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Paraphrasing Techniques Guide

This chapter discusses the definition of paraphrasing, criteria for appropriate paraphrasing, and techniques for paraphrasing. It defines paraphrasing as restating the meaning of a text in one's own words while maintaining the overall content and meaning. Appropriate paraphrasing keeps the length and importance of ideas similar to the original, does not add new views, and changes the sentence structure. Examples are provided to illustrate appropriate and inappropriate paraphrasing.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
331 views24 pages

Paraphrasing Techniques Guide

This chapter discusses the definition of paraphrasing, criteria for appropriate paraphrasing, and techniques for paraphrasing. It defines paraphrasing as restating the meaning of a text in one's own words while maintaining the overall content and meaning. Appropriate paraphrasing keeps the length and importance of ideas similar to the original, does not add new views, and changes the sentence structure. Examples are provided to illustrate appropriate and inappropriate paraphrasing.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses about all of related review of the study.


There are three main points that will be discussed, those are: definition
of paraphrasing, criteria of appropriate paraphrase, and techniques in
paraphrasing. In addition, some previous studies related to this linguistic
field also will be revealed.
A. Definition of Paraphrase
As stated before paraphrase is one the important techniques
in writing which student need to use as they write someone’s work,
ideas, and thought to support their argument. 21 According to
Merriam-Webster dictionary, a paraphrase (as a noun) is a
restatement of a text, passage, or work, expressing the meaning of
the original in another form by expressing, interpreting, or
translating with latitude giving the meaning of a passage in another
language. Similarly, paraphrasing (as a verb) is “the act or process
of restating or rewording. In the light of these definitions,
paraphrasing or “rewording of another writer’s text, explanation,
argument, or narrative” is approximately equal in length as the
original but differs significantly in its lexis and syntax. 22 From the
lexical meaning above paraphrasing can be known as the
statements of a text or passage restated by the writers.
Furthermore, Alice and Hogue on the book of Academic
Writing define paraphrasing as follow:
“Paraphrasing is a writing skill in which you “rephrase”
(rewrite) information from an outside source in your
own words without changing its meaning. Because you
include in your rewriting all, or nearly all, of the content

21
Bazerman, C. The informed writer: Using sources in the disciplines, 5th edition.
(Princeton, NJ: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1995) p. 58
22
Merriam-Webster, Students’ Writing Handbook 5th edition, 2010. p. 284

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of the original passage, a paraphrase is almost as
long”.23
Many universities, university libraries, and university
writing centers in offer information about paraphrasing on their
websites. On these websites, paraphrases are defined and when,
how, and why to use paraphrasing are explained. For example, a
webpage by Purdue OWL explains paraphrasing as follows:
“Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source
material into your own words. A paraphrase must also
be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material
is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a
somewhat broader segment of the source and
condensing it slightly”.24
From this explanation, paraphrasing can be concluded as one
of the techniques in academic writing needed to support writers’
statements in taking experts’ statements, in addition to strengthen
opinion without removing the meaning of the statements. Moreover,
this technique is aimed to avoid unintentional plagiarism called as
inappropriate paraphrasing.

B. Criteria of Appropriate Paraphrase


To use paraphrasing techniques, writers need to cover some
criteria of good paraphrasing which can be included as appropriate
techniques. Some experts have argued the criteria in taking
someone’s ideas through paraphrasing. Although different
arguments revealed by some experts, the main criteria of
paraphrasing are actually still in the same line or argument.
According to Alice, good criteria of paraphrase include all
important ideas mentioned in the original passage but not in the
same order.25 Alice describes some appropriate paraphrase as
below:

23
Alice, O. & Ann Hogue, Writing Academic English, Third Edition, (Young Publishing
House, 2000) p. 127
24
Driscoll, D. L., & Brizee, A. Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing. (2013).
Retrieved
from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/563/1/accessed on 10 January 2017
25
Alice, Writing Academic English… p. 129

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1. Keep the length approximately the same as the original.
2. Do not stress any single point more than another.
3. Do not change the meaning by adding your own thoughts
or views.
4. Do not use the original sentence structure.
For examples:
Original Passage:
Language is the main means of
communication between people. But so many
different languages have developed that
language has often been a barrier rather than an
aid to understanding among peoples. For many
years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international universal language which all
people could speak and understand. The
argument in favour of a universal language is
simple and obvious. If all people spoke the
same tongue, cultural and economic ties might
be much closer, and good will might increase
between countries (Kispert).26
Appropriate Paraphrase:
Humans communicate through language.
Because there are so many different languages,
however, people around the world have a
difficult time understanding one another. Some
people have wished for a universal international
language that speakers all over the world could
understand. Their reasons are straightforward
and clear. A universal language world builds
cultural and economic bonds. It would also
create better feelings among countries
(Kispert).

