Q.No.

1 Find the value of the given brass/steel sphere using vernier callipers and hence determine
its mass.
(Take 6 observations, given density of brass : 8.4 g/cc and density of steel 7.9 g/cc)
Formula :
4
3
1. Volume of the given shape V  r cm
3
3
 
Where r = d/2 = radius of the sphere (cm)
d = diameter of the sphere (cm)
2. Diameter of the sphere from vernier callipers total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C.) (cm).
1MSD
3. Vernier callipers L.C.   cm  .
N
4. Mass of the given sphere M = V  where  = density of the sphere (gm cm–3)
Table : To find the radius of the sphere (r)
M.S.R Vernier Extra fraction Total Reading
S.No. a Coincidence b = n x LC (a + b)
(cm) (n) (cm) (cm)

Procedure :
Least count of Vernier Callipers :
1. Note the value of one main scale division (1 MSD) and the number of divisions on the vernier scale
N. Vernier callipers least count (L.C.) is determined as
1MSD
L.C.   cm 
N
To determine the radius of the sphere :
2. Keeping sphere in between the jaws, note the reading on the main scale just before the zero (0)
division of the vernier scale as M.S.R. and the vernier scale division which coincides with one of the
main scale division which coincides with one of the main scale division as V.C.
3. Determine the diameter of the sphere from total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C x L.C.)
4. Repeat the experiment 6 times for different positions of sphere and calculate the average diameter
d with that average radius as r = d/2.
34
5. By substituting r the volume of the sphere is calculated as V  r
3
6. Mass of the given sphere is calculated as m = V 
Precautions :
1. Take the readings without parallax error.
2. The object should be gripped tightly between the two jaws.

1
Table : To find the radius of the sphere (r)

M.S.R Vernier Extra fraction Total Reading

S.No. a Coincidence b = n x LC (a + b)
(cm) (n) (cm) cm
1 1.7 8 0.08 1.87
2 1.7 8 0.08 1.88
3 1.8 6 0.06 1.86
4 1.7 8 0.08 1.88
5 1.7 7 0.07 1.87
6 1.7 7 0.07 1.87

Average : 1.87 cm
Calculations :
d 1.87
Average radius of the sphere r    0.935cm log 4 = 0.6021
2 2
log (3.14) = 0.4969
43 log(0.817) = –0.0878
Volume of the sphere V  r
3 log 3 = 0.4771
4 3 4 log V = log 4 – log 3 + log (3.14)
V   3.14   0.935    3.14  0.817 + log (0.817)
3 3
= 0.5341
V = 3.413 cm3
V = anti log (0.5341) = 3.412
Mass of the sphere
Volume of the sphere V = 3.41 cm3 log m = log (341) + log (7.99)
Given density of the steel  = 7.99 gm cm–3 = 0.5328 + 0.9025
Mass of the steel sphere m = V  = 1.4353
m = (3.41) (7.99) m = anti log(1.4353) = 26.9
m = 26.96 gm
Observations :
1. 1 MSD = 0.1 cm
2. No. of divisions on vernier scale N = 10 divisions.
3. Vernier callipers L.C. = 0.01 cm
4. Average radius of the sphere r = 0.935 cm
Result :
1. Volume of the given sphere V = 3.413 cm3
2. Mass of the given sphere M = 29.96 gm

2
Q.No.2 Find the volume of the given rectangular glass plate using Vernier callipers and screw
gauge.
Formula :

1. Volume of the rectangular glass plate V    b  t cm 

3

where  = length of the glass plate (cm)
b - breadth of the glass plate (cm)
t = thickness of the glass plate (cm)
2. Length & breadth of the glass plate from Vernier Callipers total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C.)
cm
1M.S.D.
3. Vernier Callipers L.C.   cm 
N
4. Thickness of the glass plate from screw gauge total reading = P.S.R + (corrected H.S.R. x L.C.)
mm
Pitch of thescrew
5. Screw gauge Least Count = Total no.of head scaledivisions (mm)

Dis tan ce moved by thescrew

Where Pitch of the screw = No.of complete rotational mod e  mm 

Tables :To find length of the glass plate (  ) using vernier callipers

MSR Vernier Extra fraction Total Reading

Sl.No. a Coincidence b = n x LC (a + b)
(cm) (n) (cm) (cm)

To find breadth of the glass plate (b) using vernier callipers.

