This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

56 Machining Fundamentals

4.1.1 Reading the Rule (US Conventional)

Chapter 4 Millimeters (mm) Centimeters (cm)
A careful study of the enlarged rule section will
show the different fractional divisions of the inch
from 1/8 to 1/64, Figure 4-4. The lines representing
the divisions are called graduations. On many rules,
every fourth graduation is numbered on the 1/32
Measurement Half millimeters
(0.5 mm)
Metric edge, and every eighth graduation on the 1/64
edge.
To become familiar with the rule, begin by mea-
suring objects on the 1/8 and 1/16 scales. Once you
become comfortable with these scales, begin using
meter, etc.), called the International System of the 1/32 and 1/64 scales. Practice until you can
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Units (abbreviated SI). A micrometer is one- Fractional inch quickly and accurately read measurements. Some
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: millionth of a meter (0.000001 m). rules are graduated in 10ths, 20ths, 50ths, and
H Measure to 1/64″ (0.5 mm) with a steel rule. All of the familiar measuring tools are available 100ths. Additional practice will be necessary to read
H Measure to 0.0001″ (0.002 mm) using a with scales graduated in metric units, Figure 4-1. An these rules.
Vernier micrometer caliper. SI Metric (millimeter) rule is compared with con- Fractional measurements are always reduced to
H Measure to 0.001″ (0.02 mm) using Vernier ventional fractional and decimal rules in Figure 4-2. the lowest terms. A measurement of 14/16″ is
measuring tools. Metric-based measuring tools should offer no prob- Decimal inch
reduced to 7/8″, 2/8″ becomes 1/4″, and so on.
H Measure angles to 0°5′ using a universal lems for the user. As a matter of fact, they are often
4.1.2 Reading the Rule (Metric)
Vernier bevel. easier to read than inch-based measuring tools. Figure 4-2. Compare the metric (millimeter-graduated) rule with
H Identify and use various types of gages Although you will measure in very tiny units the more familiar rules graduated in fractional and decimal inch Most metric rules are divided into millimeter
found in a machine shop. when you go to work in industry, you must first units. or one-half millimeter graduations. They are
H Use a dial indicator. learn to read a rule to 1/64″ and 0.5 mm. Then,
H Employ the various helper measuring tools you can progress through 1/1000″ (0.001″) and
found in a machine shop. 1/100 mm (0.01 mm) by learning to use micrometer
and Vernier-type measuring tools. Finally, you
can progress to 1/10,000″ (0.0001″) and 1/500 mm
(0.002 mm) by using the Vernier scale on some
IMPORTANT TERMS micrometers.
dial indicators metrology
gage blocks micrometer caliper
gaging steel rule
graduations Vernier caliper 6” steel rule
helper measuring tools
International System of
Units
Without some form of accurate measurement,
modern industry could not exist. The science that
deals with systems of measurement is called
metrology. Today, industry can make measurements Rule with adjustable hook
Figure 4-1. This rule can be used to make measurements in
accurate to one microinch (one-millionth of an inch). both US Conventional and SI Metric units.
If a microinch were as thick as a dime, one inch
would be as high as four Empire State Buildings
(about 5000′ total). An engineer once estimated,
with tongue in cheek, that a steel railroad rail sup-
ported at both ends would sag one-millionth of an 4.1 THE RULE
inch when a “fat horsefly” landed on it in the The steel rule, often incorrectly called a scale, is
middle. the simplest of the measuring tools found in the
In addition to using US Conventional units of shop. Figure 4-2 shows the three basic types of rule Narrow rule Small rule with holder
measure (inch, foot, etc.), industry is gradually graduations. A few of the many rule styles are
converting to metric units of measure (millimeter, shown in Figure 4-3. Figure 4-3. Many different types of rules are used to make measuring quicker and more accurate. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
55
Chapter 4 Measurement 57 58 Machining Fundamentals

numbered every 10 mm. See Figure 4-5. The mea- • Wipe steel rules with an oily cloth before stor- The micrometer caliper, also known as a “mike,”
surement is determined by counting the number of ing. This will prevent rust. If the rule is to be is a precision tool capable of measuring to 0.001″ or
millimeters. stored for a prolonged period, coat it with 0.01 mm. When fitted with a Vernier scale, it will
wax or rust preventative. read to 0.0001″ or 0.002 mm.
7″ 11″ • Clean the rule with steel wool to keep the
1 1 2 16
16
16 graduations legible. 4.2.1 Types of Micrometers
• Make measurements and tool settings from Micrometers are produced in a wide variety of
the 1″ line (10 mm line on a metric rule) or models. Digital display is included in many
other major graduations, rather than from the micrometers, making measuring easier. Some of the
end of the rule. most popular models are the following:
• Store rules separately. Do not throw them in a • An outside micrometer measures external
drawer with other tools. diameters and thickness, Figure 4-7.
1 • Use the rule with care to protect the ends from
8 nicks and wear.
1 11″ 3″
1 2 • Use the correct rule for the job being done.
32 32
32
4.2 THE MICROMETER CALIPER
A Frenchman, Jean Palmer, devised and
patented a measuring tool that made use of a screw
thread, making it possible to read measurements
quickly and accurately without calculations. It
1
incorporated a series of engraved lines on the sleeve
64 and around the thimble. The device, called Systeme
Palmer, is the basis for the modern micrometer Figure 4-8. Inside micrometers. A—A conventional inside
Figure 4-4. These are the fractional graduations found on a caliper, Figure 4-6. Figure 4-7. This digital outside micrometer can be used to micrometer. B—The caliper jaws on this inside micrometer allow
rule. Measurements are taken by counting the number of
measure in both US Conventional and SI Metric units. quick and accurate measurements. The divisions on the sleeve
graduations.
(Mitutoyo/MTI Corp.) are numbered in the reverse order of a conventional outside
micrometer. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
1.0 mm 44 mm 69 mm