26
Kispert, Robert J. “Universal Language.” World Book Online Reference Center. 2014

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Inappropriate Paraphrase
Language is the principal means of
communication between peoples. However,
because there are numerous languages,
language itself has frequently been a barrier
rather than an aid to understanding among the
world population. For many years, people have
envisioned a common universal language that
people in the world could communicate it. The
reasons for having a universal language are
clearly understandable. If the same tongue were
spoken by all countries, they would
undoubtedly become closer culturally and
economically. It would probably also create
good will among nations.
The last passage can be declared as inappropriate paraphrase
because the source is not cited. Additionally, it could be plagiarism
work because it is too similar to the original passage. The reasons
of being plagiarism are because first sentence, only one word has
been changed: main replaced by principal and the second sentence,
only a few words have been changed. By only having a little
changing whether in structure or in word order can be one of an
inappropriate works because the text would be a quite similar to
original passage.
Furthermore, Rinnert and Kobayashi describe the criteria of
appropriate paraphrase the text or passage should be firstly
included the correct citation convention. The, the sentence
structure and word choice must be changed, and last the basic
meaning of the text is retained.27 Followed by Pennycook who
claimed that borrowing others, words, or ideas should be
acknowledging the source appropriately and including very little
verbatim copying.28
From these explanations, the criteria can be listed as bellow:

27
Rinnert, C., & Kobayashi, H. Borrowing words and ideas: Insights from Japanese L1
writers. (Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 2005) 15(1), p. 31
Pennycook, A. Borrowing others’ words: Text, ownership, memory, and plagiarism.
28

1996 TESOL Quarterly, 30, 201-230.

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1) The source is acknowledged using correct citation conventions
2) The sentence structure and word choice are altered
3) The basic meaning of the original text is retained
4) Including very little verbatim copying.
Example:
Original Text:
Sources: Page 16 of a three-page article in the
October 15, 2003, issue of Space Science
magazine. The title of the article is “Manned
Mars Fight: Impossible Dream?” The author,
Patrick Clinton, a NASA (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration) physician
Living abroad a space station in orbit around
Earth for months at a time poses problems for
astronauts’ bodies as well as for their minds. 29
Inappropriate Paraphrase:
An article in Space Science reports that living
in a space station orbiting Earth for a long time
can cause difficulties for astronauts’ bodies and
minds.
Appropriate Paraphrase:
An article in Space Science magazine reports
that lengthy space station duty may lead to
physical and mental problems for astronauts
(Clinton 16).
This paraphrase is appropriate because some criteria covered as
follow:
a) The source is cited, (Clinton 16).
b) The words changed, for months replaced by lengthy,
bodies and minds replaced by physical and mental.
c) The structure is also changed.
d) The key meaning is retained, Space Science
magazine and problems.

29
Alice, Writing Academic English, p. 130-131

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Based on Keck’s study, to support arguments through
paraphrase the text changed to writers’ text should be mentioned the
sources of the text or the author of the text. It also must be different
from a quotation and summary. Moreover, he argued that
appropriate paraphrase must change the word order into different
types.30 These requirements of using paraphrasing technique are the
same as the previous experts’ theories. In addition, Shirley on his
study “The Art of Paraphrase “gives more information about the
criteria of appropriate paraphrase. He states that to use paraphrasing
technique, writers must not distort the meaning of the original text,
key point should be retained, and using sufficient synonym. 31 This
means he strengthens the criteria from the accurate meaning and the
key words writers should precisely restate the original text.
Furthermore, Campbell on his journal “Writing with Others’
Words” gives additional information that paraphrases must be
involved syntactic changes of the original than near copy. It also
contains the key points, in addition to have the detail sources. 32 In
the line with those characteristics, Purdue University Online
Writing Lab (OWL) also suggests that text must be comprehended
from the original expert, and all key details must be included.33
Briefly, both Campbell and OWL categorize the appropriate criteria
are typically near to syntactical changing and the word count.
From the explanation above, it can be concluded that
appropriate paraphrasing can be measured by some criteria bellows:
1. Paraphrase must be different from quotation and summary.
2. Paraphrase must include the source of the text or the author of
the text.
3. Paraphrase must retain the meaning of the text, by meaning
that key details are mentioned, and it should not change the
original meaning.

