme entity and by him Brahman, Visnu, Rudra and

Indra have been brought forth. All the organs along with

creatures are also brought forth by him. His divine majesty has

become the cause, the universe, the blissful (&iva) as the

1.7 6
ether standing unshaken m the mid-air.

On sound is to be meditated as the only blissful(£iva).

By the meditation of om as &iva one will be free from rebirth. 177

175. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, Vol.II, p.779.

176. Atharva&ikhopanisad,II.2
brahma visnusca rudrafeca l&varah siva eva ca/
.1..UIU1 1 --—i ■ hi - 11 11 ■ m #- ...- " " IILir 1 J- 111 "L * •

pancadha pancadevatyah pranavah paripathyate//

177. ibid.,2
 154

6. Nilarudropanisad
• 11—11

The Nilarudropanisad is only an extract from

the Sr, the most important monument from the theology of

Rudra. As the name suggests, it is an esoteric doctrine

of the dark Rudra. The character of Rudra in SR is

maintained very distinctly in this Upn (verses 4-17), as it

is a cento from variously mutilated verses of the Sr to

which are added some verses of VS.

The original significance of the meaning of Rudra

is disputed. The predominant features of his image as the

most dreaded god suggest that he was originally a

17 8
personification of the descending and striking lightning.

He is vajraba.hu, he loves forests, mountain summits and

tree-tops (parame vrkse ayudham nidhaya VS XVI.51) and is

called a man slayer, animal slayer. His back is red while

his belly is black (AV XV.1.7). He brings healing medicine,

as he is the god of thunderstorm which cleans the atmosphere

and banishes infectious emanation. This character is very

distinctly maintained in Nilarudropanisad.

178. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.783.

 155

The character of Rudra as depicted in the

dilarudropanisad is as follows; Rudra is seen as coming

down from the heaven upon the earth here. Rudra is

dark-necked and curly-haired. From heaven he has descended

and planted his feet on the earth. He is Ugra. He is

bright-red (vilohita) and dark-necked (nilagriva). Rudra

does not strike men. He comes with''the healing medicines.

He is described as bhavabhama and bhavamanyu. Salutation

is paid to his world-kindness as welJ as to his world-anger.

Salutation is also paid to his arms and his arrows. He is

Giri&a and Gin&anta and he is implored to make the arrow,

which he holds in his hand, gracious to the invokers. So

that it may not strike their people (cf. VS XVI.3). He is

invoked in a sweet tone so that all may be healthy and happy

in mind. Seekers sought after his appearance which is

gracious and non-terrible and non-harmful. The thousands

of Rudras darting to all sides around are prayed to make

their fury away from the invokers.

He is thousand eyed and comes as a hero.

Salutation is paid to his weapen, to his two arms. He is

the prosperous god and defender from diseases. He is implored

to protect from all sides (verse 17). Then curiously enough

salutation is paid to the snakes; who are in all the three

 156

regions in earth, in atmosphere and m heaven. They are

in Sun's rays and live m watery abyss and earth-holes.

They are shoot down from trees above as the arrows of -che

imps. This Upn declares:

yas sva.janam nilaqrlvo yas svajanam harxruta/

kalmasa puccham osadhe jambhayasyarundhati// VS.21

"He who is the Blue necked god (&iva) to his people. He

who is quite Hari (Visnu) tc his own, Him with a many

• •

coloured tail, 0 healing herb, Quick grind to pieces,

179
Arunahati". This verse has much resemblance with the

mantra of AV:

rudra jalasabhesaja nila£ikhanda karmakrt/

• — • • • r - -1 ■■ in n ■ m

prafearfi pratiprafeo jahi arasan krnu osadhe// 11.27.6.

Here Rudra is the .presiding deity of the plant (gata) which

is used to be victorious m a debate. That healing herb is

dark blue at the tip and yellow at some part. So here Rudra

is represented as a healing deity, as present in a particular

plant and the end part of that plant is to be quickly

grounded to pieces by Arundhati.

179. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.787.

 157

The next two verses also though not so clear

refer to win a battle of debate or to win a quarrel:

sarvem nilaSikhandena vira karmani karmani/

• • • •
imamasya pranam iahi yenedam vivadamahe// 22
«

trtlyakarfi vitrtiyakam sadandim takmanamutara jayaksamain/

adhassako1nvamuficata trtiyakam evaham tadanumuncami// 23

He is 5iva, Sarva and ever-young fighter. At last salutation

is paid to the black-haired, when he comes to the assembly.

Thus three points are significant from this text:

a) Rudra is a famous deity and he is repeatedly

implored to keep his anow and bow away from the invoker.

b) He is jalasabhesaja or possesses healing

•' " " •

medicines and the medicine by which one can conquer a

quarrel.

c) Rudra's medicine is nothing but plants, whose

form is depicted in an obscure manner.

Thus it may be concluded that in the Nilarudropanisad

• 1 11
"

Rudra's nature as lightning and as medicinal plant is hinted.

This Upn is a replica in short of the JiR as well as a faint

imprint of some of the verses of AV. Rudra is invoked here to

protect from the flatulence which robbed one of sleep. It may

be an imprint of AV VI.90 which is connected by KauSu (31.7)

with the disease feula and recommends a spear-amulet for this.