MSR Vernier Extra fraction Total Reading

Sl.No. a Coincidence b = n x LC (a + b)
(cm) (n) (cm) (cm)

To find thickness the glass plate (t) using Screw guage.

P.S.R. Head Scale Reading Extra fraction Total reading

S.No. a Correct b = n x L.C (a + b)
Observed
(cm) n (mm) (mm)

3
4. Procedure :
To find length & breadth of the glass plate using V.C.
1. Find L.C. of the Vernier Callipers.
2. Keeping glass plate in between the jaws, note the reading on the main scale just before the zero (0)
division of the vernier scale as M.S.R and the vernier scale division which concides with no. of the
main scale division as V.C.
3. Determine the length of the glass plate from total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C. )
4. Repeat the experiment 4 times for different positions of glass plate and calculate the average length
.
5. As above average breadth of the determined as b.
To find the thickness of the glass plate using screw guage.
6. Find zero error & L.C. of the screw guage.
7. Keeping glass plate in between the shifts and rotate screw until it gripped with gentle pressure.
Note P.S.R. and H.S.R. and calculate the thickness of the given glass plate from
total reading = P.S.R. + (corrected H.S.R. x L.C. )
8. Repeat the experiment 4 times for different positions of glass plate and calculate the average thickness
as t.
9. Substituting  , b & t volume of the glass plate calculated as V    b  t
5. Precautions :
1. Take the readings without parallax error.
2. The object should be gripped gently between the two shafts.

4
Tables :
Table 1 : To find length of the glass plate (  ) using vernier callipers L.C. = 0.01 cm
Extra Total
MSR Vernier
Fraction Reading
S.No. (a) Coincidence
b  n  L.C (a + b)
(cm) (n)
(cm) (cm)
1. 5.7 5 0.05 5.75
2. 5.7 5 0.05 5.75
3. 5.7 5 0.05 5.75
4. 5.7 5 0.05 5.75

Table 2 : To find breadth of the glass plate (b) using vernier callipers

MSR Vernier Extra fraction Total Reading

Sl.No. a Coincidence b = n x LC (a + b)
(cm) (n) (cm) (cm)
1 3.2 6 0.06 3.26
2 3.2 6 0.06 3.26
3 3.2 6 0.06 3.26
4 3.2 6 0.06 3.26

Table 3 : To find thickness the glass plate (t) using Screw guage. L.C. = 0.01 cm, Error = +1, correction
= –1

P.S.R. Head Scale R eading Extra fraction Total Reading

S.No. a b=n (a + b)
Correct
(cm) Ob serv ed (mm) (mm)
n
1 2 67 66 0.66 2.66
2 2 67 66 0.66 2.66
3 2 67 66 0.66 2.66
4 2 67 66 0.66 2.66

Calculation :
5.75  5.75  5.75  5.75 4(5.75)
Average length of glass plate   ;   5.75cm
4 4
3.26  3.26  3.26  3.26 4(3.26)
Average breadth of glass plate b  =  3.26cm
4 4
2.66  2.66  2.66  2.66 4  2.66 
Average thickness of glass plate t    2.66 =2.66 x 10–1 cm
4 4
Volume of the glass plate log V = log (5.75) + log (3.26) + log (0.266)
V  bt = 0.7597+0.5132 +(–0.5751)
log V = 0.6978
= ( 5.75 ) ( 3.26 ) (2.66 x 10–1 )
V = Anti log (0.6978) = 4.982
V = 4.986 cm3
Observations :
1. Vernier callipers 1 MSD = 0.1 cm 2. Vernier callipers L.C. = 0.01 cm
3. Screw gauge 1 P.S.D. = 1 mm 4. Screw gauge L.C. = 0.01 mm
Result :
Volume of the given glass plate V = 4.986 cm3.