• An inside micrometer has many uses, includ-

ing measuring internal diameters of cylin-
ders, rings, and slots. The range of a
conventional inside micrometer can be
extended by fitting longer rods to the
micrometer head. The range of a jaw-type
inside micrometer is limited to 1″ or 25 mm.
A The jaw-type inside micrometer has a scale
0.5 mm 245.5 mm
graduated from right to left. See Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-5. Most metric rules are graduated in millimeters and • A micrometer depth gage measures the depths
half-millimeters. They are available in a variety of sizes. of holes, slots, and projections. See Figure 4-9.
The measuring range can be increased by
4.1.3 Care of the Rule changing to longer spindles. Measurements
are read from right to left.
The steel rule is precision-made and, like all
• A screw-thread micrometer has a pointed
tools, its accuracy depends upon the care it receives.
spindle and a double-V anvil shaped to con-
Here are a few suggestions:
tact the screw thread, Figure 4-10. It measures
• Use the rule for measurements only. Do not
the pitch diameter of the thread, which equals Figure 4-9. A standard micrometer depth gage.
adjust screws or open paint cans with it. Be
the outside (major) diameter of the thread
careful not to bend your rule.
B minus the depth of one thread. Since each
• Keep the rule clear of moving machinery.
thread micrometer is designed to measure
Never use it to clean metal chips as they form Figure 4-6. The micrometer caliper, past and present. only a limited number of threads per inch, a • A chamfer micrometer will accurately
on the cutting tool. This is extremely danger- A—A drawing of the Systeme Palmer measuring device. set of thread micrometers is necessary to mea- measure countersunk holes and other
ous and will ruin the rule. B—These modern micrometer calipers operate on the same
sure a full range of thread pitches. chamfer-type measurements. With fastener
• Avoid laying other tools on the rule. principle as the original 1848 invention.
Chapter 4 Measurement 59 60 Machining Fundamentals

The line engraved lengthwise on the sleeve is

divided into 40 equal parts per inch (corresponding
to the number of threads per inch on the spindle).
Each vertical line equals 1/40″, or 0.025″. Every
fourth division is numbered, representing 0.100″,
0.200″, etc. 0.353″
The beveled edge of the thimble is divided into
25 equal parts around its circumference. Each divi- Example 3
0.0002
sion equals 1/1000″ (0.001″). On some micrometers,
every division is numbered, while every fifth divi-
sion is numbered on others. Add the readings from the sleeve and the thimble:
The micrometer is read by recording the highest 3 large graduations: 3  0.100 = 0.300
number on the sleeve (1 = 0.100, 2 = 0.200, etc.). To 2 small graduations: 2  0.025 = 0.050
this number, add the number of vertical lines visible 3 thimble graduations: 3  0.001 = 0.003 0.0120
between the number and thimble edge (1 = 0.025, Total mike reading = 0.353″
2 = 0.050, etc.). To this total, add the number of thou-
Figure 4-10. This screw thread micrometer can measure sandths indicated by the line that coincides with the 4.2.3 Reading a Vernier Micrometer 0.2000
threads as wide as 7/8″. (L. S. Starrett Co.) 0.0750
horizontal sleeve line. On occasion, it is necessary to measure more 0.2000
0.0750 0.0120
precisely than 0.001″. A Vernier micrometer caliper 0.0002
is used in these situations. This micrometer has a Reading is 0.2872″
tolerances so critical on some aerospace and third scale around the sleeve that will furnish the
Figure 4-13. How to read a Vernier micrometer caliper. Add the
other applications, it is important that coun- 1/10,000″ (0.0001″) reading. See Figure 4-12. total reading in thousandths, then observe which of the lines on
tersunk holes and tapers on fasteners meet the Vernier scale coincides with a line on the thimble. In this
specifications. A chamfer micrometer makes it case, it is the second line, so 0.0002 is added to the reading.
possible to check these critical areas.
Special micrometers are available for other Vernier scale lines
applications. These micrometers are devised to 0.458″
handle nonstandard measurement tasks.
Example 1
4.2.2 Reading an Inch-Based Micrometer
A micrometer uses a very precisely made screw Add the readings from the sleeve and the thimble:
thread that rotates in a fixed nut. The screw thread 4 large graduations: 4  0.100 = 0.400
is ground on the spindle and is attached to the 2 small graduations: 2  0.025 = 0.050
thimble. The spindle advances or recedes from the 8 thimble graduations: 8  0.001 = 0.008 Figure 4-12. A Vernier micrometer caliper includes a Vernier
anvil as the thimble is rotated. See Figure 4-11. The Total mike reading = 0.458″ scale on the sleeve.
threaded section has 40 threads per inch; therefore, 5.00 mm
each revolution of the thimble moves the spindle
1/40″ (0.025″). The Vernier scale has 11 parallel lines that
occupy the same space as 10 lines on the thimble.
The lines around the sleeve are numbered 1 to 10.
0.28 mm
The difference between the spaces on the sleeve and
Lock nut
those on the thimble is one-tenth of a thousandth of 0.50 mm
Anvil Ratchet 5.00
Sleeve Thimble an inch. 0.50
Spindle stop
0.289″ To read the Vernier scale, first obtain the thou- 0.28
sandths reading, then observe which of the lines on Reading is 5.78 mm
Example 2 the Vernier scale coincides (lines up) with a line on
the thimble. Only one of them can line up. If the line Figure 4-14. To read a metric micrometer, add the total reading
is 1, add 0.0001 to the reading; if line 2, add 0.0002 to in millimeters visible on the sleeve to the reading of hundredths
of a millimeter, indicated by the graduation on the thimble. Note
Add the readings from the sleeve and the thimble: the reading, etc. See Figure 4-13. that the thimble reading coincides with the longitudinal line on
2 large graduations: 2  0.100 = 0.200 the micrometer sleeve.
3 small graduations: 3  0.025 = 0.075 4.2.4 Reading a Metric-Based Micrometer
Frame 14 thimble graduations: 14  0.001 = 0.014 The metric-based micrometer is read as shown tional inch-based micrometer, reading the metric-
Figure 4-11. Basic parts of a micrometer caliper. Total mike reading = 0.289″ in Figure 4-14. If you are able to read the conven- based tool will offer no difficulties.
Chapter 4 Measurement 61 62 Machining Fundamentals