30
Keck, “The Use of Paraphrase in Summary Writing”. p. 270
31
Shirley, “The Art of Paraphrase. Instructional Note”. p. 186-188
32
Campbell, Writing with Others’ Words.... p. 211
33
Purdue OWL: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing.

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4. Paraphrasing text must be comprehended from the original
text.
5. Paraphrasing text must change word order with sufficient use
of synonym.
6. Paraphrase must be involved more syntactic changes than
near copy.
These following examples are the paraphrase which can be
included as appropriate or inappropriate based on the information
from Keck’s study, Shirley, and OWL Purdue Online Writing.
Original Text:
Americans consider someone who looks them
in the eye to be honest. A person who looks
down or looks away, in contrast, is suspected of
being dishonest.34
Appropriate Paraphrase:
For people from the US, not looking someone
in the eye is an indication of not telling the
truth, while meeting a person’s eyes is a sign
that they are telling the truth.
Inappropriate Paraphrase:
People from America seeing others by eyes
mean they are honest. But people seeing down
and far away are supposed dishonest.
All the explanation from some experts above shows
that the criteria of appropriate paraphrase could be clarified as
follow:
1. Attributed to Original Sources
The most important required element in paraphrasing
is to include the sources from the original text. Making it
completed with sources, writer can use several ways to
ensure the text is such a paraphrase. This way is citing the

34
Doshisha University Academic Repository, http://library.doshisha.ac.jp/ir/en/, accessed 9
Jan 2017.

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original author to the text which has been paraphrased.
Example:
Humans communicate through language.
Because there are so many different
languages, however, people around the world
have a difficult time understanding one
another. Some people have wished for a
universal international language that
speakers all over the world could understand.
Their reasons are straightforward and clear.
A universal language world builds cultural
and economic bonds. It would also create
better feelings among countries (Kispert).
2. Sufficient Use of Synonym for Terminology
Using synonym to take someone ideas is as important
as citing the original sources. This criterion means that using
synonym needs some criteria to achieve a sufficient one. As
Stephen Bailey35 stated that to avoid unconnected words,
sufficient synonym should follow the rules as bellow:
a. Synonym must be nearly similar to another word
b. Synonym must be used in a context of the text
c. Synonym must be expressed without a change of the
overall message

Example:
Original Text:
Americans consider someone who looks
them in the eye to be honest. A person

35
Stephen Bailey, Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, 2 edition
(London; New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 29–31.

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who looks down or looks away, in
contrast, is suspected of being dishonest. 36
Appropriate Paraphrase:
For people from the US, not looking
someone in the eye is an indication of not
telling the truth, while meeting a person’s
eyes is a sign that they are telling the
truth.
3. Retaining All Key Points of Original Excerpt
Every statement will always have the main topic which
is discussed about. This is such a topic that cannot be deleted
from the original one when taking someone ideas. Someone
paraphrasing can change the words but cannot replace the
key points of the text. As Jordan argued this means the topic
sentence and controlling idea should always be retained.37
Original Text:
Living abroad a space station in orbit around
Earth for months at a time poses problems for
astronauts’ bodies as well as for their minds. 38
Appropriate Paraphrase:
An article in Space Science magazine reports
that lengthy space station duty may lead to
physical and mental problems for astronauts
(Clinton 16).
4. Sufficient Syntactical Shift
This means that paraphrasing should be applied in
changing the structure of grammar. There are two ways
which can be used to change the structure. Those are:
1. Active to passive

36
Doshisha University Academic Repository, http://library.doshisha.ac.jp/ir/en/, accessed 9
Jan 2017.
37
R. Jordan. Academic Writing Course: Study Skill in English, 3rd edition. (Oxford:
Pearson Education, 2003). p. 93-98
38
Alice, Writing Academic English, p. 131

