ME 367

Non Destructive Testing (NDT)

( As per APJ Abdul Kalam
Kerala Technological University)

Module 5

Mr . Nice Menachery
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Jyothi Engineering College
Cheruthuruthy
1 ME367_Nice Menachery_Non Destructive Testing
09895580629
 MODULE-5_Syllabus
2

Radiography Testing (RT): Principle, electromagnetic radiation

sources: X-ray source, production of X-rays, high energy X-ray source,
gamma ray source - Properties of X-rays and gamma rays.

Inspection techniques like SWSI, DWSI, DWDI, panoramic

exposure, real time radiography, films used in industrial radiography,
types of film, speed of films, qualities of film.

Screens used in radiography, quality of a good radiograph, film

processing, interpretation, evaluation of test results, safety aspects
required in radiography.

Applications, advantages and limitations of RT

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Radiography testing

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 Radiography
4

 Radiography is an imaging technique using X-rays to view

the internal structure of an object.

 To create the image, a beam of X-rays, a form of

electromagnetic radiation, is produced by an X-ray
generator and is projected toward the object.

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 Contd..
5

 The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy

(shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that
we see as visible light.
 The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a
radioactive source.

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 Contd..
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 Radiographic Testing (RT)
7

 Industrial radiography is a method of non-

destructive testing where many types of manufactured
components can be examined to verify the internal structure and
integrity of the specimen.
 Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-rays
or gamma rays. Both are forms of electromagnetic radiation.
 Radiographic Testing (RT) – This method of weld testing makes
use of X-rays, produced by an X-ray tube, or gamma rays,
produced by a radioactive isotope.
 The basic principle of radiographic inspection of welds is the
same as that for medical radiography.

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Principles of Radiography

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 Principles of Radiography
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 The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of

film.
 The part will stop some of the radiation.
 Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation.
 The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film through the test object.

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 Contd..
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= less exposure
= more exposure

X-ray film

Top view of ME367_Nice

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film
 General Principles of Radiography
11

The energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power. Higher

energy radiation can penetrate thicker and more dense materials.

The radiation energy and/or exposure time must be controlled to

properly image the region of interest.

Thin Walled Area

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Low Energy Radiation High energy Radiation
 Radiographic Images
12

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Benefits of Radiographic Testing

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 Benefits of Radiographic Testing
14

1. Can inspect assembled components

2. Minimum surface preparation required
3. Detects both surface and subsurface defects
4. Provides a permanent record of the inspection
5. Verify internal flaws on complex structures
6. Isolate and inspect internal components
7. Automatically detect and measure internal flaws
8. Measure dimensions and angles within the sample without
sectioning
9. Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, flaws and
material density changes

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Flaw Orientation

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 IDL 2001

Flaw Orientation
16

 Radiography has sensitivity limitations when detecting

cracks.

 X-rays “see” a crack as a thickness variation and the

larger the variation, the easier the crack is to detect.

 When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the

thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.

ME367_Nice Menachery_Non Destructive Testing

 IDL 2001

Flaw Orientation
17

Optimum
Angle
= easy to
detect

= not easy
to detect

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 IDL 2001

Contd..
18

 Since the angle between the radiation beam and a crack or

other linear defect is so critical, the orientation of defect must be
well known if radiography is going to be used to perform the
inspection.

0o 10 o Testing
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Radiation Sources

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 Radiation Sources
20

 Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in

industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray
sources.

 Industrial radiography is often subdivided depending on the

source of radiation used.

 X-ray Radiography

 Gamma Radiography

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 Contd..
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X-ray Radiography

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 X-ray Radiography
23

 X-rays are produced by an X-ray generator system.

 These systems typically include an X-ray tube head, a high
voltage generator, and a control console.

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 Contd..
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X-rays are produced by establishing a very high voltage between

two electrodes, called the anode and cathode.

To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside a
vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.

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 Contd..
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 The cathode contains a small filament much the High Electrical Potential

same as in a light bulb.

Electrons
 Current is passed through the filament which + -

heats it. The heat causes electrons to be

X-ray Generator
stripped off. or Radioactive

 The high voltage causes

Source Creates
these “free” electrons Radiation

to be pulled toward a target material (usually

made of tungsten) located in the anode.
Radiation
 The electrons impact against the target. This Penetrate
the Sample
impact causes an energy exchange which
Exposure Recording Device
causes x-rays to be created.
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 X - ray source
26

 The energy required for this process is provided from the

generator , which is connected to an electrical circuit system.
 A rectifier is also provided in the electrical system, to
convert the electrical energy from the generator into the
direct current(DC), which is being the adequate form to be
applied to the X-ray tube.
 The quality and the quantity of the X-ray generation are
usually controlled by adjusting the electrical
parameters(such as voltage applied to the tube or current
flows through the tube) and exposure time(usually a fraction
of a second)
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 X - ray source
27

Schematic setup
ME367_Nice Menachery_Non of X-Ray
Destructive Testing tube and circuit
 Production of x-rays
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 Normally X-rays, are produced when fast moving electrons

are suddenly brought to rest by colliding with matter.