4.2.5 Reading a Metric Vernier Micrometer • A lock nut is used when several identical reverse order of the graduations on an outside
Metric Vernier micrometers are read in the same parts are to be gaged. Refer again to Figure micrometer. See Figure 4-18. The graduations under
way as standard metric micrometers. However, 4-11. The nut locks the spindle into place. the thimble must be read, rather than those that are
using the Vernier scale on the sleeve, an additional Gaging parts with a micrometer locked at the exposed.
reading of two-thousandths of a millimeter can be proper setting is an easy way to determine
obtained, Figure 4-15. whether the pieces are sized correctly.

4.2.7 Reading an Inside Micrometer

To get a correct reading with an inside microm-
eter, it is important that the tool be held square
across the diameter of the work. It must be posi-
tioned so that it will measure across the diameter on
the exact center, Figure 4-17.

Figure 4-18. A micrometer depth gage. When making mea-

surements with a depth gage, remember that the graduations
are in reverse order. This gage indicates a depth of 0.250.
0.004 mm

4.2.9 Care of a Micrometer

Micrometers are precision instruments and
7.000 mm must be handled with care. The following tech-
0.310 mm niques are recommended:
• Place the micrometer on the work carefully so
the faces of the anvil and spindle will not be
0.500 mm 7.000 damaged. The same applies when removing
0.500 the tool after a measurement has been made.
0.310 • Keep the micrometer clean. Wipe it with a
0.004 slightly oiled cloth to prevent rust and tar-
Reading is 7.814 mm
nish. A drop of light oil on the screw thread
Figure 4-15. Reading a metric-based Vernier micrometer will keep the tool operating smoothly.
caliper. To the regular reading in hundredths of a millimeter • Avoid “springing” a micrometer by applying
(0.01), add the reading from the Vernier scale that coincides too much pressure when you are making a
with a line on the thimble. Each line on the Vernier scale is equal measurement.
to two thousandths of a millimeter (0.002 mm). • Clean the anvil and spindle faces before use.
This can be done with a soft cloth or by lightly
closing the jaws on a clean piece of paper and
4.2.6 Using the Micrometer drawing the paper out.
The proper way to hold a micrometer when • Check for accuracy by closing the spindle
Figure 4-17. Using an inside micrometer. Extension rods can be
making a measurement is shown in Figure 4-16. The added to increase the tool’s measuring range.
gently on the anvil and note whether the zero
work is placed into position, and the thimble line on the thimble coincides with the zero on
rotated until the part is clamped lightly between the the sleeve. If they are not aligned, follow the
anvil and spindle. Guard against excessive pressure, Measurement is made by holding one end of the manufacturer’s recommended adjustments.
which will cause an erroneous reading. Some tool in place and then “feeling” for the maximum • Avoid placing a micrometer where it may fall
micrometers have features to help regulate pressure: possible setting by moving the other end from left to on the floor or have other tools placed on it.
B right, and then in and out of the opening. The mea-
• A ratchet stop is used to rotate the spindle. • If the micrometer must be opened or closed a
When the pressure reaches a predetermined surement is made when no left or right movement is considerable distance, do not “twirl” the
Figure 4-16. Proper technique of handling a micrometer.
amount, the ratchet stop slips and prevents A—Use very light pressure when turning the thimble. B—When
felt, and a slight drag is noticeable on the in-and-out frame; gently roll the thimble with your palm.
further spindle turning. Uniform contact the piece being measured must also be held, position the swing. It may be necessary to take several readings See Figure 4-19.
pressure with the work is ensured, even if dif- micrometer as shown, with a finger in the micrometer frame. and average them. • Never attempt to make a micrometer reading
ferent people use the same micrometer. Refer until a machine has come to a complete stop.
again to Figure 4-11. 4.2.8 Reading a Micrometer Depth Gage • Clean and oil the tool if it is to be stored for
• A friction thimble may be built into the upper results as the ratchet stop but permits one- Be sure to read a micrometer depth gage cor- some time. If possible, place the micrometer
section of the thimble. This produces the same handed use of the micrometer. rectly. The graduations on this measuring tool are in in a small box for protection.
Chapter 4 Measurement 63 64 Machining Fundamentals

Figure 4-19. Micrometers must be treated carefully. Roll the

micrometer thimble on the palm of your hand if the instrument
must be opened or closed a considerable distance.

4.3 VERNIER MEASURING TOOLS

The Vernier principle of measuring was named
for its inventor, Pierre Vernier, a French mathe-
matician. The Vernier caliper can make accurate
measurements to 1/1000″ (0.001″) and 1/50 mm
(0.02 mm). See Figure 4-20.

