Compressibility of Soil
Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the subsoil through the foundations. The effect of
the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of about four times the width of the foundation. The
soil within this depth gets compressed due to the imposed stresses. The compression of the soil mass
leads to the decrease in the volume of the mass which results in the settlement of the structure.
Settlement
Is defined as the compression of a soil layer due to the loading applied at or near its top
surface.
A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads compresses soil layers. The
compression is caused by (a) deformation of soil particles, (b) relocations of soil particles, and (c)
expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. In general, the soil settlement caused by loads may be
divided into three broad categories:
1. Elastic settlement (or immediate settlement), which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry
soil and of moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture content. Elastic
settlement calculations generally are based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity.
2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive
soils because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.\
3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the
result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that
occurs at constant effective stress.
The total settlement of a foundation can then be given as
When foundations are constructed on very compressible clays, the consolidation settlement can be
several times greater than the elastic settlement.
Consolidation Settlement
Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement of the surface corresponding to the volume
change in saturated cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
Consolidation settlement will result, for example, if a structure is built over a layer of saturated clay or
if the water table is lowered permanently in a stratum overlying a clay layer.
When saturated clay is loaded externally, the pore water pressure in the clay will increase. Because the
coefficients of permeability of clays are very low, it will take some time for the excess pore water
pressure to dissipate and the stress increase to be transferred to the soil skeleton gradually.
Consolidation
is the time-dependent settlement of soils resulting from the expulsion of water from the soil
pores. The rate of escape of water depends on the permeability of the soil.
Consolidation of sand
Permeability of sand is high
Drainage occurs almost instantaneously – The settlement is IMMEDIATE.
Elastic and consolidation processes cannot be isolated.
Primary Consolidation is incorporated in the elastic parameters.
Coarse-grained soils DO NOT undergo consolidation settlement due to relatively high hydraulic
conductivity compared to clayey soils. Instead, coarse-grained soils undergo IMMEDIATE
settlement.
Consolidation of clay
Permeability of clay is low
Drainage occurs slowly – therefore, the settlement is DELAYED.
Settlement can be separated (elastic, primary and secondary consolidation).
Clayey soils undergo consolidation settlement not only under the action of “external” loads
(surcharge loads) but also under its own weight or weight of soils that exist above the clay
(geostatic loads).
Clayey soils also undergo settlement when dewatered (e.g., ground water pumping) – because
the effective stress on the clay increases.
During consolidation, pore water or the water in the voids of saturated clayey soils gets squeezed out –
reducing the volume of the soil – hence causing settlement called as consolidation settlement.
Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress in a clay layer drained at top and
bottom as the result of an added stress, :
During consolidation , remains the same, u decreases (due to drainage) while ’ increases,
transferring the load from water to the soil.
One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
The characteristics of a soil during one-dimensional consolidation or swelling can be determined by
means of the oedometer test. The main purpose of consolidation tests is to obtain soil data which is
used in predicting the rate and amount of settlement of structures founded on clay.
1. Place sample in ring
2. Apply load
3. Measure height change
4. Repeat for new load.
.
Oedometer Test
The oedometer test is used to investigate the 1-D consolidation behaviour of finegrained soils. An
undisturbed soil sample 20 mm in height and 75 mm in diameter is confined in a steel confining ring
and immersed in a water bath. It is subjected to a compressive stress by applying a vertical load, which
is assumed to act uniformly over the area of the soil sample. Several increments of vertical stress are
applied usually by doubling the previous increment. Two-way drainage is permitted through porous
disks at the top and bottom. The vertical compression of the soil sample is recorded using highly
accurate dial gauges. For each increment, the final settlement of the soil sample as well as the time
taken to reach the final settlement is recorded. The compression of soil is possible only when there is
an increase in effective stress which in turn requires that the void ratio of the soil be reduced by the
expulsion of pore water. After a few seconds, the pore water begins to flow out of the voids. This
results in a decrease in pore water pressure and void ratio of the soil sample and an increase in
effective stress. As a result, the soil sample settles as shown in the figure:
The main purpose of consolidation test is to obtain soil properties which are used in predicting the rate
and amount of consolidation settlement of structures founded on clay. The most important soil
properties determined by a consolidation test are:
o The pre-consolidation stress (c ’), This is the maximum stress that the soil has been
subjected in the past.
o The compression index (Cc ), which indicates the compressibility of a normally
consolidated soil.
o The swelling index (Cs ), (recompression index, Cr ), which indicates the compressibility
of an over-consolidated soil.
o The coefficient of consolidation (Cv ), which indicates the rate of compression under a
load increment.