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2. Positive to negative
3. Long sentence to short sentence
Examples:
Original:
“Americans consider someone who
looks them in the eye to be honest. A
person who looks down or looks away,
in contrast, is suspected of being
dishonest.”39
Paraphrase:
For people from the US, not looking
someone in the eye is an indication of
not telling the truth, while meeting a
person’s eyes is a sign that they are
telling the truth.
5. Avoided Summary
Since paraphrasing is not a summary, it should be
stated different from a summary. The differences between
them are:
a) A summary is an abridged version of the original text
b) A paraphrase can be shorter or longer than original text
c) A summary eliminates detail, examples, and supporting
points
d) A paraphrase describes the original text in different
words. It does not omit detail

6. Word Form Changed


Changing word order is quite similar to changing a
structure of grammar. However, it could be separated from

39
Alice, Writing Academic English, p. 131

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the previous one because this only focuses on a changing in
particular position of each sentence. 40
- Original : Terry wanted more books, but he couldn’t
afford them.
- Paraphrase : Terry couldn’t afford more books, even
though he wanted them.
7. No Writers’ Opinion
As a writer who takes someone ideas, it is very
necessary to know that including our opinion in a paraphrase
cannot be applied. This means that all the text must contain
only an idea from the original sources.
Many studies and experts argued the measurement of
appropriateness paraphrase since they have found and
measured the criteria by their own perspective. All the
criteria provided by some studies are obviously acceptable
and no other reasons to claim those theories. From those
theories, the researcher aims to use and collect their
arguments to become the measurement of the appropriate
paraphrase. According to Keck’s study, the appropriate
paraphrase rubric has been stated by Shirley and Purdue
Online Writing Lab, and they stated that the level of
paraphrase can be categorized into four types. Those are
appropriate paraphrase, somewhat appropriate, somewhat
inappropriate, and inappropriate.41 Keck took the criteria
which were adapted from Shirley and OWL who collected
some theories to support their arguments. Having a
theoretical discussion and adapting some recent information
from English for academic, they synthesized these
aforementioned guidelines and considered purposing a set of
required criteria within a checklist for paraphrase
appropriateness.42
C. Techniques of Paraphrase
Some experts have argued that taking other’s words through
paraphrase there are some ways to entirely accomplish this

40
Shirley, “The Art of Paraphrase. Instructional Note”. p. 186
41
Keck, “The Use of Paraphrase in Summary Writing” p. 265
42
Shirley, “The Art of Paraphrase. Instructional Note”. p. 186

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technique. According to McGinley, techniques in paraphrasing are
divided into three groups: changing structure and grammar
paraphrase (syntactic paraphrase), changing word paraphrase
(semantic paraphrase) and changing structure (organization) of
ideas.43 Bailey also declares that the way to paraphrase other’s
words can be done through three different ways, such as changing
word order, changing word category, and changing structure of
idea.44 There no different argument between those two experts
involved the way to paraphrase. On the other hand, Jordan has a
view of this topic with three different techniques to paraphrase.
Those are changing the vocabulary, changing the verb form, and
changing the word class.45
From all those information and arguments from some experts,
it can be concluded there are three main techniques in paraphrasing,
as explained bellow:
1) Changing Structure and Grammar
As Jordan said that a paraphrase can be firstly used by
changing the word order of the sentence or the passage by
starting at a different place: in the middle or from the end of the
original.46 This technique aims to make the text different from
the original in line with the position of each word. Jordan
specified this way into two different types, those are: changing
an active into passive, and changing a negative one into a
positive one. Besides, it might be also broken up long
sentences, combined short ones, expanded phrases for clarity,
or shorten them for conciseness.47
a) Active versus Passive
First way which can be used to paraphrase is
changing an active form into a passive one. This can be

43
McGinley. The Role of Reading and Writing while Composing from Sources. Reading
Research Quarterly, vol. 27, (1992)p. 233.
44
Stephen Bailey, Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, 2nd edition.
(New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 30
45
R. Jordan. Academic Writing Course: Study Skill in English, 3rd edition. (Oxford: Pearson
Education, 2003). p. 93-98
46
R. Jordan. Academic Writing Course, p. 94
47
Stephen Bailey, Academic Writing, p. 29