5
Q.No.3 Find the volume of the given cylender using vernier callipers and screw guage. (Take 6
observations for each dimension)
Formula :
2
1. Volume of the given cylinder V  r  cm 3

Where r = d/2 = radius of the cylinder (cm)
 = length of the cylinder (cm)
d = diameter of the cylinder (cm)
2. Length of the cylinder from vernier callipers total reading - M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C.) (cm)
1MSD
3. Vernier callipers L.C.  (cm)
N
4. Radius of the cylinder from screw guage. total reading = P.S.R. + (corrected H.S.R. x L.C. ) (mm)
Pitch of thescrew
5. Screw guage Least Count = Total no.of head scaledivisions (mm)
Dis tan ce moved by thescrew
where Picth of the screw = No.of complete rotations made  mm 
Table : To find the length of the cylender (  )
Total
MSR Vernier Extra fraction
Reading
S.No. A Coincidence b = n x L.C.
(a+b)
(cm) (n) (cm)
Cm

Table - 2 : To find radius of the cylinder using screw guage.

P.S.R. Head Scale Reading Extra fraction Total Reading
Sl.No. a b = n x L.C. a+b
cm Observed Corrected (n) (mm) (mm)

4. Procedure :
To find the length of the cylinder using Vernier callipers
1. Find L.C. of the vernier Callipers.
2. Keeping cylender in between the jaws, note the reading on the main scale just before the zero (0)
division of the vernier scale as M.S.R. and the vernier scale division which coincides with one of the
main scale divisions of V.C.
3. Determine the length of the cylinder from total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C.)
4. Repeat the experiment 6 times for different positions of cylinder calculate the average length  .
To find the radius of the cylinder using screw guage
5. Find zero error & L.C. of the screw guage.
6. Keeping in cylinder in between the shafts and rotate screw until it gripped with gentle pressure.
Note P.S.R. and H.S.R. and claculate the thickness of the given cylinder from total reading =
P.S.R. + (corrected H.S.R. x L.C.)
7. Repeat the experiment 6 times for different positions of cylinder & calculate the average radius as r.
8. Substituting   r volume of the cylinder calculated as V  r 2 .
5. Precautions :
1. Take the readings without parallax error.
2. The object should be gripped gently between the two shafts.
6
Table :
Table - 1 : To find the length of the cylender (  ) using Vernier callipers. L.C. = 0.01 cm
Total
MSR Vernier Extra fraction
Reading
S.No. a Coincidence b = n x L.C.
(a+b)
(cm) (n) (cm)
Cm
1 3.8 2 0.02 3.82
2 3.8 2 0.02 3.82
3 3.8 0 0 3.8
4 3.8 3 0.03 3.83
5 3.8 2 0.02 3.82
6 3.8 2 0.02 3.82

Table - 2 : To find radius of the cylinder using screw guage. Error = –1, correction = + 1, L.C. = 0.01
mm
P.S.R. Head Scale Reading Extra fraction Total Reading
Sl.No. a b = n x L.C. a+b
cm Observed Corrected (n) (mm) (mm)
1 12 0 1 0.01 12.01
2 12 2 3 0.03 12.03
3 12 2 3 0.03 12.03
4 12 0 1 0.01 12.01
5 12 2 3 0.03 12.03
6 12 0 1 0.01 12.01

Calculation :
Average length of the cylinder log v = log(3.14) + 2 x log(0.601) + log (3.82)
3.82  3.82  3.8  3.83  3.82  3.82 = 0.4969+2(-0.2211)+0.5809
 = 0.6356
6
V = Anti log (0.6356) = 4.3091
22.91
  3.81cm
6
Average diameter of the cylinder
12.01  12.03  12.03  12.01  12.3  12
d
6
72.12
d  12.02 mm
6
d 12.02
Average radius of the cylinder f    6.01mm  6.01  101 cm
2 2

Volume of the cylinder V  r 2

= (3.14) x (6.01 x 10–1)2 x (3.81)
= 4.3098 cm3
Observations :
1. Vernier callipers 1 MSD = 0.1 cm 2. Vernier callipers L.C. = 0.01 cm
3. Screw Guage 1 P.S.D. = 1 mm 4. Screw Guage L.C. = 0.01 mm
Result :
Volume of the given cylinder V = 4.3098 cm3.

