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128 views10 pagesRD Chap1lab Attitudes PDF
Uploaded by
Leonardo Madriaga AgodillaCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 10
1
OBJECTIVE
Solve apparent-dip problems using
orthographic projection, trigonometry,
polar tangent diagrams, and alignment
diagrams
Attitudes of Lines and Planes
‘This chapter is concemed with the orientations of lines
and planes. Many of the structural elements that we
‘measure in the field are lines and planes. In this chapter
we will examine several graphical and mathematical
techniques for solving apparent dip problems. Each tech-
nique is appropriate in certain circumstances. The exam-
ination of various approaches to solving such problems
serves as 2 good introduction to the techniques of solving
structural problems in general. Finally, many of these
problems are designed to help you visualize structural
relations in three dimensions.
‘The following terms are used to deseribe the orienta~
tons of lines and planes.
Attitude The orientation in space. By convention, the
attitude of a plane is expressed as ts strike and dip: the
attitude of a line is expressed as trend and plunge,
Bearing ‘The horizontal angle between a line and a
specified coordinate direction, usually true north or
south; the compass direction or azimuth,
Strike The bearing of a horizontal line contained within
‘an inclined plane (Fig. 1.1). The strike is @ line of equal
elevation on a plane. There are an infinite number of
parallel strike fines for any inclined plane.
Dip The vertical angle between an inclined plane and a
horizontal line perpendicular to its strike. The dicec-
tion of dip can be thought of as the direction water
would ran down the plane (ig. 1.1).
Trend The bearing of a line (Fig. 1.2). Nonhorizontal
lines trend in the down-line direction
Plunge The vertical angle between a line and the hori-
zontal (Fig. 1.2).
Pitch The angle measured within an inclined plane
between a horizontal line and the line in question
Gig. 13). Also called rake, 2 Chapter 1
Fig. 1 Strike and dip of a plane.
Aeparent dip
fig, 12 Trend and phnge of apparent ¢
dip.
Fig. 1.3 Pitch (oc rake) of @ line in an.
inclined plane. }
Apparent dip The vertical angle between an inclined
plane and a horizontal line that is not perpendicular to
the strike ofthe plane (Fig, 1.2). For any inclined plane
(except a vertical one), the tric dip is alviays greater
than any apparent dip. Note that the apparent dip is
defined by its trend and plunge or by its pitch within a
plane.
‘There are two ways of expressing the strikes of planes
and the trends of lines (Fig. 1.4). The azimuth method is
based on a 360° clockwise circle; the quadrant method is
based on four 90° quadrants. A plane that strikes
northwest-southeast and dips 50" southwest could be
described as 315, SOSW (azimuth) or NASW, SOSW
(quadrant, Similarly, a line that trends due west and
plunges 30° may be described as 30, 270 or 30, N9OW.
In this manual, the strike is given before the dip, and the
plunge is given before the trend.
Notice that because the strike is a horizontal line,
either direction may be used to describe it. Thus a strike
‘of NASW (315) is exactly the same as S458 (135). Usually,
however, the strike is given in reference to north. The
dip, on the other hand, is usually not a horizontal line,
‘and the down-line direction must be given. Because the
direction of dip is always perpendicular to the strike, the
exact bearing is not needed, and the dip direction is
approximated by giving the quadrant in which it lies or
the cardinal point to which it tnost nearly points. The
attitude of a plane could be specified by recording the
plunge and trend of the dip without recording the strike
atl,
Rig. 14 Azimuth and quadrant
methods of expressing compass
directions
Abitudes of Lines and Planes 3
Apparent-dip problems
‘There are many situations in which the true dip of a
plane cannot be measured accurately in the field or
cannot be drawn on a cross-section view. Any cross-
section that is not drawn perpendicular to strike, for
example, displays an apparent dip rather than the true
dip of a plane (except for hottzontal and vertical planes).
Apparent-dip problems involve determining the alti
tude of a plane from the attitude of one or more apparent
ips, oF vice versa. ‘The strike and dip of a plane may be
determined from either (I) the strike ofthe plane and the
attitude of one apparent dip, ot (2) the attitudes of two
apparent dips.
‘There are four major techniques for solving apparent-
ip problems. ‘These are: (1) orthographic projection, (2)
trigonometry, (3) nomograms (alignment diagrams), and,
@) stereographic projection, Stereographic projection is
described in Chapter 5. The other three techniques are
discussed in this chapter.
‘Throughout this and subsequent chapters the follow-
ing symbols will be used:
© alpha) = plange of apparent dip
Bibeta) angle between the strike of« plane
and the trend of an apparent dip
8 (delta) ~ plunge of tre dip
8 theta) direction (trend) of apparent dip 4 Chapter 1
Orthographic projection
One way to solve apparent-dip problems is to carefully
draw a layout diagram of the situation. This technique,
called orthographic projection, is more time-consuming
than the other approaches, but it helps you to develop
the ability to visualize in three dimensions and to draw
precisely.