 158

Rudra's healing powers are to be found in RV 1.43.4,

VS III.59. His peculiar medicine is jalasa and jalasabhesaja

is his special title (RV II.27.6; AV XIX.10.6; VI.57).

Bloomfield (AJP XII.425 -9) identifies jalasa (rain) with

mutra (urine) and Bercaigne (La Religion Vedigue iii.32)

identifies it with Soma.

7. Kalagnirudropanisad

This Upn deals basically with tripundra which

1 1 • •^

is a mark of Saiva sect. The tilaka or pundra is used as

sectrarian mark, which is applied in every morning after

the bath with a certain ritual. This is a mark of silent

confession of the faith of the devotee before the world.

This tripundram is described as consisting of three

horizontal streaks made with ashes on the different parts

of the body with certain formula. The allegorical

significance of these three streaks are three sacrificial

fires, three sounds of the syllable Om, three gunas, three

worlds, three atmans and three powers, three vedas, three

Soma pressings and three forms of god Siva. One who bears

this mark knowing it's significance obtains all sorts of

religious gains. All the details about the rule, the

 159

material, the place, the extent of these three streaks

are discussed here. The divinity, the formula, the powers

as well as the rewards connected with it are also depicted

here. The mantras are taken from Taittiriya Aranyaka 10,43-47,

RV 1.114.8; VII.59.12, etc. The different ideas which are

represented by these three streaks may be represented m a

table as below;

Line Fire Sound Gunas Place Atman Power Veda Soma Divinity
•

I qarhapatya 'a* rajas the the the RV the Mahe^vara

terresti- exter- acting morning
al world nal power pressing
Atman of the
Soma

II daksina 'u* sattvam the the the YV the Sada£iva

* 1 ' •""" willing midday
atmos- inner
phere Atman power pressing
of the
Soma

III ahavaniya 'm* tamas the the the SV the Siva

heaven highest per- evening
Atman ceiving pressing
power o f the
Soma

One who makes tripundram with ashes and knows it's various

significance, he is able to be united with Siva and does not

return.

Thus two facts are mainly found in this Upn that the

meditation of pranava or Cm and the significance of the

tripundra which bears clear imprint of sectarian influence.

 160

8. Kaivalyopanisad

From the very name it is obvious that

Kaivalyopanisad might be speaking something of Absolute.

Quite naturally this Upn tends to justify the state of

'absoluteness' or the kaivalya and the different aspects

of the Absolute. So one conceives oneself as Brahman, £iva,

Indra, Imperishable, the Supreme sovereign, Visnu, Prana,

• • •

the fire of death and the moon. The Absolute is viewed as

the inconceivable, unmanifest and infinite; calm, blissful,

eternal, the Brahman, Very peculiarly this absolute is

personified as possessing dark neck and three eyes. He is

the supreme god and lord, Uma's companion. This Absolute

is quite normally conceived as the source of creation.

Meditating on him, the wise transcends the darkness. Here

the symbolism of Om with it's identification with Rudra

and attainment of knowledge is mentioned.

The concluding passage prescribing the study of

&R testifies that this Upn despite it's subject^natter

champions the worship of Rudra. Though the concluding

passage is strangely different from the text of this (Upn)

yet this prompts one to think that this portion appears to

be a pantheistic one.
 161

In this context the opinion of P. Deussen

appears relevant. He surmises that “If the passage

has not come to be attached, through a sheer accident,

to the end of an Upanisad which is so entirely different

from it in spirit and bearing, then an inference could be

advanced that our Upanisad originally formed an epode to

the ^atarudriyam, which would then again be 'referred in

180
the concluding passage".

When he assumes that the text of this Upn is an

extention or epiloque of &R then the concluding line seems

to be rational.

9. Aksamalikopanisad
' • • ~'m""

The Aksamalikopanisad though accepted ambiguously

•MW # 9 mmmmm

as a feaiva Upn in the Adyar Library Publication of

£aiva Upanisads has very thin relation with Rudra-Siva,

except the dialogue between Guha, the son of Siv3 and Prajapati.

Siva is placed m the right circlet of the beads along with

other deities who are placed in other circlets. In the context

of worshipping the rosary beads with the mantras the Upn

proclaims that the letter which is placed in the first

180. P. Deussen, The Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.791.

 162

r
rosary is the Mrtyuftjaya, the conqueror of death; all~

pervading and the subsequent letters are meditated upon. So

this Upn gives stress on the alphabets which are to be

meditated by the help of Aksa beads. When all the gods

are given equal importance how can one establish the

absoluteness of Rudra here. Siva is the creator of all the

sounds, from whom the alphabets have generated. This idea

has it's origin in this Upn.

10. Ganapatyupanlsad
" • • "

The Ganapatyupanisad,
0
"_r-ni
though strictly not a
.JNI

feaiva Upn, is encluaed under Saiva Upns of Adyar publication.

But in this Upn, Ganapati is addressed as the son of Rudra.

Naturally some attributes of Rudra as has been found in SR,

are attributed to him. Especially some significant epithets

like Vratapati, Ganapati, Pramathapati draw ones attention.

In this Upn Rudra is not only the god having these attributes

but Ganapati as his son inherits them.