7
Q.No.4 Using physical balance, determine the mass of the given body correct to a milligram.
Q.No.5 Using physical balance, find the volume of the given object. (Density of the wood d = 0.8
gm cm–3)
Formula :
1. Mass of body to milligram
m = mass of body at H.R.P. + Correction P (gm)
0.01 HRP  ZRP 
2. Correction P  gm
 HRP  LRP 
m
3. Volume of the given object V 
d

cm3 
4. Density of given object (wooden block) (d) = 0.8 gm cm–3
5. Z.R.P = Zero Resting Point (divisions)
L.R.P. = Lower Resting Point (divisions)
H.R.P. = Higher Resting point (divisions)
3. Table :
Table : Determining mass of the given body

Mean of the
Contents in Pan Turning Points Resting
turning points
Points
Sl. No. Right
Left Left Right
(weights) Left Right
(body) (a) (b)
(gm)
1
2
3

4. Procedure :
1. Adjust the levelling screws and nuts so that beam oscillates symmetrically on either side of central
division, when pans are end.
2. Release the beam, take 5 successive turning points 3 on left 2 one right. Take their average as ZRP.
3. Keep body in left Pan, weights in right pan and see that pointer oscillates symmetrically.
4. Release the beam and note 5 successive turning points 3 on left, 2 on right.
5. If mean is more than ZRP it is HRP add long to get LRP.
6. If mean is less than ZRP it is LRP subtract 10mg to get HRP.
0.01 HRP  ZRP 
7. Correction calculated as P 
 HRP  LRP 
8. Mass of body to a milligram m = Mass of body at H.R.P. + correction P
m
9. Volume of the wooden block is calculated as V  .
d
5. Precautions :
1. Weights are added or removed with force P.
2. Lift the beam very slowly.

8
Table :
Table : Determining mass of the given body (m)
Mean of the
Contents in Pan Turning points turning Resting
points point
Sl.No.
Right ab
Left Left Right
(weights) Left Right 2
(body) (a) (b)
(gm)
1 - - 7 7 7 14 14 7 14 ZRP = 10.5
Wood
2 8.520 3 3 3 15 15 3 15 LRP = 9
block
Wood
3 8.510 6 6 6 18 18 6 18 HRP=12
block

Calculation :
0.01 HRP  ZRP 
Correction P  log V = log (8.515) - log (0.8)
 HRP  LRP 
= 0.9302 + 0.0969
0.0112  10.5  0.015  = 1.0271
  V = Anti log (1.0271) [  log (0.8) = –0.0969 ]
12  9   3 = 10.6437
P = 0.005 gm
Mass of the body m = mass at HRP + P
= (8.510) + (0.005)
= 8.515 gm
m  8.515 
Volume of the object (wood block) V  d 
 0.8 
V = 10.6437 cm3
Observations :
1. Zero resting point = 10.5 divisons
2. Higher resting point = 12 divisions
3. Lower resting point = 9 divisions
4. Corrected mass P = 0.005 gm
Result :
1. Mass of the body corrected to milligram M = 8.515 gm
2. Volume of the given object = 10.6437 cm3

9
Q.No.6 Find the acceleation due to gravity at your place using simple pendulum. Calculate the
percentage error in your measurement. (Take 6 observations).
Formula :
  
1 2
1. Acceleration due to gravity g  4  2
T 

cm s 2 . 
Where  = (a – r) = length of the pendulum (cm)
a = Distance between suspension point and bob bottom (cm)
r = Bob radius (cm)
T = Time period (s)
| g  g1 |
2. Percentage of error is in g value =  100%
g
Where g = Actual value = 980 (cms–2)
g1 = Measured value (cm s–2)
3. Using vernier callipers radius of bob r = d/2 (cm)
1 MSD
4. Vernier callipers L.C. =  cm 
N
5. Total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C. ) (cm)
Table : To find radius of bob (r)
MSR
VC b = nx LC Total
Sl.No. a
n cm (a + b) cm
cm

Time of 20 oscillations
Length of
(sec) 
Pendulum t
Sl. Mean T T2 T2
No.    a  r Trail 1 Trail 2 20 (sec2)
xy (sec) =constant
(cm) x y t (cm/s2)
2

Procedure :
1. Radius of bob r to be measured using vernier callipers.
2. Distance from point of suspension to bottom of bob a to be measured using meter scale. Find
  a  r  .
3. For a value of  , time taken for 20 oscillations measured 1st and 2nd time. Their average t is taken.
t
4. Time period T  calculated, then T2 is calculated.
20
5. Repeat the experiment 6 times for different  values.
 