Figure 4-21. Vernier calipers can be used to make both internal

and external measurements. (L. S. Starrett Co.) A
C
Figure 4-22. Many instruments are equipped with a Vernier
A scale. A—Height gage. B—Depth gage. C—The digital readout
The following measuring instruments may on this type of height gage serves the same function as a stan-
include a Vernier scale: dard Vernier scale. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
• Height and depth gages are used for layout
work and to inspect the locations of features.
See Figure 4-22.
• Gear tooth calipers are used to measure gear
teeth and threading tools, Figure 4-23.
• Universal Vernier bevel protractors are used
B for the layout and inspection of angles,
Figure 4-24.
Figure 4-20. Vernier calipers can be used to make very accu- Vernier measuring tools, with the exception of
rate measurements. A—Standard Vernier caliper. B—Modern the Vernier bevel protractor, consist of a graduated
digital calipers are easier to read than mechanical instruments.
beam with fixed jaw or base and a Vernier slide
assembly. The Vernier slide assembly is composed
The design of the tool permits measurements to of a movable jaw or scribe, Vernier plate, and clamp- B
be made over a large range of sizes. It is manufac- ing screws. The slide moves as a unit along the
tured as a standard item in 6″, 12″, 24″, 36″, and 48″ beam.
lengths. SI Metric Vernier calipers are available in Unlike other Vernier measuring tools, the beam 4.3.1 Reading an Inch-Based Vernier Scale
150 mm, 300 mm, and 600 mm lengths. The 6″, 12″, of the Vernier caliper is graduated on both sides. These measuring tools are available with either
150 mm, and 300 mm sizes are most commonly One side is for making outside measurements, the 25-division or 50-division Vernier plates. Both plates
used. Unlike the micrometer caliper, the Vernier other for inside measurements. Many of the newer can be read to 0.001″.
caliper can be used for both inside and outside mea- Vernier measuring tools are graduated to make both On measuring tools using the 25-division Vernier Figure 4-23. Gear tooth Vernier calipers are used to measure
surements, Figure 4-21. inch and millimeter measurements. plate, every inch section on the beam is graduated gear teeth, form tools, and threaded tools. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
Chapter 4 Measurement 65 66 Machining Fundamentals

The “0” line on the Vernier plate is: 9.00

30.00
Past the 2: 21 = 2.000
Past the 3: 3  0.100 = 0.300
Plus 2 graduations: 2  0.025 = 0.050
Plus 18 Vernier scale
graduations: 18  0.001 = 0.018
Total reading = 2.368″
On the 50-division Vernier plate, every second
graduation between the inch lines is numbered, and 30.00
equals 0.100″. The unnumbered graduations equal 9.00
0.050″. 0.28
The Vernier plate is graduated into 50 parts, Reading is 39.28 mm
0.28
each representing 0.001″. Every fifth line is num-
bered: 5, 10, 15 . . . 40, 45, and 50. Figure 4-25. How to read a 25-division metric-based Vernier
scale. Readings on the scale are obtained in units of two hun-
To read a 50-division Vernier measuring tool, dredths of a millimeter (0.02 mm).
Figure 4-24. A universal Vernier bevel protractor is used to first count how many inches, tenths (0.100), and
accurately measure angles. (L. S. Starrett Co.) twentieths (0.050) there are between the “0” line on
into 40 equal parts. Each graduation is 1/40″ the beam, and the “0” line on the Vernier plate. Then 9.00
0.28
(0.025″). Every fourth division, representing 0.100″, add them. Then count the number of 0.001 gradua- 30.00
is numbered. tions on the Vernier plate from its “0” line to the line
There are 25 divisions on the Vernier plate. that coincides with a line on the beam. Add this to
Every fifth line is numbered: 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25. the above total.
The 25 divisions occupy the same space as 24 divi- Figure 4-27. Dial calipers provide direct readings of measure-
sions on the beam. This slight difference, equal to ments. (L.S. Starrett Co.)
0.001 (1/1000″) per division, is the basis of the
Vernier principle of measuring. 30.00 The beam is graduated into 0.10″ increments.
To read a 25-division Vernier plate measuring 9.00 The caliper dial is graduated into 100 divisions. The
tool, note how many inches (1, 2, 3, etc.), tenths 0.28 reading is made by combining the division on the
Reading is 39.28 mm
(0.100, 0.200, etc.), and fortieths (0.025, 0.050, or beam and the dial reading.
0.075) there are between the “0” on the Vernier scale Figure 4-26. How to read a 50-division metric-based Vernier The dial hand makes one full revolution for each
and the “0” line on the beam, then add them. Then scale. Each division equals two hundredths of a millimeter 0.10″ movement. Each dial graduation, therefore,
count the number of graduations (each graduation 2.000 (0.02 mm). represents 1/100 of 0.10″, or 0.001″. On the metric
equals 0.001″) that lie between the “0” line on the 0.200
0.050 version, each dial graduation represents 0.02 mm.
Vernier plate and the line that coincides (corre- 2.000
0.050
0.015 0.015
sponds exactly) with a line on the beam. Only one 0.200 Reading is 2.265″ 4.3.4 Universal Vernier Bevel Protractor
line will coincide. Add this to the above total for the 4.3.3 Using the Vernier Caliper A quick review of the circles, angles, and units of
The “0” line on the Vernier plate is:
reading. As with any precision tool, a Vernier caliper measurement associated with them will help in
Past the 2: 2  1.000 = 2.000
must not be forced on the work. Slide the Vernier understanding how to read a universal Vernier
Past the 2: 2  0.100 = 0.200
0.300 assembly until the jaws nearly contact the section bevel protractor.
0.050 0.018 Plus one graduation: 1  0.050 = 0.050
being measured. Lock the clamping screw. Make the • Degree (°)—Regardless of its size, a circle
Plus 15 Vernier scale
tool adjustment with the fine adjusting nut. The contains 360°. Angles are also measured by
2.000 graduations: 15  0.001 = 0.015
jaws must contact the work firmly, but not tightly. degrees.
Total reading = 2.265″ Lock the slide on the beam. Carefully remove • Minute (′)—A minute represents a fractional
the tool from the work and make your reading. For part of a degree. If a degree is divided into
precise layout work, divider and trammel point set- 60 equal parts, each part is one minute. A
4.3.2 Reading a Metric-Based Vernier Scale tings are located on the outside measuring scale and foot mark (′) is used to signify minutes
The principles used in reading metric Vernier on the slide assembly. (e.g. 30°15’).
measuring tools are the same as those used for Dial calipers. These direct-reading instruments • Second (″)—Minutes are divided into smaller
US Conventional measure. However, the readings resemble Vernier calipers. They can be used to make units known as seconds. There are 60 seconds
2.000 on the Vernier scale are obtained in 0.02 mm preci- outside, inside, and depth measurements (with the in one minute. An angular measurement writ-
0.300 sion. A 25-division Vernier scale is illustrated in addition of a depth attachment). A lock permits the ten in degrees, minutes, and seconds appears
0.050 Figure 4-25, while a 50-division scale is described in
0.018 tool to be employed for repetitive measurements. as 36°18’22″. This would read “36 degrees,
Reading is 2.368″ Figure 4-26. See Figure 4-27. 18 minutes, and 22 seconds.”
Chapter 4 Measurement 67 68 Machining Fundamentals