11. Jabalopanisad

This .Upn deals - with the feambhavavrata, a type

of fasting, which includes wearing of the tripundra mark

• • "" 1
 163

with ashes as the means to be employed for the acquistion

of the knowledge of the highest truth (the Brahman) who is

Pa£upati. The highest truth of para and apara Brahman can

be attained only through sambhavavrata.

Exposition about the significance of the Pa£u

and Pafeupati is mentioned here as the highest truth. The

jivas as bound by the bond of ignorance are the pasus.

Pasupati is the Paramesvara, accomplished with the powers

of sentient action, knowledge and desire. He is the lha.

When he becomes influenced by ahamkara he is known as jiva,

swirling m worldly existence, thus called pa£u. This l£a

is the reality, the omniscient overlord and is endowed with

the power of accomplishing five kinds of action as creation,

sustenance, destruction, benediction and vanishing. The

analogy of the cows and cowherd is made to explain the

concept of pa£u and Pasupati.

The injunction of ^ambhavavrata is more or less

common in other £aiva Upns. The significance of the different

streaks of tripundra is a feature which is found in other

• •

'Saiva Upns. It is not irrelivant to assume this Upn as a

sectarian one when many of those qualities are found here.

 164

12. Daksinamurtyupanisad
• **”" • m

This Upn pertaining to KYV deals with certain

significances of Saivatattva. The mantras relating to Siva

are prescribed along with the means to be employed for the

attainment of knowledge. Markandeya in discourse addresses

• •

some seers like Saunaka etc. regarding the absoluteness of

Siva. So naturally the Siva tattva is propounded here as the

means for true knowledge or the true knowledge itself. Hence

the bltss in attaining the Brahman is c ornament ary to this

knowledge. Secondly some of the quories about details of the

. are
attainment of Saivatattva ^raised by the sages and there

Markandeya answers them in detail.

• •

The spiritual attainment and the esoteric form of

Siva is said to be the most significant object for the right

knowledge of Sivatattva. The consciousness and its rise occurs

through the secret knowledge of Sivattattva and finally the

meditator settles in the Absolute, that is Kaivalya. Then only

the meditator is able to know about the real form of the

Brahman.
 165

13. PaKcabrahmopanisad

The Pancabrahmopanisad pertaining to KYV, is the

esoreric doctrine about the forms, colours, powers, deities

and other concomitants of the five Brahmans who are Sadyojata,

Aghora, Vamadeva, Tatpurusa and l£ana. These five Brahman are

again become dissolved m Parambrahman, the non-dual Siva.

The attainment of Siva m the Daharakafea is explained here

in the form of a discourse between Sakala and Paippalada.

Sadyojata, who is generated all at once, Aghora,

Vamadeva, Tatpurusa and the director of all things - Tfeana

are all these. Ifeana is the control.!er of the past, the

present and the future and of all heavenly beings. The

knowledge about these five is called PaScabrahmavidya. This

brahmavidya is imparted by Mahadeva, Maharudra and Mahefea to

paippalada, as it is declared in the firuti.

These different names like Sadyojata etc. are the

faces of the Sadasiva to different directions. The real form

of these are given which proves the all pervading supremacy

of Rudra-Siva. Thus Sadyojata is described as the

eastward - looking face of Sadafeiva having the character of

earth, the Pusan(sun), Rama (the spouce of Visnu), Brahma

(the creator), which is the sentient character of the three

 166

(viz; the visva, the virat and the otratmans, the class of

vowels like 'aj

—— and others. It represents the RV,
# the

qarhapatya (domestic fire) the five syllabled and other

mantras (namah sivaya) the seven svaras (musical notes of the

octave, sa, re, c[a, ma, ga, dha, ni) - it's colour is yellow,

it's sakti (power) is of sentient action and it is capable

of bestowing the fruits of all desires.

The Aghora is the face of Sadafeiva facing the

west and is of the character of water, the Moon, Gaurl

(the spouse of Siva). It represents the second Veda (Yajus).

It is of the colour of cloud. It is the vowel ,,uM and is

identified with daksina fire. This face is composed of the

fifty letters of the alphabet. It is the substance conjoint with

the powers of desire and action. It possesses the quality to

protect the powers generated by itself. It is destructive of

the flood of all kinds of sins and is capable of destroying

the wicked p^ssons and bestows the fruit of all kinds of wealth.

The real form of Vamadeva which is the south face

of Sadasiva is described as the bestower of the great enlightraent

(mahabodha). It possesses the fire. It possesses various

vidyas and lokas (worlds). It is resplendant with the

splendour of crores of suns (simultaneously risen). It is full

of grace known as Samaveda. This face is well served by the

eight kinds of songs (composed of the seven of the Samaveda,

 167

as welJ as the Jati or the song mentioned in Bharata sastra

as the eighth with a majestic woice. This face is of a mild

temperament. It possesses the character of ahavaniya (fire)

which is unsurpassed in excellence. This face is served by

the £aktas. It is the bestower of all kinds of auspiciousncss

and the bestower of the fruits of all kinds of Karma. It is

of all form of eight syllabled mantra, a, ka, ca, ta, ta, pa,

ya, sa, or om corresponding the utterance “namo Mahadevaya11.

This form is firmly established in the interior of the eight

petals of the heart lotus, which might be the eight-petaled

anahatacakra.