6. For every  value calculate 2 value and take average of .
T T2
1 2  
7. g1 is calculated as g  4  2  .
T 
g  g1
8. Percentage error in g calculated as   100% .
g
Precautions :
1. Amplitude should be small.
2. V.C. should note without parallax error
10
Table : To find radius of bob (r)

MSR
VC b = nx LC Total
Sl.No. a
n cm (a + b) cm
cm
1 1.7 8 0.08 1.78
2 1.7 8 0.08 1.78
3 1.7 8 0.08 1.78

Calculation :
1.78  1.78  1.78 5.34
Average diameter d  =  1.78cm
3 3
d  1.78 
Average radius r   
2  2 
r  0.89cm  1cm

Table : To find
T2

Time of 20 oscillations
Length of
(sec) 
Pendulum t 2
Sl. Mean T T T2
No.   a  r Trail 1 Trail 2 20 (sec2)
xy =constant
t (sec)
(cm) x y (cm/s2)
2
1 40 25 26 25.5 1.275 1.625 24.61
2 50 29 29 29 1.45 2.103 23.77
3 60 31 32 31.5 1.575 2.480 24.19
4 70 34 34 34 1.7 2.890 24.22
5 80 36 35 35.5 1.775 3.150 25.39
6 90 38 38 38 1.9 3.610 24.93

Calculation :
 147.11
Average 2
  24.5
T 6
log (percentage error) = log(134) – log (98)
1 2    = 2.1271 – 1.9912
Acceleration due to gravity g  4   = 0.1359
 T2 
Percentage error = Anti log (0.1359) = 1.367
g1 = 4 x 3.14 x 3.14 x (24.51)
= 39.4384 x (24.51)
g = 966.6 cm/s2
1

g  g1 13.4
Percentage error = g =  100  0.1367  100  1.367 no unit
980
Observations :
1. No. of divisions on vernier scale N = 10 divisions 2. 1 M.S.D. = 0.1 cm
3. Vernier callipers L.C. = 0.01cm 4. Radius of bob r = 0.89 cm
Result :
1. Acceleration due to gravity at a place g1 = 966.6 cms–2
2. Percentage error in g value = 1.367 no. unit.

11
Q.No.7 Find the acceleration due to gravity (g) at your place using simple pendulum draw
  T 2 graph and verify the value of ‘g’ with the value obtained from the graph. (Take 6
observations)
Formula :
  
1 2
1. From practrical : Acceleration due to gravity g  4  2 
T 

cms2 
Where  = (a – r) = length of the pendulum (cm)
a = Distance between suspension point and bob bottom (cm)
r = Bob radius (cm)
T = Time period (s)
2. Using vernier callipers radius of bob r = d/2 (cm)
1MSD
3. Vernier callipers L.C. = (cm)
N
4. Total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C.) cm
  
11 2
5. From graph : Acceleration due to gravity g  4  
 cm s
 T2 
2


Where =reciprocal of slope of   T 2 graph
T2
  T 2 graph :

Take 6 values on X - axis, T2 values on Y - axis graph is a striaght line passing through the origin.
Tables :To find radius of bob (r).
MSR VC b = n x LC Total
Sl.No.
a (cm) n cm (a + b) cm

Time of 20 oscillations
Length of
(sec) 
Pendulum t
Sl. Mean T T2 T2
No.   a  r Trail 1 Trail 2 20 (sec2)
xy (sec) =constant
(cm) x y t (cm/s2)
2

12
Procedure :
1. Radius of bob r to be measured using V.C.
2. Distance from point of suspension to bottom of bob a to be measured using meter scale. Find
  a  r  .
3. For a value of  , time taken for 20 oscillations measured 1st and 2nd time. Their average t is taken.
4. Time Period T = t/20 calculated, then T2 is calculated.
5. Repeat the experiment 6 times for different  values.
 
6. For every  value calculate 2 value and take average of .
T T2

1 2   
7. Acceleration due to gravity is calculated as g  4  
 T2 
8.   T 2 graph : Take  values on X-axis, T2 values of Y–axis graph is a straight line passing through
the origin.
9. Find g11 value by substituting reciprocal of slope of the   T 2 graph.
10. Compare the practical g1 value with graphical g11 value, both are nearly equal to each other.
Precautions :
1. Amplitude should be small.
2. V.C. should note with out parallax error.