A universal bevel protractor has several parts: a • Never force the tool when you are making
dial, a base or stock, and a sliding blade. The dial is measurements.
graduated into degrees, and the blade can be • Use a magnifying glass or a jeweler’s loupe to
extended in either direction and set at any angle to make Vernier readings. Hold the tool so the
the stock. The blade can be locked against the dial light is reflected on the scale.
by tightening the blade clamp nut. The blade and • Handle the tool as little as possible. Sweat and
dial can be rotated as a unit to any desired position, body acids cause rusting and staining.
and locked by tightening the dial clamp nut. • Periodically check for accuracy. Use a mea-
The protractor dial is graduated into 360° and suring standard, Jo-block, or ground parallel.
reads from 0° to 90° and then back down to 0°. Return the tool to the manufacturer for
Every ten degree division is numbered, and every adjustments and repairs.
• Lay Vernier height gages on their side when Figure 4-28. A double end cylindrical plug gage.
five degrees is indicated by a fine line longer than
those on either side. The Vernier scale is divided not in use. Then there will be no danger that
into twelve equal parts on each side of the “0.” they will be knocked over and damaged.
Every third graduation is numbered (0, 15, 30, 45,
60), representing minutes. Each division equals five
minutes. Since each degree is divided into 60 min-
4.4 GAGES
utes, one division is equal to 5/60 of a degree. It is impractical to check every dimension on
To read the protractor, note the number of every manufactured part with conventional mea- Figure 4-29. A step plug gage can check for oversize and
suring tools. Specialized tools, such as plug gages, undersize in a single test.
degrees that can be read up to the “0” on the Vernier
plate. To this, add the number of minutes indicated ring gages, and optical gages are used instead.
by the line beyond the “0” on the Vernier plate that These gaging devices can quickly determine 4.4.2 Ring Gage
aligns exactly with a line on the dial. whether the dimensions of a manufactured part are
External diameters are checked with ring gages.
within specified limits or tolerances.
The go and no-go ring gages are separate units, and
Measuring requires the skillful use of precision
can be distinguished from each other by a groove
50°00′
measuring tools to determine the exact geometric
cut on the knurled outer surface of the no-go gage. Figure 4-31. An adjustable snap gage. (Taft-Pierce Co.)
50°00′
size of the piece. Gaging involves checking parts
Refer to Figure 4-30.
0°20′ 0°20′ with various gages. Gaging simply shows whether
On ring gages, the gage tolerance is the reverse
Reading is 50°20′ the piece is made within the specified tolerances.
of plug gages. The opening of the go gage is larger Gage size
When great numbers of an item with several
than the opening for the no-go gage.
critical dimensions are manufactured, it might not
be possible to check each piece. It then becomes nec-
essary to decide how many randomly selected For For
pieces must be checked to ensure satisfactory qual- checking checking
O.D. I.D.
ity and adherence to specifications. This technique
is called statistical quality control.
Always handle gages carefully. If dropped or
mishandled, the accuracy of the device could be
affected. Gages provide a method of checking your
In this example the “0” is past the 50° mark, work and are very important tools.
and the Vernier scale aligns at the 20′ mark. Figure 4-30. Ring gages. The larger sizes are cut away to
Therefore, the measurement is 50°20′. reduce weight. (Standard Tool Co.)
4.4.1 Plug Gage
Plug gages are used to check whether hole
4.3.5 Care of Vernier Tools diameters are within specified tolerances. The
Reasonable care in handling these expensive double-end cylindrical plug gage has two gaging 4.4.3 Snap Gage
tools will maintain their accuracy. members known as go and no-go plugs, Figure 4-28. A snap gage serves the same purpose as a ring
• Wipe the instrument with a soft, lint-free cloth The go plug should enter the hole with little or no gage. Snap gages are designed to check internal
before using. This will prevent dirt and grit interference. The no-go plug should not fit. diameters, external diameters, or both. There are
from being ground in, which could eventually The go plug is longer than the no-go plug. three general types:
affect the accuracy of the tool. A progressive plug gage, or step plug gage, has the • An adjustable snap gage can be adjusted
• Wipe the tool with a lightly oiled, soft cloth go and no-go plugs on the same end. This gage is through a range of sizes. See Figure 4-31. Figure 4-32. Diagram of a nonadjustable snap gage. A—A com-
after use and before storage. able to check the dimensions in one motion. See • A nonadjustable snap gage is made for one bination internal-external nonadjustable snap gage. B—An
• Store the tool in its case. Figure 4-29. specific size. See Figure 4-32. external nonadjustable snap gage.
Chapter 4 Measurement 69 70 Machining Fundamentals