The real form of Tatpurusa is the face of Sada&iva

facing the north. This is related with five fires. It is of

the character of the svaras (vowels) and varnas (consonants)

making the fifty letters. It is of the form of AV. It is of

blood red colour and of the character of medicine for al3

kinds of diseases of the mind as well as of the body. This

face is the prime cause of all created beings, their sustenance

and dissolution. It transcends the three states of waking,

dreaming and sleeping and is of the turiya state. It is

simultaneously described as the turiyatita and designated

as turiya Brahman. The form of Isana is manifested in the

middle of the aforesaid four faces. It is the highest. It is

of the character of akafea or ether, and avyakta (the unmanifest).

 168

He is. all the gods rolled into one and the tranquil Used

one. He transcends the svara known as santi, lying beyond

the seven svaras (notes of the octave). He is the controller

of all sounds beginning from 'a'. He is the director of five

kinds of action as creation, sustenance, destruction,

benediction and sudden disappearance from the view.

Then the Parambrahman who is the basis of

dissolution(laya) of the five Brahman m its own self is

described as established m its own peerless non-dual existence

by destroying the glories of it's own illusory powers.

Transcending the characteristics of the P a Inc abr ahman, it

manifests itself as the infinite existence with the radiance

of its own-self. He is the world preceptor and the prime-cause

of all causes. This Parambrahman is then described as

Mahadeva, Sambhu and is paramapurusa. The five forms of

sadyojata etc. constitute the preliminary step in the path

of knowledge. The phenomenal world is the Parambrahma who is

feiva. Knowing thus, the seeker surrenders himself to Ifeana

who is the Paramatman and attains the exalted state of iSana

alone. Stress is laid upon in this Upn on the knowledge of

immortal state of the Brahman, of the form of Siva. Then

importance is given to five syllabled mantra-namo feivaya

as representing the real character of Brahman.Siva is described

 169

here as possessing the character of non-dual or absolute

consciousness (advaitacaitanatva). £iva is to be realised in

the daharakafea or in the hearts of all beings and is the

liberator of world of existence.

From the above analysis of the content of the Upn,

it becomes clear that this Upn is of a later period. Though

a later Upn Sivats connection with all forms of fire is

significant here. He is the originator of alphabets and the

musical notes - the features which are prominent in later

vedic literature in the personality of Siva. At last Siva is

depicted as the Absolute.

14. Brhaiiabalopamsad
• •

This Upn belongs to AV_ and consists of long five

chapters# known as Brahmanas, which rest on the story of

Bhusundakaka# who is Brahman in the form of a crow# approaching

o • •

to kalagnirudra regarding different materials (aharya) of

Rudra worship and the ultimate reality. The attainment of

ultimate reality by means of bhasma etc. is here known as

jabala vidya. The glorification of a particular sect and its

way of worship thus reaches at its apex# when they are the

means for attainment of highest reality.

 170

As regards the bhasma in the £aiva belief, this

Upn exposes how the phenomenal world is transitory which

ultimately turns to ashes and the principle remains unchanged

is the Brahman. To remind this, besmearing of bhasma is

administered. But the genesis of this concept deems fit if

the ashes of the graveyard would be prescribed. But here that is

conspicuously absent. There is institutionalisation of preparation

of five types of bhasma of cow-dung of five types of cows

instead; with incantation of different Rudra mantras. To

justify this some symbolic representations are made there.

Along with this there is interesting process of bhasmasngna

and the use of trjpundra mark. Under this process cowdung,

• •

the basic matter for bhasma or vibhuti, the force of Rudra,

is glorified and religious status is hence added to the cowdung;

and their variety to the extent of vidya etc. This process

further prescribes mantras for callection of cowdung.

The use of ashes after preparation and their

glorification and rationalisation leads this Upn to be a bit

sectarian. The use of beads like Aksamalika mi ana the

concept of rudraksa as the eyes of Rudra and the use of

" " '' ' * ' «

those things are equaied with different amount of godana

leading towards saiujyamukti. There is a trace of bhakti

 171

towards Rudra even apart from its glorification. Thus the

use of aharya symbolically expects one to attain the highest

way of worship. The Rudra theory is thus rich in this process

of worship.

As regards the other part of this Upn ^an identity

between Agni and Rudra is made again with the fire and moon

as visva and vaifevanara. The fire is subtle, sublime, radiant

and dreadful here. The force of Paramesvara is two fold of

which one is from below and the other is from above. Here soma

is said to be from above and fire from below. The rise and

fall of forces of fire take place in the cakras from mahadhara

to ajna. But satasrara is the seat of the transcendent moon

in this regard. The evolution and involution of consciousness

is very mystically depicted here. A man when aware of himself

(jiva) and the 16a is supposed to be free from the bondage

of birth and death. The conquer of death is possible only

after identifying oneself with l£a, but not by deathlessness.

Thus jlva burns his bondage of phenomenal world 5nd brings

identity between jiva and Soma (Isa). A triangular equation

between jiva. Soma and Rudra is made here for the attainment

of liberation. Thus this Upn leads the man from material

performances to limitless attainment.