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done by put the subject of the original words to the object in
paraphrase sentence.
Examples:
- Original:
People who really need to drink have a
high level of intake but a lower level of
satisfaction than people who can take it
or leave it.48
- Paraphrase:
A person who is addicted to alcohol
consumes more but gets less pleasure
than a person who drinks just to be
sociable.
b) Positive versus Negative
This technique means that the prolog is changed into a
negative in relation with lexical meaning. Not only does it
change from the form of negative but also it can be done by
putting the negative meaning and on the contrary. While if
only it is changed in a form the text will be brought in
different meaning. Therefore, changing a form and lexical
meaning is undeniably necessary.
- Original:
Americans consider someone who looks
them in the eye to be honest. A person
who looks down or looks away, in
contrast, is suspected of being
dishonest.49
- Paraphrase:
For people from the US, not looking
someone in the eye is an indication of
not telling the truth, while meeting a
person’s eyes is a sign that they are
telling the truth.

48
Doshisha University Academic Repository, http://library.doshisha.ac.jp/ir/en/, accessed 9
Jan 2017.
49
Doshisha University Academic Repository, http://library.doshisha.ac.jp/ir/en/, accessed 9
Jan 2017.

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c) Long Sentence to Short Sentences
The third technique means that making a long
sentence to a short sentence by reducing some words which
are not included as key points of the text. As Keck said on
his study, shortening the text may be needed but retaining
the meaning is completely more essential.50
- Original:
Although our human ability to
communicate is genetically determined
and hence is a part of our biological
nature, speech development importantly
affected by the environment.
- Paraphrase:
1) The ability for human
communication is biologically based.
2) The ability for human
communication is transmitted
through genes.
3) Environment also influences how
human communication level.
d) Expand Phrases for Clarity
Expanding the phrase is aimed to make the
clarification of the phrase itself. Sometimes writer only
delivers an idea using implied meaning, so that another
writer who takes the original word can use this technique to
clarify the text. This is also used to strengthen a fact to the
reader.51
Example:
- Original:
A college student usually has homework to do.52
- Paraphrase:
A person going to college typically has to
study at home.

50
Keck, “The Use of Paraphrase in Summary Writing”
51
Stephen Bailey, Academic Writing, p. 30
52
Adam, W. B., Lark & Eric Williamson, Building Skills for the TOEFL iBT: Beginning;
(Original Edition, Compass Publishing, 2006) .33

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The word “typically” is the synonym of “usually” but it is
more convenience. Writer also included the word “has to”
which aims to strengthen the writer opinion.
e) Shorten Phrases for Conciseness
Previous technique elaborates the text which is
expanded from the original, but this technique, on the
contrary, makes the text shorter than original one. This aims
to make unclear data and information clarified by only state
the short text using the key detail information. Shirley
believes that readers would be more confused to see more
words in the text, in addition to make them trapped by some
unimportant words. Therefore, he suggests to paraphrase
other’s word by shortening the meaning and retaining the
key points.53
- Original:
In 1610, Galileo published a small book
describing astronomical observations that he
had made of the skies above Padua. His
homemade telescopes had less magnifying
and resolving power than most beginners’
telescopes sold today (1) yet with them he
made astonishing discoveries (2) that the
moon has mountains and other topographical
features; that Jupiter is orbited by satellites,
which he called planets; and that the Milky
Way is made up of individual stars (3).54
- Paraphrase:
Galileo was able to make some amazing
discoveries with his telescope (2). He made
discoveries about the moon, about Jupiter,
and about the Milky Way (3). He was able
to do this with a telescope that was less

53
Shirley, “The Art of Paraphrase. Instructional Note”. p. 187
54
Shi, L. Textual borrowing in second-language writing. Written Communication, 21(2),
2004. 171-200.

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powerful than even today's most basic
telescopes (1).

In paraphrasing text, the writer brings the original text


to a shorter text. It contains more simply but still retaining
original meaning. The writer, additionally, puts another
technique in this text, changing a structure of the text. By
seeing a paraphrasing text, the readers would feel easier to
catch the points.
2) Changing Word
The second main technique of paraphrase is changing
the word. The technique can be used in two different ways such
as changing word order and changing the word class or part of
speech. In line with this statement, Hedgcock describes two
ways of changing word are both in word order and word
class.55 Additionally, using synonym is an important way to
paraphrase through this technique. Writer would be easier to
use such this technique because they would not loss the key
points of the text.56
a) Changing Word Order
Bailey stated that one way to change a sentence for
paraphrasing is to change the word order.57Some experts
also argued that changing word order is quite similar to
changing a structure of grammar. However, it could be
separated from the previous one because this only focuses
on a changing in particular position of each sentence. 58
Original : Because I slept too late, I missed my first
class
Paraphrase : I missed my first class because I slept too
late.