• A dial indicator snap gage measures the • Wipe gage blocks with a soft cloth or chamois
amount of variation in the part measurement. treated with oil. Be sure the oil is one recom-
The dial face has a double row of graduations mended by the gage manufacturer. See Figure
reading in opposite directions from zero. 4-37C.
Minus graduations are red and plus gradua- A
tions are black. Both adjustable and nonad- 4.5 DIAL INDICATORS
justable indicating snap gages are available. Industry is constantly searching for ways to
See Figure 4-33. reduce costs without sacrificing quality. Inspection
On snap gages, the anvils should be narrower has always been a costly part of manufacturing. To
than the work being measured. This will avoid speed up this phase of production without sacrific-
uneven wear on the measuring surfaces. ing accuracy, dial indicators and electronic gages are
receiving increased attention.
Dial indicators are designed with shockproof
movements and have jeweled bearings (similar to
fine watches). There are two types of indicators: bal-
anced and continuous. Balanced indicators can take
B measurements on either side of a zero line.
Continuous indicators read from “0” in a clockwise
direction. See Figure 4-38.
Dial faces are available in a wide range of
graduations. They usually read in the following
increments:
• 1/1000″ (0.001″)
Figure 4-35. A typical set of gage blocks. • 1/100 mm (0.01 mm)
(Federal Products Co.) • 1/10,000″ (0.0001″)
• 2/1000 mm (0.002 mm)
Federal Accuracy Grades
Much use is made of dial indicators for center-
Tolerance
ing and aligning work on machine tools, checking
Accuracy Former US Conventional Metric system
grade designation system (inch) (millimeter) for eccentricity, and visual inspection of work. Dial
C 0.5 AAA .000001″ .00003 mm
indicators must be mounted to rigid holding
Figure 4-33. A dial indicator snap gage. (L.S. Starrett Co.) 1 AA .000002″ .00005 mm devices, Figure 4-39.
Figure 4-34. Thread gages. A—Thread plug gage. B—Thread +.000004″ +.0001 mm A digital electronic indicator, Figure 4-40, fea-
2 A+ –.000002″ –.00005 mm
ring gage. C—Go/no-go thread snap gage. (Standard Tool Co. tures direct digital readouts and a traditional grad-
4.4.4 Thread Gages and Taft-Pierce Co.) 3 A&B +.000006″ +.00015 mm uated dial for fast, accurate reading. These
–.000002″ –.00005 mm
Several types of gages are used to check screw indicators are available as both self-contained and
Reference temperature: 68°F (20°C)
thread fits and tolerances. These gages are similar to When working with gage blocks, keep the fol- One inch = 25.4 millimeters exactly remote readout units.
the gages already discussed: lowing tips in mind: Figure 4-36. Federal Accuracy Grades for gage blocks.
• Thread plug gage. • Improper handling can cause temperature
• Thread ring gage. changes in the block, resulting in measure- Oil-treated
• Thread roll snap gage. ment errors. For the most accurate results, The effect of cloth
These gages are illustrated in Figure 4-34. blocks should be used in a temperature- temperature
controlled room. Handle the blocks as little as
4.4.5 Gage Blocks possible. When you must handle the blocks,
Gage blocks, commonly known as Jo-blocks or use the tips of your fingers, as shown in Handle blocks like this Correct method
of wringing
Johansson blocks, are precise steel measuring stan- Figure 4-37A. gages together
Instead of this
dards. Gage blocks can be purchased in various sets • When wringing gage blocks together to build
ranging from a few commonly used block sizes to up to desired size, wipe the blocks and then
more complete sets. See Figure 4-35. carefully slide them together. They should
Gage blocks are used to verify the accuracy of adhere to each other strongly. Separate the
master gages. They are also used as working gages blocks when you are finished. Leaving gage
and for setting up machining work requiring great blocks together for extended periods may A B C
accuracy. The Federal Accuracy Grades for gage cause the contacting surfaces to corrode. See Figure 4-37. Proper care of gage blocks. A—Handling gage blocks. B—Wipe blocks and slide them together. Do not leave blocks
blocks are shown in Figure 4-36. Figure 4-37B. together for extended periods. C—Wipe blocks with a soft cloth before storing. (Webber Gage Div., L.S. Starrett Co.)
Chapter 4 Measurement 71 72 Machining Fundamentals

Nonadjustable Zero setting valve

equalizing jet

Master
Air pressure
supply gage Cushioned
and jewelled
indicating
Pressure Differential movement
regulator pressure Master
Filter meter

A
Nonadjustable
master jet Gaging plug

Figure 4-42. This diagram illustrates the operation of an air

gage.