13
Tables :
Table : To find radius of bob (r) L.C. = 0.01cm
MSR VC b = n x LC Total
Sl.No.
a (cm) n cm (a + b) cm
1 1.7 8 0.08 1.78
2 1.7 8 0.08 1.78
3 1.7 8 0.08 1.78

Calculation :
1.78  1.78  1.78 5.34
Average diameter d  =  1.78cm
3 3
d 1.78
Average radius r  
2 2
r  0.89cm  1cm

Table : To find
T2
Length of Time of 20 oscillations
pendulum t 
Mean T T2  const.
Sl.No.   a  r  Trail 1 Trail 2
xy 20 (sec2) T2
x y t (sec) (cm/s2)
Cm 2
1 40 25 26 25.5 1.275 1.625 24.61
2 50 29 29 29 1.45 2.103 23.77
3 60 31 32 31.5 1.575 2.480 24.19
4 70 34 34 34 1.7 2.890 24.22
5 80 36 35 35.5 1.775 3.150 25.31
6 90 38 38 38 1.9 3.610 24.93

Calculation :
 147.11
Average 2
  24.51cm
T 6
From practical : log (4) = 0.6020
2    log (3.14) = 0.4969
Acceleration due to gravity g = 4   log(3.14) = 0.4969
 T2 
g = 4 x 3.14 x 3.14 x (24.51) log (24.51) = 1.3893
g = 966.6 cm/s2 log (g) = 3.5871
From graph : g = Anti log (3.5871) = 966.6 cm/s2
Reciprocal of slope of   T 2 graphs

 25cm / s 2
T2   
g  4 2  2 
1
T  log (g1) = log 4 + 2 log (3.14) + log 25
1 2
g  4  reciprocalof slope  = 0.6021 + 2(0.4969) + 1.3979
= 2.9938
g1  4  3.14  3.14   25  1
g = Anti log (2.9938) = 985.4
g1  39.4384   25 

g1  985.4cm / s2
Result :
1. Acceleration due to gravity g1 = 966.6 cm s–2.
2. From   T 2 graph g11 = 985.4 cm s–2.
14
Q.No.8 Draw   T 2 graph in the case of a sample pendulum and find the length of the seconds
pendulum. (Take 6 observations)
Formula :

  T 2 graph :

Take  values on X–axis, T2 values on Y–axis graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
1.    a  r  =length of the pendulum (cm)
a = Distance between suspension point and bob bottom (cm)
r = Bob radius (cm)
T = Time period (s)
2. Using vernier callipers radius of bob r = d/s (cm)
1MSD
3. Vernier callipers L.C.   cm  4. Total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C. ) (cm)
N
Seconds pendulum :
Whose time period is 2 is called seconds pendulum.
Seconds pendulum lengths :
When T = 2S, T2 = 4 sec2
At 4 sec2 on Y-axis draw a line parallel to X-axis it intersects at B. From B draw parallel line to Y-axis
intersects at A. OA gives seconds pending length.
Table : To find radius of bob (r)
MSR
VC b = n x LC Total
Sl.No. a
n Cm (a + b) cm
(cm)

Table 2 : To find T2
Time of 20 oscillations
Length of
(sec) t
Sl. Pendulum T T2
Mean 20
No.   a  r Trail 1 Trail 2 (sec2)
xy (sec)
(cm) x y t
2

Procedure :
1. Radius of bob r to be measured using vernier callipers.
2. Distance from point of suspension to bottom of bob a to be measured using meter scale. Find    a  r  .
3. For a value of  , time taken for 20 oscillations measured 1st and 2nd time. Their average t is taken.
4. Time period T = t/20 calculated, then T2 is calculated.
5. Repeat the experiment 6 times for different  values.
6.   T 2 graph : Take 6 values of X-axis, T2 values on y-axis graph is a stright line passing through the
origin.
7. At 4 sec2 on Y-axis draw a line parallel to X-axis in intersects at B. From B draw parallel line to Y-axis
intersects at A. OA gives seconds pendulum length.
Precautions :
1. Amplitude should be small. 2. V.C. should note with out parallax errors.
15
Table 1 : To find radius of bob (r)

MSR
VC b = n x LC Total
Sl.No. a
n Cm (a + b) cm
(cm)
1 1.7 8 0.08 1.78
2 1.7 8 0.08 1.78
3 1.7 8 0.08 1.78