The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against time for a given load increment
is shown below. From the plot, we can observe three distinct stages:
Normally Consolidated Soil:
A soil that has never experienced a vertical effective stress that was greater than its present vertical
effective stress is called a normally consolidated (NC) soil.
Overconsolidated Soil:
A soil that has experienced a vertical effective stress that was greater than its present vertical effective
stress is called an overconsolidated (OC) soil.
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED FINE GRAINED
SOILS:
𝑪𝑪 𝑷𝒇
𝑺𝑪 = 𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏+𝒆 𝑷𝒐
Where:
H – thickness of clay stratum
Cc – compression index
e – initial void ratio
Po - initial vertical effective soil stress ( midheight of layer)
Pf - final vertical effective soil stress ( midheight of layer)
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF OVERCONSOLIDATED FINE GRAINED SOILS
When Pf < Pc
𝑪𝒔 𝑷𝒇
𝑺𝑪 = 𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏+𝒆 𝑷𝒐
When Pf > Pc
𝑪𝒔 𝑷𝒄 𝑪𝒄 𝑷𝒇
𝑺𝑪 = 𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠 + 𝑯 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏+𝒆 𝑷𝒐 𝟏+𝒆 𝑷𝒄
Where: Cs – swell index, Pc – preconsolidation pressure
OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO, OCR
𝑷𝑪
𝑶𝑪𝑹 =
𝑷𝑶
Where: Pc – preconsolidation stress ( past maximum vertical effective stress); Po – overburden efective stress
( current vertical effective stress)
If OCR = 1 , the soil is normally consolidated.
COMPRESSION INDEX, Cc
SKEMPTON:
For remolded clay:
Cc = 0.007 ( LL – 7%)
For undisturbed clay:
Cc = 0.009 ( LL – 10%)
RENDON – HERREO:
𝟏 + 𝒆 𝟐.𝟑𝟖
𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝑮𝑺 𝟏.𝟐 ( )
𝑮𝒔
NISHIDA:
All clays:
Cc = 1.15 ( e – 0.27)
SWELL INDEX
The swell index is smaller in magnitude than the compression index. In most cases:
Cs = 1/5 Cc to 1/10 Cc
NAGARAJ AND MURTY:
𝑳𝑳%
𝒄𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟑 𝑮𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎
EXAMPLES:
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
1. . It is desire to calculate the consolidation settlement of the 4-m
thick clay layer shown that will result from the load carried by
the footing measuring 3 m x 1.5 m in plan. Assume the clay to
be normally consolidated, and the load of footing results to an
increase of pressure of 23.2 KPa, 12.22 KPa and 6.1 KPa at the
top, midheight, and bottom portion respectively, of the clay
layer. Assume the pressure increase varies parabolically and
use Simpson’s rule to solve for the pressure average pressure
increase. Calculate the following:
a. The overburden pressure at the base of the footing
b. Initial effective stress at the midheight of the clay layer
c. The consolidation settlement of the clay layer
2. Two footings rest in a layer of sand
2.7 m thick. The bottoms of the
footings are 0.90 m below the
surface. Beneath the sand layer is a
1.8 m thick clay layer. Underneath
the clay layer is a solid rock. Water
table is at a depth of 1.8 m below the
ground surface.
a. Compute the stress increase below
footing A (1.5m x 1.5 m at the center of
the clay layer. Assume that the pressure
beneath footing A is spread at an angle
of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal.
b. Determine the size of footing B so that the settlement in the clay layer is the same beneath footing A
and B.
c. Determine the settlement in mm beneath footing A.
3. A tank 12 m high filled with oil having a unit weight of 9.4 KN/m3 is to be built on site. The existing soil
profile consists of a 3.6 m sand layer underlain by a 16 m clay layer. The water table is on the ground surface.
Neglecting the weight of the tank, determine:
a. the compression index of clay
b. settlement under the center of the tank
c. the minimum depth in the ground to which the tank must be placed in order to minimize settlement