 172

15. Bhasmajabalopanisad

This Upn belonging to AV is in the form of a

discourse between jabala and Siva. Here stress in given on

the austerities connected with bhasmoddhulana and tripundra

r -- .n i... _ . u * ■- -in # 0

dharana. The mode of worship of Siva is prescribed here with

m wmm

. the six-syllabled and eight-syllabled mantras of Siva. Siva

is the real form of Brahman. The means of Siva-saixpya is

enjoined here. Siva is described here as the main prop of

the universe and the liberator of PaSus from the pafca. It

again prescribes the worship of Vifeve&vara at Ka&i in the

case of ignorant folk not sufficiently evolved spiritually

to realise the eternal variety of Siva. Through residence and

death at Ka§i one can realise the eternal Siva. The special

sanctity attached to the worship of jyetirlinga at Kafei is

found mention here. The worship of Siva in the linga form

is a remarkable feature of this Upn. The fruits attainable

through the worship of Siva and by the sacred bathing of

Siva linga are also depicted.

The esoteric significance of wearing the tripundra

mark is explained here. The rituals for worshipping Siva

which are characteristically later, like worshipping him with

 173

vilva leaves/ the tripundra mark, the manner of collecting

the ashes and the process of bearing it are to be found here.

A number of appelations denoting the supremacy, eternal

and non-dual character of &iva is mentioned here. £iva is

the real form of the Brahman, the prime cause of all.

Knowledge of this Brahman is alone the means of liberation.

Siva .is the support of the universe.

Prom this Upn, it is known that one has to keep

austere vow on Mondays besides making Bhasma-marks over

the body, wearing the Rudraksa-beads and practising the

daily domestic austerities, worshipping Vifevefevara by

Pancaksara mantra as well as worshipping Bhairava and

Nilalohita- So also the anthropomorphic form of the Lord as

sharing a diadem in half with Uma, as bearing three eyes of

Sun, Moon and Fire, as clad in the skin of a tiger, as

holding a deer in his hand, as body sprinkled all over with

sacred ashes, as bearing a forehead effulgent with the three

parallel transverse lines of the tripundra mark, as having

five faces of five different aspects, fully radiant with

smiles and as seated in the Virasana posture and as having

a golden complexion is found here.

 174

16. Rudrahrdayopanisad

This Upn pertaining to the KYV is a form of

discourse between Sri and his father Vyasa. This Upn is

an exposition of the identity between Siva and Visnu. The

• •

all comprehensive character of Mahefevara as associated with

Uma and the glorification of the peerless and non-dual

Brahman are to be found.

Rudra is here depicted as possessing the character

of all gods. The Sun, Brahma and the three fires (daksina,
• •

qarhapatya and ahavaniya) stand to the right side of Rudra.

The Goddess Uma, Visnu and the Moon stand to his left side.
• •

Curiously enough the Goddess Uma is identified with Visnu,

• «

who is also identified with the Moon.

The worship of Hari and Govinda is also described

here as the worship of bull-ensigned god (Siva). Then Rudra

is identified with Brahma. Rudra is of the character of

Brahma and Visnu. Every being of the male sex is of the form
• •

of liana and every being of the female sex is of the form

of the Uma. Whatever manifest, is of the form of Uma and

whatever is avyakta (unmanifest) is of the form of Mahefevara.

Strangely enough the conjunction of Uma with iaifikara

is described as all embracing Visnu.

• •
 175

Then Rudra is described as having the character

of trimurti. He is the MaheSvara, who is the prime cause.

The real form was split in to three by Rudra to achieve his

high purpose.

Then the glorification is made to Rudra to

release from all sins ass

Rudra is Brahma and Uma is Vanl.

Rudra is Visnu and Uma is Laxml.
Rudra is Sun and Uma is Chaya.
Rudra is Moon and Uma is Star.
Rudra is the daytime and Uma is night.
Rudra is Yajna and Uma is the vedi.
Rudra is Vahni and Uma is the svaha.
Rudra is the Veda and Uma is the Sakha.
Rudra is the tree and Uma is the creeper
Rudra is the fragrance and Uma is the flowers
Rudra is the import and Uma is the letter.
Rudra is the Lifiga and Uma is the pitha.

Then artificial nature of the difference between

iiva and I&a is proclaimed and riddance from misery (Soka)

and delusion (moha) through the realisation of non-dualism

(advaita) who is the self-manifest radiance (lyotis) is depicted.

 176

17. Rudraksajabalopanisaa

This Upn belonging to the Samaveda is an

exposition between Bhusunda and Kalagrirudra regarding the

• * *

part played by Rudraksa in the attainment of the state of

Brahman. The fanciful story is found here about the origin

of Rudraksa at the destruction of the Trtpura. Kalagnirudra

had to close his eyes. By that drops of water felt on the earth

from his eyes. Those drops became Rudraksa. For a thousand

JU .r Ill-ill - III- # -

years of the celestials his eyes were kept open and from

his eye-lids drops of water fell on the sarface of the earth.

These teardrops sprang forth in the form of prodigious

Rudraksa trees. Then the fruit of wearing the Rudraksa and

the uttering of prayer with it^is described. The classification

of Rudraksas into classes like Brahmana and Ksatriya is

depicted as the white ones should be known as the Brahmanas,

•

the red ones are the Ksatriyas, the tawny coloured ones are

to be known as the Vai&yas while the black ones are said to

be the £udras among the beads. The rosaries which are of

uniform size, glossy, hard, large and of a thorny surface

are of the auspicious type and other descriptions are there

of the eligible and non-eliqible types among the Rudraksas.

