Foundation of the Earth Components of the integrated Earth

system

Overview
 Read Chapter 1
 Background info
Scientific methods
Earth scientists
Applications of Earth and Atmospheric Science
 Systems, cycles and budgets

Scientific methods and the study of the Earth

Experiment and observation

 Physics and chemistry are experimental sciences
 Earth Science is primarily an observational science, though experiments are
also used

Observation and hypotheses

 Observation
 Formation of a hypothesis

What makes an idea scientific?

 It can be tested against observation or experiment

Hypothesis testing
 Testing of hypotheses and formation of a theory

Principles
 Example: principle of superposition

Principles: generalizations with exceptions

 An exception: overturned strata in mountain belts

The principle of uniformitarianism

 Proposed by James Hutton in 1795 – Theory of the Earth
 Ancient features of the Earth are best interpreted in terms of processes that
operate at the present day
‘The present is the key to the past’

‘Hutton’s unconformity’
 Hutton interpreted the contact between the lower rocks and the upper rocks
as an ancient erosion surface, produced by processes similar to those
operating at the present day
Changes in Earth History
 Hutton proposed a very strict principle of uniformitarianism
 But there have been big changes in Earth processes including:
 Long term changes
 E.g. evolution of the atmosphere
 Short term changes
 Catastrophic meteorite impacts

Principle of actualism
 A more moderate version of Hutton’s principle
 ‘Ancient features of the Earth are to be interpreted in terms of physical
and chemical processes that operate at the present day’

The term ‘Law’

 Term is typically applied to theories which are very well established, and for
which no exceptions are known*
 Example: “Law of conservation of energy” (1st law of thermodynamics)
 In a system of constant mass, the energy involved in physical or
chemical change is neither created nor destroyed but merely
converted from one form to another

Relationship to other sciences:

 Earth science makes use of principles and laws derived from other sciences,
such as physics, chemistry and biology.
 Paleontology
 Geophysics
 Geochemistry
 Biogeography

Earth scientists: areas of study within the Earth sciences

Geophysicists
 Magnetism
 Gravity
 Seismic waves

Geologists
 Mapping
 Field observation
 Sampling
 Chemical analyses

Paleontologists and Biogeographers

 Paleontologists
 Fossils and the history of life


 Biogeographers
 Distribution of living things at the present day

Hydrologists & Oceanographers

 Liquid water on the Earth’s surface
 Living things in water
 Sediments deposited on the sea floor

Glaciologists
 Behaviour & distribution of ice
 Materials deposited on the landscape by ice

Atmospheric Scientists
 Meteorologists & Climatologists
 Physics of the atmosphere
 Short term changes in the atmosphere (weather)
 Geographical variation and long term changes in the atmosphere
(climate)

Why is it important to study the Earth?

Resources obtained from the Earth

 Water
 Consumption
 Irrigation
 Fuels
 Coal
 Oil
 Natural gas
 Materials
 Metals
 Building material

Materials returned to the Earth

 Solid wastes
 Garbage
 Construction
 Industrial products
 Liquid wastes
 Sewage
 Waste water
 Industrial product
 Gases into atmosphere
 Industrial products
 Carbon dioxide
Direct impact of Earth processes on humans
 Landslides
 Earthquakes
 Volcanoes
 Violent weather
 Climate change

Impact of humans on Earth processes

 Landscape modification
 Farming
 Forestry
 Reservoirs and dams
 Cities
 Changes in the composition of the atmosphere

Systems, cycles and budgets

What is a system?
 A portion of the universe that can be separated from the rest for the purpose
of observing changes
 Systems may be:
 Isolated
 Closed
 Open

Isolated systems
 No matter or energy lost or gained
 Imaginary concept

Closed systems
 No matter lost or gained
 Energy may be exchanged with surroundings
 Earth approximates a closed system

Open systems
 Matter and energy exchanged with surroundings
 Examples of open systems:
 An ocean
 an island,
 a forest,
 a leaf