55
Hedgcock, J. S. Teaching readers of English: Students, texts, and contexts. (New York:
Routledge. 2009) p. 112
56
McGinley. The Role of Reading and Writing while Composing from Sources. p. 233.
57
Bailey, Academic Writing, p. 29.
58
Shirley, “The Art of Paraphrase. Instructional Note”.

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It is sometimes necessary to change the wording of the parts
of the sentences.
Original : Terry wanted more books, but he couldn’t
afford them.
Paraphrase : Terry couldn’t afford more books, even
though he wanted them.
b) Changing Parts of Speech
This way is to change the word class become
another word class. If the sentence uses a noun, it can be
rewritten to use the verb or adjective form of the word, for
example.
Original : “Fifty-four men signed the Declaration of
Independence.”59
Paraphrase : Fifty-four men put their signatures on the
Declaration of Independence.
Also, to paraphrase we can change some of the
words to their definitions, to synonyms or to antonyms.
Using definitions, synonyms and antonyms help avoid
unnecessary repetition of the same words.
1) Paraphrase using synonyms
Original : “The U.S. government has an enormous
debt.”60
Paraphrase: The federal government has an extremely
large debt.
2) Paraphrase using definitions
Original : “A college student usually has homework to
do.”61
Paraphrase: People taking college courses usually have
assignments to do.
3) Paraphrasing using antonyms
Original : “Shaun was disappointed, because the
movie wasn’t very good.”62

59
R. Jordan. Academic Writing Course, p. 94
60
Bailey, Academic Writing, p. 29
61
R. Jordan. Academic Writing Course, p. 94
62
Adam, W. B., Lark & Eric Williamson, Building Skills for the TOEFL iBT: Beginning.
33

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Paraphrase: Shaun wasn’t satisfied, because the movie
wasn’t very good.
3) Changing Structure of Ideas
Changing the structure of an idea means writer could
elaborate the text by rewriting the statement in context of the
position.
Original:
Statements that seem complimentary can go
in one context may be inappropriate in
another (1). For example, women in business
are usually uncomfortable if male colleagues
or superiors compliment them on their
appearance (2): the comments suggest that
the women are being treated as visual
decoration rather than as contributing
workers (3).63
Paraphrase:
Women may feel uneasy upon receiving
ordinarily positive comments on their
appearance from male coworkers or
supervisors (2). To these women, the remarks
carry an implied meaning: instead of being
thought of as productive employees, they are
actually being viewed as just a pretty part of
the atmosphere (3). Depending on the
situation, words or expressions which appear
favorable may actually be unsuitable in a
conversation (1).
D. Differences of Paraphrasing, Quoting, and Summarizing
As opposed to quotations, which should be used sparingly,
paraphrases and summaries will be used frequently in your
academic writing to support your ideas. A paraphrase is a writing
skill in which you “rephrase” (rewrite) information from an
outside source in your own words without changing its meaning.

63
Locker, K. O. Business and administrative communication (6thed.). (St. Louis, MO:
Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 2003). 323

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Because you include in your rewriting all, or nearly all, of the
content of the original passage, a paraphrase is almost as long. A
summary, by contrast, is much shorter than the original. A
summary includes only the main ideas of someone else’s writing,
restated in your own words. In summarizing and paraphrasing,
however, you must not change the meaning of the original.64
Original:
“Language is the main means of
communication between peoples. But so
many different languages have developed
that language has often been a barrier
rather than an aid to understanding among
peoples. For many years, people have
dreamed of setting up an international,
universal language which all people could
speak and understand. The arguments in
favour of a universal language are simple
and obvious. If all peoples spoke the same
tongue, cultural and economic ties might
be much closer, and good will might
increase between countries.”
Quotation:
“Language is the main means of
communication between peoples. But so
many different languages have developed
that language has often been a barrier rather
than an aid to understanding among peoples.
For many years, people have dreamed of
setting up an international, universal
language which all people could speak and
understand. The arguments in favour of a
universal language are simple and obvious. If
all peoples spoke the same tongue, cultural
and economic ties might be much closer, and
good will might increase between
countries”65