 177

Then the place of wearing, the Mantras which are to he

uttered, different fruits obtained thereby and the great

potency derived from wearinq the Rudraksa and the genesis

■ I Hi ] I J I I “I" ^ «■—

of Rudraksa are depicted.

Thus this Upn bears a clear imprint of the rituals

of Rudra worship which are purely sectarian in nature.

18. ^arabhopanisad •' 1*"‘"

This Upn forms part of the AV and is an exposition

of the eternal variety of Parame&vara that is identical with

the non - differentiated Brahman alone.

The excellence of Rudra is depicted here than

Brahma and Visnu, which clearly proves it's later origin.

• •

He is the powerful, excellent, omnipotent Lord, the great

I§a, the father of the Gods. He generates Brahma as well as

Visnu and withdraws all the worlds into himself, at the time
• •

of total dissolution.

An interesting fact is laid here as thus.

Mahefevara assuming the form of the fabulous monstrous

animal Sarabha vanquished the world vanquisher Nrsimha. The

Lord pierced Visnu with his sharp claws, clad in hides and
• •

became the great hero Virabhadra.

 178

Rudra is depicted here as the destroyer of the

fifth face of Brahma (the creator), who reduced to ashes

the entire universe by the spark of the fire emanating

from his forehead and created it once again.-By his left

foot, he vanquished the god of death (kala), drunk the

halahala poison and crushed with his riqht foot Apasmrti

•"

that was furiously valiant. He is even worshipped by Visnu.

• •

He is the valiant (Virabhadra), and he bound Visnu with his

• •

serpent-cords in the sacrifice performed by Daksa-Prajapati;

after vanquishing the hords of suras. He also burnt up the

tripura, with his three eyes of Sun, Moon and Fire. He

is the Pasupati. He generated out of his eye of destruction

the avatar as of Adi Visnu, Viz. Matsya, Kurina, Adivaraha,

Nrsimha etc. The absence of difference between Visnu and Siva

is also maintained here. The Sarabha is the Brahman that

bestows actual liberation on to all jlvas. The Sarabha of the

character of Rudra that vanquished Nrsimha is identical with

the Sarabha of the character of Visnu that sustains all

,nn 1 n~"L • •

Saras and jlvas. The class of cults is projected in this Upn.

The Upn winds up with the declaration that Siva

alone is worthy of being meditated upon. I&a is the

transcendent Visnu. Siva alone is the eternal.

• •
 179

~ 181
Sarabha or Sarabhamurti is to be found in icons.

Sarabha is a mythical eight-footed beast. It is a syncretism

of man-bird-beast attacking the Nrsimha (man-lion) with his claws.

19. Culikopanisad
•l 1

This Upn is a small one of twentyone mantras of AV

• " - 1
' ~~ '

and appears to be very significant by explaining the mystery

of the creation of the Brahman. The Brahman is equated with

Rudra, Siva, Ehava, l£vara, the brahmacari, vratya, skambha,

palita, anadvan, ucchista, rohita, kala, prana etc. The most

striking is the reference of vratya, palita, brahmacari,

ucchista which are nothinq but the different forms of the

Brahman, since little is known about them, one can make it

clear that they are also having some significant positions in

the way of worship. Curiously enough Rudra is identified with

them and has much relation with the ideas associated with

them. The genesis of this identification lies in the AV.

181. Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol.II, part-1,

pp.171-174, 1968
 180

20. Concluding Remarks

In the XJpns instead of the ritual worship, one will

find more stress is laid upon the metaphysical aspect, i.e.,

on meditation and concentration of knowledge. The seers of

Upns took the help of Samhita texts rather than the Brahmana

texts. Thus a new dimension of Rudra worship paved it's way

by this Upanisadic representation as the meditation on one

supreme self and unbound adherence to him found here. The

means for this were the prayers and mantras. In oUpn these

prayers are based on the Samhita texts. But in later feaivite

Upns, the mantras like namah feiva/a etc., were meditated

which ere of later origin. These mantras were themselves

regarded as representing the deity. In this way £llpn paved

the way for bhaktivada which predominated the vedic ritual

worship. In &Upn 6.13 Rudra is represented as the deity to

whom devotion is made. But though the trend of bhakti

originates in Upanisadic period still strong influence of

the old representation of Rudra and the vedic ritualistic worship

were also practised which is reflected in the texts of the

Sutra literature. Rudra is also proclaimed as the

omnipresent supreme deity. On the basis of the Rudra‘s

 181
>

depiction in Upns the following observations may be made;

1) In the Upn the monotheistic belief attains it's

culmination. The Saiva-Upns proclaim the non-dual# eternal

and all-embracing character of the Rudra-Siva and depict him

as the supreme entity. The religious setup has undergone a

distinct change during the Upamsadic period and this change

is also remarkable in Rudra-Siva's nature.

ii) The attributes and names which are addressed to

Rudra are also different from the early period. The highest

appelations are ascribed to him as Ifea# Ifeana, Mahefevara#

Suksma etc. and most of thise attributes ai'e abstract in

nature. He is identified with the Brahman. Philosophical

characters are also stressed upon here. It is stressed that#

knowing Rudra# liberation can be attained.