The Earth as a system

 An (almost) closed system
 Small amounts of gas are lost to space
 Small amounts of material are added by meteorites
  Amounts are negligible

Systems within the Earth

 Contains several major open systems
 Atmosphere
 Biosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Geosphere

Cycles
 Cycles trace the flow of material or energy through systems
 The big three:
 Energy cycle
 Hydrologic cycle
 Rock cycle
 When a cycle is quantified  budget

The Energy Cycle/Budget

 Drives all the processes that we see operating on the Earth
 Energy flow is measured in Watts
 1 W = 1 J/s
 First law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy

Energy pathways
 Energy inputs
 Solar radiation
 Geothermal energy
 Tidal energy
 Energy Loss
 Reflected into space
 Re-radiated

Solar radiation
 Energy comes from the sun as light, UV and other types of radiation.
 About 1.74 x 1017 W (Watts) or 174000 tW (Terawatts)

Where does solar energy go? (1)

 About 30% is reflected into space (52000 tW)
 Just under half is converted to heat and re-radiated (81000 tW)
 Just under a quarter goes into melting ice and evaporating water; energy is
stored in the hydrosphere (40000 tW)
 350 tW are converted to winds, ocean currents, waves, etc.
 40 tW are captured by living things
Geothermal energy
 Energy is released within the Earth by the slow breakdown of Uranium,
Thorium and other radioactive elements.
 Total amount is estimated at ~32 tW

Where does geothermal energy go?

 Volcanoes and hot springs on land 0.3 tW
 Volcanoes under the sea 11 tW
 Heat loss (conduction) from the surface 21 tW
 Converted into movement
 Flowing lava
 Exploding geysers
 Shifting land (Earthquakes, plate tectonics)

Tidal energy
 Gravity of the Moon raises a bulge in the ocean surface
 Causes the movement of large quantities of water
 27 tW

Where does tidal energy go?

 Ultimately converted to heat as water moves over the solid Earth

Summary of energy cycle

Summary of energy cycle (version 2)
The Hydrologic cycle

Hydrologic pathways: Evapotranspiration

 Evaporation
 from surface water
 from land
 Transpiration
 from plants

Hydrologic pathways: Condensation and precipitation

 Condensation
 Clouds
 Precipitation
 Rain
 Snow

Hydrologic pathways: Surface and subsurface flow

 Melting
 Surface flow
 Glaciers
 Streams
  Rivers
 Infiltration
 Groundwater movement

Hydrologic reservoirs
 Oceans (97.5%)
 Ice sheets (1.85%)
 Groundwater (0.64%)
 Lakes, rivers, atmosphere (.01%)

Reservoir change
 For most reservoirs:
 Rate of flow in approximately balances rate of flow out
 Volume of water in the reservoir is approximately constant
 When flow in > flow out, reservoir expands
 When flow out > flow in, reservoir contracts
 Ice sheet reservoir
 Shrinking over time because melting > snowfall

Residence time
 Size of reservoir / flow rate = residence time
 A measure of how long the average water molecule spends in the reservoir
 Typical residence times
 Oceans and ice caps: 1000s of years
 Streams and rivers: a few weeks
 Atmosphere: a few days

The Rock cycle

 Cycling of rock material at surface of the Earth
 Rock types
 Processes

Magma
 Melting (800-1200°C) depending on rock type)
 Molten rock is magma or lava

Igneous rock
 Cooling
 Solidification

Weathering

Sediment
 Reduced pieces
 Sediment
 May be deposited
  Deposition

Erosion and Transportation

 Exposure allows:
 Erosion
 The wearing away of land or soil by the action of wind, water, or ice.
 Transportation

Sedimentary rock
 Lithification
 Sedimentary rock

Metamorphism
 Heat and pressure, without melting*

Metamorphic rocks
 New minerals
 Change in texture
 Fabric

The rock cycle: summary