 During collision, the accelerated electrons therefore lose

their kinetic energy very rapidly at the surface of the metal
plate and energy conversion consequently occurs.

 The kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons can be

converted in 3 ways.

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 Contd..
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1. A very small fraction i.e, less than 1% is converted into X-

radiation. The conversion factor f can be estimated by an
approximate empirical relation

f= 1.1×10-9 ZV

Where,

Z- atomic number of the target

V-energy of electron in volts

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 Contd..
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2. Approx. 99% of energy of electrons is converted into heat

by increasing the thermal vibrations of the atoms of the
target, the temperature of which may consequently rise
considerably.

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 Contd..
31

3. Some of electrons have sufficient energy to eject orbital

electrons from the atoms of the target material which
are ionized. The secondary electrons produced in this
way, may escape from the surface of the target and
subsequently be recaptured by it producing further heat
or secondary radiation.

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 High energy X-ray source or HEX
32

 High energy X-ray source or HEX rays are very hard X-

rays whose energy value is 1 MeV or more, which is
about one order of magnitude higher than convectional
X-rays.
 This high energy X-rays are generally used when
examining thicker sections .
 Also, by using high energy X-rays, the possibilities of
large distance to thickness ratios with correspondingly
low geometrical distortion, short production times and
high production rate can be achieved.
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 Contd..
33

 High energy X-rays are produced by a number of

machines suchs as

- synchrotron, betatron, electron linear acceleration

and Van De Graff.

 Electro Linear Accelerator (Linac) is the most popular one

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 Benefits of HEX-rays
34

1. High energy X-ray source has small focal spot size which
reduces the amount of high angle scattered X-rays
reaching the film, thus resulting in radiographs with good
contrast.

2. It has excellent penetrameter sensitivity and good

resolution.

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35

Gamma Radiography

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 Gamma Radiography

Gamma rays are produced by a

radioisotope.

A radioisotope has an unstable

nuclei that does not have enough
binding energy to hold the nucleus
together.

The spontaneous breakdown of an

atomic nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and matter is
known as radioactive decay.
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Destructive Testing
 Contd..
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Most of the radioactive material

used in industrial radiography is
artificially produced.

This is done by subjecting stable

material to a source of neutrons in
a special nuclear reactor. This
process is called activation.

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 Contd..

 Unlike X-rays, which are produced by a machine, gamma rays

cannot be turned off.

 Radioisotopes used for gamma radiography are encapsulated

to prevent leakage of the material.

 The radioactive “capsule” is attached to a cable to form what is

often called a “pigtail.”

 The pigtail has a special connector at the other end that

attaches to a drive cable.
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Contd..

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 Contd..
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 A device called a “camera” is used to store, transport and

expose the pigtail containing the radioactive material.
 The camera contains shielding material which reduces the
radiographer’s exposure to radiation during use.

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 Contd..
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 Contd..
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 A hose-like device called

a guide tube is connected
to a threaded hole called
an “exit port” in the
camera.


The radioactive material

will leave and return to
the camera through this
opening when performing
an exposure!

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 Contd..
43

 A “drive cable” is connected to the

other end of the camera.

 This cable, controlled by the

radiographer, is used to force the
radioactive material out into the
guide tube where the gamma rays
will pass through the specimen and
expose the recording device.
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 Contd..
44

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45

Properties of X-Ray and Gamma ray

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 Properties of X-Ray and Gamma ray
46

 They are invisible and travels at the speed of the light.

 They propagate in a straight line and pass through space
without transference of matter,
 They are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
 They are capable of ionizing gases and also changes the
electrical properties of solids and liquids.
 They are capable of blackening photographic film
 They exhibit wave properties and are reflected, refracted,
diffracted & polarized.

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47

Inspection Techniques in Radiography

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 Inspection Techniques in Radiography
48

 Radiographic Inspection Techniques are employed for

inspecting various engineering structures including tubular
and plate construction pressure pipelines and boilers etc..
 Various Radiographic Inspection Techniques are:-

1. Single wall single image (SWSI) technique.

2. Double wall single image (DWSI) technique.

3. Double wall Double image (DWDI) technique.

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 1. Single wall single image (SWSI)
49
technique.
 This case is applicable in case when the material to
be tested is in the form of cylinders, e.g:- pipes,
shells etc.
 There are two ways to do the inspection.
 To keep the radiographic source outside and film
inside- Flat technique
 To keep the radiographic source inside and the film
outside- panoramic technique

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 SWSI Flat technique.
50

In this technique, the density of the film reduces due to

increase in thickness of the weld penetrated from centre to outside

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 SWSI panoramic technique.
51

Source can be fixed in two ways – at the centre and off the centre

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 Contd..
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 When the source is at the centre, it emits radiation in all

directions, the total circumferential weld is exposed at one
exposure.