iii) The difference from the early exposition is to be

realised on the ground that stress is not laid on the

anthropomorphic features of the god. His awe - insjjiring

nature is not traced here and so also there is no mention of

his weapons^ <<xhich used to frighten the worshipper. Occasionally

the external features of the God are depicted, which do not

 182

always enable the devotee to visualise his personality,

excepting the Bhasmalabalopanisad. His ternble nature is not

depicted rather his body is auspicious, unterrifying and

reveals no evil(feUpn III.5).

iv) Instead of ritualistic worship stress is laid upon

the Yoga and meditation of Rudra as the supreme deity.

v) Different Vratas like feambhava and Mahapafeupata etc.,

are found in a number of upns like Jabala* Kaladnirudra,

Atharvafeira and Atharvafeikhopamsad. The formula and the

process of these vratas are almost similar in all the texts.

vi) The procedure of adherance of vrata along with the

injunctions and prohibitions are more or less same and the

mantras employed in it are same.

vii) The rationalisation and the significance of

tripunara are explained on similar tracks.

viii) In many Upns like paficabrahma Upn, &iva is said as

the absolute principle. He is conceived as the originator of

alphabets and the musical notes. This popular feature of

Rudra is given much importance in the later literature, feiva

 183

is the lord of dance or nataraja in the post vedic literatuie

9

who while dancinq holds the damaru (nanada dhakkam navapancavaram)

• " -- • '

from which emerged the fourteen sutras of alphabets. This

post-vedic characters of Siva, being connected with pramathas

are to be met with here.

ix) The emergence of the idea of devotion is another

feature of Upns. Yaduvamli rightly subsides this view that

bhaktivada has it's origin in Supn apart from other philosophical

speculations. When the intimate way of worship by using

bhasma, tripundra and rudraksa etc., is developed, a movement

" • t ‘"Tin ii — mi —

of devotion came into being. As it is known that the bhakti

is developed with the concept of personal God, Visnu and Rudra

• •

are mostly of this category. This concept of worshiping Siva

and the use of sectarian marks is accepted to please the God.

This is the germination of the concept of Siva's bountiousness

towards the devotees, beinq 'afeutosa'. The under-current of

bhakti is traceable here.

x) It is a common phenomenon that in almost all

Saiva Upns the human body is the lower churning stick and the

incantation of syllable'Om' is the upper charning - wood (arani).

1 1 •
 184

As by the churning of two sticks fire is generated so also the

knowledge is attained by the meditation of 'Qm'. The syllable

1 Qm* is often identified with Rudra.

xi) feaiva Upns not only highlight the feature of Rudra

but also glorifies that the study of these Upns takes the reader

to the abode of Siva and liberates him from the whirlpool of

birth and death. Even Kaivalya Upamsad going one step ahead

prescribes objectively to read SR. This eulogy of SR is not a

stray case but also curiously enough this character is prevalent

in a number of Upns.

xii) It is inter sting to note that the Atharvamc Upns are

distinguished from the other Upns, which are not the product of

individual brain but a group of authorities which expose

varieties of ideas like neo-vedantic, mystic and sectarian

ascetic communities as contrast to the old-vedic-Sakhas. Such

1.62
is also rightly supported by Deussen. Secondly it can be

said that Atharvanic Upns used to depict the vedantic view of

Brahman, the significance of moras and recommend the way of

182. P. Deussen, Sixty Upanisads of the Veda, p.555.

 185

life of ascetics. Siva is accepted as the personification of

atman and is worshipped by various names like Ifeana#

Mahefevara and Mahadeva etc.

xiii) Culikopanisad records some mystic beings like

brahmacari, palita, vratya and ucchista etc., which are connected

l_",M ,""rl... “l...l " 11 ~ • m""*

with Rudra. Apart from this^ Jabalopanisad refers to brahmacari

alone.

Some other Upns mention Rudra in an insignificant

way. Amrtavmdu (V.2), Nadavindu (V.8), Hamsa(V.l) speak of

Siva and Parvati; Brahmopanisad (V.2) speaks of Brahmacari (V.4),

• "“ —__w———

Nrsimhapurvatapini (1.2), Narayana, Nrsimhottaratapmi used to

refer to Rudra. Rarnapurvatapinl (V. 6) and Ramottaratapini also

refer to Rudra. Vaskala Upn(V.24) says that Rudra is the

destroyer. Saunaka and Brahma Upn refer to the worship of Rudra.

Thus the Upns record the importance of Rudra-Siva

and the way of worship and the rationalisation in all its

extent and as such may be regarded as the full fledged

background of Rudra-Siva worship in post-vedic period.

 186

F. THE CONCEPT OF RUDRA IN SUTRALITERATURE

In the $rautasutras, Rudra is but one deity among

many other deities and he xs extolled as before by different

names as Rudra, Bhava, Sarva etc. &SS 4.19.1 states his

different names in the context of feulagava sacrifice, which

1
is exclusively meant for Rudra. In the same ££§, the names

ascribed to Rudra in another context as bhuvapati, bhuvanapati,

"1 QA
bhutanampati etc. depict him as the lord of the world.