There is no actual contact between the measur-

ing gage and wall of the bore being measured. The
bore measurement depends on the air leakage
between the plug and the hole wall. (The larger the
bore diameter, the greater the leakage.) Pressure
B
A builds up and the measurement of the back pressure
gives an accurate measurement of the hole size.
Figure 4-38. The two basic varieties of dial indicators.
Change in pressure (air leakage) is measured by
A—Balanced indicators. B—Continuous indicators.
(L. S. Starrett Co.) a dial indicator, a cork floating on the air stream, or
by a manometer (U-shaped tube in which the height
Figure 4-40. This digital electronic indicator has numeric read- of fluid in the tube indicates pressure).
outs and a conventional graduated dial.
(Federal Products Company) 4.6.2 Electronic Gage
An electronic gage, Figure 4-43, is another type
of gaging tool used to make extremely precise
the “0” line coincides with the hand. As the work measurements. Electronic gages are comparison
touching the plunger is slowly moved, the indicator gages: they compare the size of the work to a
hand will measure movement. reference size. Some are calibrated by means of
The dial indicator can show the difference master gage blocks and others use replaceable
between the high and low points, or the total run- gaging probes. These instruments measure in both
out of the piece in a lathe. When machining, adjust- US Conventional and SI Metric units.
ments are made until there is little or no indicator
movement. 4.6.3 Laser Gaging
A laser is a device that produces a very narrow
4.6 OTHER GAGING TOOLS beam of extremely intense light. Lasers are used in
Industry makes wide use of other types of gag- communication, medical, and industrial applica-
ing tools. Most of these tools are used for special tions. Laser is an acronym for light amplification by
purposes and are not usually found in a school stimulated emission of radiation.
shop. However, since you might need to use them in The laser is another area of technology that has
Figure 4-39. Mounting this dial indicator on a magnetic base industry, it is important to learn about such tools.
permits it to be attached to any ferrous metal surface. A push-
moved from the laboratory into the shop. When
button releases the magnet. B employed for inspection purposes, it can check the
4.6.1 Air Gage Figure 4-41. Digital air gages are available with either accuracy of critical areas in machined parts quickly
An air gage uses air pressure to measure hole US Conventional or SI Metric readouts. They can check either and accurately. Refer to Figure 4-44.
4.5.1 How to Use a Dial Indicator sizes and hard-to-reach shaft diameters, Figure 4-41. inside or outside diameters. A—An air gage set up to inspect an
internal dimension. The master ring shown with the gage is 4.6.4 Optical Comparator
The hand on the dial is actuated by a sliding This type of gage is especially helpful when mea-
used to set zero on the readout. B—This gage has an air fork,
plunger. Place the plunger lightly against the work suring deep internal bores. The basic operation of an which is used to check hard-to-reach diameters, such as crank- The optical comparator uses magnification as a
until the hand moves. The dial face is turned until air gage is illustrated in Figure 4-42. shaft journals. (Federal Products Company) means for inspecting parts, Figure 4-45. An
Chapter 4 Measurement 73 74 Machining Fundamentals

Interference bands 4.6.6 Thickness (Feeler) Gage

indicate difference
in size between Thickness gages are pieces or leaves of metal
ball bearing and Jo-block manufactured to precise thickness, Figure 4-49.
Thickness gages are made of tempered steel and are
usually 1/2″ (12.7 mm) wide.

Figure 4-45. This 50-power optical comparator permits a fast

check of the tooth formation on a tap.

enlarged image of the part is projected upon a Interference Light

bands source
screen for inspection. The part image is superim- Ball bearing
posed upon an enlarged, accurate drawing of the being inspected Figure 4-49. Thickness or feeler gages.
correct shape and size. The comparison is made
visually. Variations as small as 0.0005″ (0.012 mm) Thickness gages are ideal for measuring narrow
can be noted by a skilled operator. Optical flat slots, setting small gaps and clearances, determin-
ing fit between mating surfaces, and for checking
4.6.5 Optical Flats Jo-block flatness of parts in straightening operations. See
Optical flats are precise measuring instruments Figure 4-50.
Figure 4-43. This electronic bore gaging system can deliver that use light waves as a measuring standard, Toolmaker's flat
electronic resolution as fine as 0.00001″ (0.0002 mm). Using
Figure 4-46. The flats are made of quartz and have 4.6.7 Screw Pitch Gage
replaceable gaging probes, the self-contained unit measures
diameters ranging from 0.370″ to 2.900″. It also measures in one face ground and polished to optical flatness. Figure 4-47. Optical flat set-up. Optical flat is placed on top of Screw pitch gages are used to determine the
millimeters. It can be linked to a computer for statistical process When this face is placed on a machined surface and the work and light is positioned above the flat. pitch or number of threads per inch on a screw,
control (SPC) data collection. (Sunnen Products Company) a special light passed through it, light bands appear Figure 4-51. Each blade is stamped with the pitch or
on the surface, Figure 4-47. The shape of these
bands indicate to the inspector the accuracy of the
part. See Figure 4-48.

Optical fla Optical fla Optica

t t Optical flat l flat
Work
Work Work Work
Flat surface Concave, cylindrical Concave, spherical Convex, spherical
(air wedge) (air wedge) (contact) (air wedge)

Figure 4-44. This laser is being used to inspect a part from a

car’s automatic transmission. Manually, one person could Figure 4-48. Interference band patterns indicate surface flatness and variations.
inspect no more than four units an hour. The laser can inspect Figure 4-46. Optical flats are used for precision flatness,
over 120 parts an hour. (Ford Motor Co.) parallelism, size, and surface variations. (L. S. Starrett Co.)
Chapter 4 Measurement 75 76 Machining Fundamentals

Figure 4-50. A thickness gage is used to check part clearance.

Figure 4-54. Inside and outside calipers. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 4-52. A set of radius and fillet gages. (L. S. Starrett Co.)