Faample 1: Determine true dip from strike plus
attitude of one apparent dip
Suppose that a quarry wall faces due north and exposes
a quartalte bed with an apparent dip of 40, NOW. Near
the quarry the quartzite can be seen to strike N25E.
What is the true dip?
Before attempting @ solution, it is cractal that you
visualize the problem. If you cannot draw it, then you
probably do not understand it. Figure 1.Sa shows the
elements of this problem.
Diraction af apperent dip
Solution
1 Carefully draw the strike line and the direction of the
apparent dip in plan (map) view (Fi. 1.5b).
2 Add a line for the dicection of true dip. ‘This can be
drawn anywhere perpendicular to the strike line but
not through the intersection between the strike and
apparent-dip lines (Figs 1.5¢,4).
3 Now we have aright triangle, the hypotenuse of which
1s the apparent-tip direction. Imagine that you are look-
ing dow from space and that this hypotenuse is the top
edge of the quarry wall. Now imagine folding the quarry
wall up into the horizontal plane. This is done graphically
by drawing another right triangle adjacent to the fr
(Bigs 1.5e.0). The apparent-cip angle, known to be 40" in
this problem, is measured and drawn directly adjacent to
the direction of the apparent-dip line. Since the apparent
dip is to the west, the angle opens to the west on the
Grawing, The line opposite angle a is of length d and
represents the depth to the layer of interest at point P|
ig. 1.50).
Hig. 1.8 Solution of Examole 1
Dashed lines are fold Lines.
(Block diagram. () Step 1 of
‘orthographic solution, (e)Block
diagram looking north.
(@ Orthographic projection of
‘dap 2. (6) Block diagram of
step 3. (1) Orthographic
projection of step 3. (a) Biock,
diagram of step 4
(@) Orthographic projection of
step & 4 Finally, the direction of true dip is used as a fold line,
and another line of length dis drawn perpendicular to it
\ (Figs 1.5g,h). The true dip angle 6 is then formed by
© @ connecting the end of this nes tine to the strike line
Since the true dip is © the northwest, angle 8 opens
toward the nochvwest. Angle 8 is measured directly off
the drawing to be 43°.
UW you have trouble vsualiing this process, make &
photocopy of Fig. 1.5h, fold the paper along the fold lines,
4 and reread the solution to this problem,
Atutudes of Lines and Planes 5
Problem 1.1
‘Along a railroad cut, a bed has an apparent dip of
20" ina direction of N62W. The bed strikes N67E.
Using orthographic projection, find the tue dip,
Problem 7.2
A fault has the following attitude: NBOE, 488. Using
orthographic projection, determine the apparent
dip of this fault in a vertical cross-section striking
NOSW.
Fold line
Fold line
True dip (5) = 43° © chapter 1
Example 2: Determine sirike and dip from two
apparent dips
Suppose that a fault trace fs exposed in two adjacent cs
faces. In one wall the apparent dip s 15, S5OB, end in the
other it s 28, NSE (Fig, 1.60). What i the strike and dip
of the fault plane?
Solution
1 Visualize the problem as shown in Fig. 1.6b, We will
use the tivo trend lines, OA and OC, as fold lines, and as
in Example 1 we will use vertical line of arbitrary length
4. Draw the two trend lines in plan view (Fig, 1.66).
2 ftom the junction of these two lines (point 0) draw
angles a and a, (Fig. 1.60), It does not really matter
on which side of the trend lines you draw your angles,
‘but drawing them outside the angle between the trend
lines results in a minimum of clutter on your final
‘grain,
3 Draw a line of length d pespendicular to each of the
trend lines to form the triangles COZ and AOX (Fig. 1.60).
Find these points on Fig, 1.66, The size of d is not
important, but it must always be drawn exactly the same
length, because it represents the depth to the layer along
any strike line.
a \
Fig. 1.6 Solution of Bxanple 2. (a) Block diagram. (b) Block diagram showing tangles involved in onthogcaphic geajection and
trigonometric solutions. (c)tep 1 of orthographic solution. (2) Step 2. (e) Seep 3. () Step 4. (g)Steps 5 and 6. |
i
4 Figure 1.6e shows triangles COZ and AOX folded up
into pan view with the two apparent-dip trend lines used
28 fold lines. As shown in Fig. 1.6b, ine AC is horizontal
‘and parallel to the fault plane; therefore it defines the
fault’s strike. We may therefore draw line AC on the
dingram and measure its trend to determine the strike
Fig, 1.60} it turns out to be N22W.
5 Line OB is then added perpendicular to line AC; it
represents the direction of true dip (Fig. 1.68)
6 Using line OB as a fold line, triangle BOY (as shown in
Fig. 1.66) can be projected into the horizontal plane,
again using length d to set the position of point ¥ (ig.