In the 6fcS as well as in the A&S, Rudra is invoked

IOC
for the protection of man as well as of the animals. He is

the curer of diseases by his medicine. Ihus the 5£S states

vyadhiplaya rudraya and Latyayana Srautasutra (5.3.2) also

1 • ' “ L *-

*1
states the physician character of Rudra. °

183. tasmai te deva bhavaya fearvaya pafeupataya uqraya devaya

mahaue devaya rudrayefeanayafcanaye svaheti vapam hutva...
.... pascimeqnau sthalipakam £rapayati/

184. 6&S 4.20.14? bhupate bhuvapate bhuvanapate bhutapate,

bhutanampate mahato bhutasya pate mrla no/
185. fe&S 4.20.1 St A&S 3.11.1 yasmad bhlsa msidasi tato no
abhayam krdhi/ pafcunnah sarvan gopaya namo rudraya
milhusa iti//
... .. • ~inr'"" 1
186. bhesalamasi bhesajam gavefevaya purusaya bhesajaiti/
sugam mesaya mesyaistu bhesajam yatha sad iti//
 187

The identification of Rudra and Agni is also found

187
here and Rudra is the aqnisvistakrt. The Tryambaka
• •
188
worship is also found in £6s. In this context Rudra's hosts

or qanas are found mention, who are associated with some

epithets like aqhosinyah, pratiqhosinyah, samqhosinyah etc;

• • • • • •
which suggest the roaring sound of the qanas. Moreover they

are described as kravyadah or who eat the flesh of the dead.

So these qanas appear to be the class of bhuta, pisaca etc.

in the AV also Rudra is invoked to drive away these malignant

forces like bhuta, pifeaca etc. So later on these beings

became the followers of Rudra. In AV XI.2.31, the roaring

of the hosts of Rudra is mentioned and these hosts might have

the implication of the malignant beings as bhuta, pifeaca etc.

So the reference of 8&S about these qanas

" • 1 ,T
'

signifies that one aspect of Rudra worship is closely

connected with the popular belief and faith in evil spirits.

But Rudra has an exalted position in Grhyasutras

than Srautasutras. In the PGS, the alJ pervading character

187. Jifes,4.29.1.

188. 6Ss,3.17.10-11; tryambakam samsthapya maitrafecaru/

aditye va .........
 188

of Rudra is emphasised and this text declares that the Sruti

1 qq 190
says 'Rudra is this universe*
1. In the BGS in the context

of feulagava sacrifice, Rudra is invoked as vi£vavyapi

pararftbrahma. In another context Rudra is also called purusa

and vifevasrasta. Adoration is made to Rudra, "the lord of

' " • • """

cattle, the great god, the tricolour, solitary, supreme lord,

to Sarva, to l£ana who carries the thunderbolt, to the fierce

wearer of matted locks". 191

Though he is known as Rudra, still almost all of his

192
vedic epithets are mentioned here. iwo of his new epithets '
— 193
Siva and Samkara are referred to in AGS. He is extolled as
- 194
prsataka, which refers to his malevolent form. In the BDS
• •' “l'1"
195
Rudra is known as Vifeantaka. Among the several names of

189. PGS,III.15.16.

190. BGS,1.2.7.23.

191. SBE.Vol.XXIX. 1Grhvasutra Part I, p.294.

•

192. AGS,4.10.1.

193. AGS,2.1.2.
194 . AGS, 2.2.2 & |K^S, 2.3.5 - Incidentally it may be noted
here that prsataki is a sort of disease or a
demoness AV,XIV.2.48.

195. BDS,7.10
 189

Rudra which are found in different Grhyasutras, the important

ones are Hara, Mrda, Sarva, Siva, Mahadeva, Ugra, Bhima,

• •
# _ _ 195 . _
Pafeupati, Rudra, Samkara, iSana, A&ani and Bhava. Ifeana is

offered worship in many places. The Khadira

111 "r MlL
Grhya
•
Sutra also

regards Rudra as the Pa&upati, who walks with the line of

cattle. Virupaksa is also found mention in several contexts.

197
The SGS directs that the householder having bathed and

having submerged himself at the time prescribed for the bath,

satiates a number of deities among whom Virupaksa is one.

Another name of Rudra is the t^ionyone (pingala) which is found

in the context of Afevayuja. Names such as Siva and Samkara

came to be generally used, though it should be remembered,

they were used rather in their etymological sense and more or

less euphemistically.

Thus it appears that the characteristics of Rudra

was passing through ages from Samhita to Brahmana,

9
to
—r-i-ii, , -r-., | ............ _ ' T n --

Srauta and Grhya-sutras - from concept to percept. Rudra who

196. PGS, III.8.6.

197. SGS, IV.9.3; also see ASGS, III.4; BDS, II.9.

198. SGS, IV.16.2.

 190

is invoked in RV as the lord of songs, the lord of sacrifice,

• """

199
becomes the oldest and best of gods in the Brahmana literature,

and still more a powerful deity in the Upn, where he is the one

god, supporter of gods and creator of the world. This

personality of Rudra is also retained in the sutra literature

specially m Grhyasutras.

199. KB, XXV. 13 in the content of the Bvayamaruta and

Aqnimaruta hymns.