4.7 HELPER MEASURING TOOLS

Some measuring tools are not direct reading and
require the help of a rule, micrometer, or Vernier
Figure 4-51. Screw pitch gages are made for both inch-based
caliper to determine the size of the measurement
and metric threads. (L. S. Starrett Co.) taken. These are called helper measuring tools.

4.7.1 Calipers
number of threads per inch. Screw pitch gages Figure 4-55. The outside caliper is read with a steel rule.
External or internal measurements of 1/64″
are available in US Conventional and SI Metric
(0.4 mm) can be made with calipers, Figure 4-54. A
thread sizes.
caliper does not have a dial or scale that shows a
measurement; the distance between points must be 4.7.2 Telescoping Gage
4.6.8 Fillet and Radius Gage measured with a steel rule. A telescoping gage is intended for use with a
The thin steel blades of a fillet and radius gage, Round stock is measured by setting the caliper B
micrometer to determine internal dimensions,
Figure 4-52, are used to check concave and convex square with the work and moving the caliper legs Figure 4-57. Sets of telescoping gages with varying
radii on corners or against shoulders. The gage is Figure 4-53. Using a radius gage. A—Various ways a radius
down on the stock. Adjust the tool until the caliper ranges are available, Figure 4-58.
gage can be used. B—Using a radius gage holder.
used for layout work and inspection, and as a tem- point bears lightly on the center line of the stock. To use a telescoping gage, compress the contact
(L. S. Starrett Co.)
plate when grinding form cutting tools. See Figure Caliper weight should cause the caliper to slip over legs. The legs telescope within one another under
4-53. The gages increase in radius in 1/64″ (0.5 mm) the diameter. Hold the caliper next to the rule to spring tension. Insert the gage into the hole and
increments. make the reading, Figure 4-55. allow the legs to expand, Figure 4-59. After the
leg. The legs should drag slightly when moved in
An inside caliper is used to make internal mea- proper fitting is obtained, lock the contacts into
4.6.9 Drill Rod and out, or from side to side.
surements where 1/64″ (0.4 mm) accuracy is accept- position. Remove the gage from the hole and make
Considerable skill is required to make accurate
Drill rods are steel rods manufactured to close able. Hole diameter can be measured by setting the your reading with a micrometer, Figure 4-60.
measurements with a caliper. See Figure 4-56. Much
tolerances to twist drill diameters. They are used to caliper to approximate size, and inserting the legs
depends upon the machinist’s sense of touch. With
inspect hole alignment, location, and diameter. Drill into the opening. Hold one leg firmly against the 4.7.3 Small Hole Gage
practice, measurements with accuracy of 0.003″
rods are available in both US Conventional and SI hole wall, and adjust the thumbscrew until the other
(0.07 mm) can be made. However, a micrometer or A small hole gage is used to measure openings
Metric sizes. leg lightly touches the wall exactly opposite the first
Vernier caliper is preferred and must be utilized that are too small for a telescoping gage, Figure
when greater accuracy is required. 4-61. The contacts are designed to allow accurate
Chapter 4 Measurement 77 78 Machining Fundamentals

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Please do not write in this text. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Make readings from the rules.

Figure 4-58. A typical set of telescoping gages.

Figure 4-61. Small hole gages are used to measure the

diameter of holes that are too small for telescoping gages.

measurement of shallow grooves, and small diame-

ter holes. They are adjusted to size by the knurled
knob at the end of the handle. Measurement is made 2. Make readings from the Vernier scales shown
over the contacts with a micrometer, Figure 4-62. below.

B
Figure 4-59. Positioning a telescoping gage to measure an
Figure 4-56. Using outside and inside calipers. inside diameter.
(L. S. Starrett Co.)

Figure 4-60. After removing the locked telescoping gage, Figure 4-62. The correct way to measure a small hole gage with
Figure 4-57. A telescoping gage is used with a micrometer. measure it with a micrometer. a micrometer. B

B C
 Chapter 4 Measurement 79 80 Machining Fundamentals

10. The Vernier-type tool for measuring angles is 15. The dial indicator is available in two basic
called a _____. types. List them.
11. How does a double-end cylindrical plug gage 16. What are some uses for the dial indicator?
differ from a step plug gage?
17. Name the measuring device that employs light
12. A ring gage is used to check whether _____ are waves as a measuring standard.
within the specified _____ range.
18. The _____ is used for production inspection.
13. Gage blocks are often referred to as _____ An enlarged image of the part is projected on a
C blocks. screen where it is superimposed upon an accu-
H rate drawing.
14. An air gage employs air pressure to measure
deep internal openings and hard-to-reach 19. The pitch of a thread can be determined with a
shaft diameters. It operates on the principle of: _____.
a. Air pressure leakage between the plug
20. Of what use are fillet and radius gages?
and hole walls.
b. The amount of air pressure needed to 21. What are helper measuring tools?
insert the tool properly in the hole. 22. How is a telescoping gage used?
c. Amount of air pressure needed to eject
the gage from the hole. 23. Make readings from the micrometer illustra-
d. All of the above. tions.
D
I e. None of the above.

E
A B C
J

Answer the following questions as they per-

tain to measurement.
3. The micrometer is nicknamed _____. D E F
4. One-millionth part of a standard inch is
F known as a _____.
5. One-millionth part of a meter is known as a
_____.
6. A micrometer is capable of measuring accu- G H I
rately to the _____ and _____ part of standard
inch and (in metric versions) to _____ and
_____ millimeters.
7. The Vernier caliper has several advantages
over the micrometer. List two of them.
8. A Vernier caliper can measure to the _____ part J K L
of the inch and (in the metric version) to _____
millimeters.
9. List six precautions that must be observed
G when using a micrometer or Vernier caliper.