64
Alice, O. & Ann Hogue, Writing Academic English, p. 129
65
Kispert, Robert J. “Universal Language.”

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Paraphrase:
Humans communicate through language.
However, because there are so many
languages in the world, language is an
obstacle rather than an aid to communication.
For a long time, people have wished for an
international language that speakers all over
the world could understand. A universal
language would certainly build cultural and
economic bonds. It would also create better
feelings among countries.66
In this paraphrase passage, synonyms are used to
replace original words (underlined) and sentence structures
have been changed:
 “Language is the main means of communication between
peoples”
→ Humans communicate through language.
 “But so many different languages have developed that
language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among peoples”.
→ However, because there are so many languages in the world,
language is an obstacle rather than an aid to
communication.
 “For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international, universal language which all people could
speak and understand”.
→ For a long time, people have wished for an international
language that speakers all over the world could understand.
 “If all peoples spoke the same tongue, cultural and
economic ties might be much closer, and good will might
increase between countries”
→ A universal language would certainly build cultural and
economic bonds. It would also create better feelings among
countries.
Summary:

66
Alice, O. & Ann Hogue, Writing Academic English, p. 129

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People communicate mainly through
language; however, having so many different
languages creates communication barriers.
Some think that one universal language could
bring countries together culturally and
economically and also increase good feelings
among them.
Compare the summary with the paraphrase, we can
see that some details are omitted from the summary that are
included in the paraphrase: that people have dreamed of setting
up an international, universal language, the arguments are
simple and obvious. However, the meaning of the original has
not been changed.
E. Previous Studies
Studies related to students’ paraphrases in proposal writing
had been conducted by other researchers. The followings are
views of some researchers which were related to this research.
A research related to paraphrase had been conducted by
Tra Thi My Dung entitled “An Investigation in Paraphrasing
Experienced by Vietnamese Students of English in Academic
Writing”. The research can be the basic information for this study.
The main purpose of the research was to investigate paraphrases
on graduation papers from undergraduate students of Da Nang
University. Specifically, this research investigated some important
features of paraphrasing; students’ preference and difficulties of
paraphrasing; students’ awareness and avoidance of plagiarism. It
also identified the most common mistakes appearing in the
students’ paraphrasing. Towards the end of the research, 77,5 %
of fourth years students at the college of Foreign Language –
University of Da Nang made mistakes in paraphrasing, where 40%
made mistake in changing structure and grammar, 22,5 % in
changing word and 15% fall into plagiarism. 67
Quite different from the first previous study, a research
conducted by Lara McInnis is entitled Analyzing English L1 and

67
Tra Thi My Dung, MA Thesis: “An Investigation in Paraphrasing Experienced by
Vietnamese Students of English in Academic Writing” (Danang: University of Da Nang,
2010)

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L2 Paraphrasing Strategies through Concurrent Verbal Report
and Stimulated Recall Protocols. This research can also be the
basic information of this study since it analyzed the
appropriateness of paraphrases. The research was to examine and
analyzed 35 paraphrases written by 4 English-Canadian students
and 5 Japanese international students at an English-medium
community college in Ontario. The researcher evaluated
paraphrase quality through analytic method and analyzed
paraphrase appropriateness through a set of criteria he had
developed. Then, he also analyzed 6 concurrent and post-task
reports of 3 L1 and 3 L2 students, who used a variety of
paraphrasing strategies. As the conclusion of this research, all
participants wrote relatively inappropriate paraphrases which did
not always correspond with perceived appropriateness. L1 students
tended to copy directly from the original text excerpts more often
than the L2 students did. Implications for teaching and further
research are discussed. 68
Yoke Len Loh conducted a research entitled “Errors in
Paraphrasing and Strategies in Overcoming Them”. The main
purpose of the research was to identify the errors related to
paraphrased content. To reduce these errors, the researcher used
the preventive measures such as effective pedagogic strategies and
learning activities. The subjects were 50 undergraduates taking an
English academic reading and writing course at a Malaysian public
university. The data comprised 95 answers to two questions on
paraphrasing in the final examination paper for this course. The
results revealed errors at three levels, namely linguistics
(grammar, syntax, and lexis), conventions (writing and
paraphrasing), and semantics (content of message). In addition,
there was evidence of plagiarism in the subjects’ answers. 69
Another research related to paraphrases was conducted by
Wahyuni Khairunnisa, Y.Gatot Sutapa.Y, and Surmiyati. The
research was entitled “Students’ Problem in Paraphrasing”. This