 If the source is off the centre, it requires more energy to

penetrate the weld thickness and hence it requires two or
three exposures.

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 2. Double wall single image (DWSI)
53
technique.
 Both source and the film are kept outside the film, but on
opposite sides of it, i.e the source is kept very close to the
outside surface of the pipe and the film is kept on the
other outer side of the pipe.

 In this method, only the film side is exposed and it

requires a number of exposures to cover the whole length
of the weld.

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 Contd..
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Double wall
ME367_Nice single image
Menachery_Non Destructive (DWSI)
Testing technique.
 3. Double wall Double image
55
(DWDI) technique.
 In this method, the source and film are kept on opposite sides
and outside of pipe.
 The source and film are displaced so that the radiation passes
obliquely through the pipe.
 The image of the pipe wall nearest to the source appears on
the film instead of the image of the pipe wall nearest to the
film.
 This technique is applicable only for pipe welds with outer
diameter less than or equal to 88.9mm.
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 Contd..
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Double wall
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(DWDI) technique.
57

Real Time Radiography

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 Real Time Radiography
58

 It is also known as Fluoroscopy.

 It is a technique in which radiation is converted into light

by using a fluorescent screen in the place of the film.

 The process of obtaining the image of the object by

converting the X-rays into light on the fluorescent is known
as Fluoroscopy or Real Time Radiography

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 Working principle
59

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 Working principle
60

 In this method, the radiation after passing through the material

is recorded on the fluorescent screen. The image of the test
piece which is obtained by the fluorescent screen, is received
by CCTV an dis then amplified using the amplification circuit
associated with the camera.
 The amplified circuit is then processed by the computer. The
processed image is then displayed on the monitor. The monitor
Is operated by means of a remote from the X-ray source to
avoid the exposure to radiation.
 The image obtained using this method is usually faint and the
sensitivity is very low. Therefore, to improve the quality of
image , should employ the image intensifier equipment.
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 RTR with Intensifier
61

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 RTR with Intensifier
62

 The image intensifier is a large glass enclosed electron tube.

The function of image intensifier is to convert radiation to light,
light to electron for intensification and electron back to light for
viewing.

 The use of Fluoroscopic units in conjunction with these image

intensifying system greatly enhances the versality and
sensitivity of the real-time radiographic setup

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 RTR
63

 Advantages of RTR
 Can take place at high speed

 Low cost

 Disadvantages of RTR
 Cost of the equipment is high

 Not portable to gamma ray

 Special cabinet is required to keep exposure radiation

within regulations
 Applications of RTR
 Laser weld in thin wall sections

 Electron beam weld in thin pipes

ME367_Nice Menachery_Non Destructive Testing
 Comparison of
X-ray and Fluoroscopy radiography
64

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65

Films used in industrial Radiography

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 Types of Film
66

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 Speed of the Film
67

 The film speed is an important parameter in film radiography.

Based on the grain size an d exposure time, films are classified in

two ways.

1. High speed film

2. Low speed film

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 Contd..
68

1)High speed films:

A film is called high speed film when its grain would begin
reacting to the exposure considerably sooner than other films and
have larger grains may not be able to produce the minute detail.

2)Low speed films:

A film is called low speed film when its grain would begin
reacting to the exposure considerably slower than other films and
have extra fine grain, which gives better quality
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 Quality of the Film
69

 Its depends on two factors

 Film Density

 Film graininess

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70

Safety requirement in Radiography

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 Safety requirement in Radiography
71

Two main aspects of safety

1. Monitoring radiation dosage

2. Protection of personal

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 1. Monitoring radiation dosage
72

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 Contd..
73

The effective way of monitoring involves controlling of the exposure

when working with radiography sources. The methods implemented
to control exposure are

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 Contd..
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 2. Protection of Personnel
75

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76

Advantages, disadvantages &

application of Radiography Testing

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 Advantages
77

 Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks,

and material density changes.

 Detects both surface and subsurface defects.

 Technique is not limited by material type or density.

 Can inspect assembled components.

 Minimum surface preparation required.

 Provides a permanent record of the inspection.

ME367_Nice Menachery_Non Destructive Testing
 Disadvantages
78

 Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.

 Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional

angled exposures.

 Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation.

 Many hours of technician training prior to use.

 Access to both sides of sample required.

 Expensive initial equipment cost.

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 Applications
79

 It can be used to inspect the condition and proper placement

of components for liquid level measurement in sealed
component.

 Can be used in most types of solid materials both ferrous

and non-ferrous as well as non-metallic and composites.

 This is used for castings , weldments and forgings

 Used for semi conductor devices for detection of cracks,

broken wires.ME367_Nice Menachery_Non Destructive Testing
80

End of Module five

Thank You

ME367_Nice Menachery_Non Destructive Testing