1.66). The true dip 8 can now be measured directly off
the diagram to be 30°.
aides of Lines and Planes 7
Problem 1.3
‘A fault plane is intersected by two mine drifts. In
‘one drift the plunge and trend of the apparent dip
is 20, NLOW, and in the other itis 32, N8SW. Use
‘orthographic projection to determine the attitude of
the fault plane.
Probleml.¢
Abed strikes N75E and dips 40° to the south. Two
vertical cross-sections need to be drawn through
this bed, one oriented north-south and the other
oriented east-west. By orthographic projection de-
teratine the apparent dip on each cross-section.
ae
ER B chapter 1
‘Trigonometcic solutions
Apparent-dip problems can be done uch faster and
more precisely trigonometrically, especially with a calco-
lator. This method is particularly suitable when very
ssnall dip angles are involved. Even when the angles are
not drawn orthographically, however, you should seteh
a block diagram in order clearly to visualize the problem,
Programs to solve apparent-dip problems on prograst=
able calculators are discussed by De fong (1975). Trig-
‘onometric functions are listed in Appendix B for those
whose caleulators do not contain them.
Refer to Fig. 1.6b for the following derivations
AX=BY
AX BY
tan AOX- FF = Ge
—_ BY
OB Gec AOB)
08 an BOY)
(08 Gec AOB)
tan BOY
sec AOB
~= tan BOY cos AOB
tan AOX =
tan AOX =
or. using symbols,
‘cos angle between true- and’
tanen ond) ("Seeing ) OD
or
. tana
‘no candle between trie and a2)
apparent-tp directions
on
ane
sang oR a3)
Example 3; Determine true dip from strike plus
attitude of one apparent dip
‘Byample 1 is a convenient problem of this type to solve
trigonometrically. The strike of a bed is known to be
N25E but we do not know the dip. Anapparent dip is 40,
NOOW.
a=40"
e-65"
tan 40° = 0,839
sin 65° =0.906
Solution
From equation 1.3,
tana_0.839
ond -8 9067 0926
Example 4: Determine strike and dip from two
apparent dips
Because two apparent dips with trend 8 are involved
they will be labeled @, and @3, which cortespond to the
two apparent-dip angles a, and a3, 0; should cepresent
the more gently dipping of the two apparent dips,
‘This type of problem has two steps. The first step is to
determine the angle between the true-dip dzection and
8, The relevant trigonometric relationships are as
follows:
tan angle between
‘csc angle between’
and true-dip direction ™
®:and 02
aa
(cot a,)(tan a2) ~ (cos
angle between 0, and 83)
Using Example 2, we have the situation shown in Figs
Leccd,
0,9130(8505) a, = 15"
0,-45(N45B) a= 28"
angle between 0, and 0, = 85°
Solution
From equation 1.4,
tan angle between 8 and true dip direction
= (osc 85°)(cot 15°}tan 28°) (cos 85°),
= 1.004 (3.732\0.532) -(0.087))
= 1.006 [1.985 ~ 0.087] 1.91
angle betwoen 0,
and true-dip direction = 62.3°
This angle is measured from 0, inthe direction of In
this case the computed angle (62.3°)is less than the angle
between 8; and 0, (85°), The true-dip direction, there-
fore, lies between 0, and 02, @ is 130° (S5OE) so the
Girection of teue dip is 130" ~62" = 68° (N6BE). Bxami-
ration of Fig. 1.66 shows that this Is a reasonable dip
direction. & dip direction of NOSE corresponds to a strike ‘of N22W, which agrees with our orthographic projection
solution,
If the angle between @, and the true-dip direction is
determined to be greater than the angle between ®, and
82, then the angle is measured from @, toward and
beyond @,
Once the true-dip direction (and therefore the strike
direction) has been determined, equation 1,3 is used to
determine 8:
wlane
sin B
ae1S* tana+0.268
= angle between 130° ($508)
and 158° ($228) = 28°
sin -0.69
0.268
tan» 5265 “O57
8-30"
tnd
Problem 1.5
Solve Problem 1.1 using trigonometry,
Problem 1.6
Solve Problem 1.2 using trigonometry.
Altitudes of Lines and Planes 9
Problem 1.7
A coal seam dips 2° due east. A mining company
‘wants its mining adits to slope at least 1* so that
water will drain out. In what directions can adits
be driven without stoping less than 1°?
Problem 1.8
‘The apparent dip of a fault plane is measured in
‘two trenches. Toward 220° the apparent dip is 4°.
‘Toward 100° the apparent dip is 7°, Trigonomet-
tically determine the direction and amount of true
dip,
Alignment diagrams
Alignment diagrams (nomograms) usually involve three
variables that have a simple mathematical relationship
with one another. A straight line connects points on
three scales, Figure 1.7 is an alignment diagram for 8, a,
and 8. Ifany two of these variables are known, the third
may be quickly determined. This technique is particu-
larly convenient for determining apparent-