68
Lara McInnis, Thesis: “Analyzing English L1 and L2 Paraphrasing Strategies through
Concurrent Verbal Report and Stimulated Recall Protocols” (University of Toronto,
2009)
69
Yoke Len Loh, “Errors in Paraphrasing and Strategies in Overcoming Them”,
University of Malaysia Sabah, Volume 1, Number 1, 2013

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research was cantered on the identification of students’ ability in
paraphrasing and the problems faced. The researcher used a case
study in investigating the paraphrases from seventh semester
students in Seminar on ELT class academic year. It was also
conducted with aims to find out the causes of the problems in
paraphrasing. In collecting the data, the research instruments
needed were paraphrasing test, questionnaire and interview. The
finding of the data analysis showed 76.92% of the students‟ ability
in paraphrasing qualified in unsatisfactory level. From the test, it
was found that 76.92% of the students made mistake in changing
the order of ideas, while 76.92% respondents of the questionnaire
and 80% of interviewees mentioned changing word as their
problem in paraphrasing. The different result of the instruments
was caused by the students‟ lack of understanding toward the
criteria of a good paraphrasing. Furthermore, lack of vocabulary
and understanding about paraphrasing discovered as the causes of
the students‟ problems in paraphrasing. 70
In link to plagiarism study, paraphrase plagiarism had been
found in students’ proposal writing which was conducted by Nur
Habibah in her thesis; An Analysis of Plagiarism in Seminar
Proposal by The Eight Semester Students of PBI UIN Sunan
Ampel Surabaya. This study described the plagiarism forms within
students’ proposal. Analysing the data by qualitative approach, the
researcher found that plagiarism really occurred in students’
seminar proposal. One of the plagiarism form appeared in their
proposals is paraphrase plagiarism. It means that the writers had
successfully rewritten the ideas that they cited but they did not
credit any sources. Another paraphrase plagiarism form is too
perfect paraphrase. This means that the writers copies word-for-
word of an author’s argument and cites the sources properly but
does not give quotation marks within the argument that has been
copied word-for-word.71
Furthermore, a study related to paraphrase plagiarism had
been conducted by Rastri Dewi Savitri in her thesis entitled

70
Wahyuni Khairunnisa, “Students’ Problems in Paraphrasing” (Pontianak, University of
Tanjungpura, 2013)
71
Nur Habibah Thesis, An Analysis of Plagiarism in Seminar Proposal at UIN Sunan
Ampel Surabaya (Surabaya: State Islamic University of SunanAmpel, 2013) p. 68-71

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“Plagiarism in Proposal Writing Course at UIN Sunan Ampel
English Education Department Surabaya”. This study had found
one of the plagiarism types which correlated to paraphrase. To find
plagiarism work of students’ proposal, the researcher used
qualitative and quantitative method. As one of the results on her
finding, an inadequate paraphrase (67.57%) commonly appeared
in students’ proposal writing. 72
From all previous studies mentioned above, there are
variety of differences between those researches and this research.
Most of the researches tended to focus on the mistakes in
paraphrasing and error of paraphrasing. Determining common
problems when paraphrasing was likely more remarkable rather
than analyzing each criteria of good paraphrase which met with
students’ paraphrases. Particularly, this study only focuses on
paraphrase appropriateness in proposal writing. Classifying
students’ paraphrase to appropriateness levels; appropriate,
somewhat appropriate, somewhat inappropriate, and
inappropriate. Those levels are determined by analyzing the
criteria of appropriate paraphrase met with each paraphrase using a
checklist adapted from Shirley and OWL Purdue. In addition, this
study focuses on the technique that students mostly use in their
paraphrase. For the second previous study, it is also different with
my study.

72
Dewi Rastri Savitri Thesis, Plagiarism in Proposal Writing Course at UIN Sunan
Ampel Surabaya (Surabaya: State Islamic University of SunanAmpel, 2016) p. 75

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