Calculation :
1.78  1.78  1.78 5.34
Average diameter d  =  1.78cm
3 3

d 1.78 
Average radius r  
2 2
r  0.89cm  1cm
Table 2 : To find T2

Length of Time of 20 oscillations (sec)

Pendulum t
Mean T T2
Sl. No.   a  r Trail 1 Trail 2 20
x y t
xy (sec2)
(sec)
(cm) 2
1 40 25 26 25.5 1.275 1.625
2 50 29 29 29 1.45 2.103
3 60 31 32 31.5 1.575 2.480
4 70 34 34 34 1.7 2.890
5 80 36 35 35.5 1.775 3.150
6 90 38 38 38 1.9 3.610

* log(1.275) = 0.1055
log T2 = log (1.275) + log (1.275)
= 0.1055 + 0.1055 = 0.211
Calculation :
T2 = Anti log (0.211) = 1.6249
T2 values * log(1.45) = 0.1614
(1.275) x (1.275) = 1.625 log T2 = log (1.45) + log (1.45)
(1.45) x (1.45) = 2.1025 = 0.3228
(1.575) x (1.575) = 2.47275 T2 = Anti log (0.3228) = 2.1029
* log (1.575) = 0.1973
(1.7) x (1.7) = 2.89
log T2 = log(1.575) + log (1.575)
(1.775) x (1.775) = 3.150 = 0.3946
(1.9) x (1.9) = 3.61 2
T = Anti log (0.3946) = 2.4727
Result : * log(1.7) = 0.2304
log T2 = log(1.7) + log (1.7)
  T 2 graph is ploted and seconds pendulum = 0.4608
length from it OA = 100cm. T2 = Anti log (0.4608) = 2.89
* log (1.775) = 0.2492
lot T2 = log(1.775) + log (1.775) = 0.4984
T2 = Anti log(0.4984) = 3.152
* log (1.9) = 0.2788
log T2 = log (1.9) + log (1.9)
= 0.5576
T2 = Anti log (0.5576) = 3.61
16
 1
Q.No.9 Verify Boyel’s law using Boyle’s apparatus (or) quill take apparatus and plot h  graph.

(Take 6 observations)
Formula :
1. Boyle’s law : At constant temperature, volume of given mass of gas is inversly proportional to its
pressure.
1
P
V
PV = Constant, PA  Cons tan t , A  r 2  cons tan t , p    cons tan t
If this equation is proved Boyle’s law is verified.
where A = cross section area of uniform tube (cm2)
 =length of air column (cm)
P  H  h =Pressure of air column (cm of Hg)
H = Atmospheric pressure = 76 (cm of Hg)
h = h1 – h2 = Difference in mercury level heights (cm)
h1 = vertical height of the Hg level from ground to open end side
h2 = vertical height of the Hg level from ground to closed end side
1
h  graph :


1
Take h - values on X-axis, values of y-axis graph is straight line intersecting -ve X-axis.

Table :
Length Vertical heights
Position 1
Sl. of air of mercury level H = h1 – h2 P  H h p =
No.
of quill
column (cm) (cm) Cm of Hg 
constant
tube
 (cm) h1 h2 (cm-1)

Procedure :
1. Verify fit the quill tube to the retard stand.
2. Measure length of air column  , using scale fixed to quill tube.
3. Measure vertical height of Hg level on open end side of tube as h.
4. Measure vertical height of Hg level on closed end side of tube as h2.
5. Rotate the quill tube to 450 and measure  , h1 and h2. Repeat the experiment 6 times.
6. Measure difference in mercury level heights as = h1 – h2 cm.
7. Measure pressure of air column as P  H  h cm of Hg.
8. As P   =constant, Boyle’s law is verified.
Precautions :
1. Rotate the quill tube slowly.
2. Do not touch the tube at position of air column.
17
Table :

Calculation :
1
p   values values

1 1000
1. 86.1 x 16.1 = 1437.87 1.   103   60.2   103
16.1 16.1
1 1000
2. 84.0 x 17.1 = 1436.8 2.   103   58.4   103
17.1 17.1
1 1000
3. 81.8 x 17.5 = 1436 3.   103   57.1  103
   
17.5 17.5

1 1000
4. 76.0 x 18.8 = 1430.8 4.   103   53.1  103
18.8  18.8
1 1000
5. 71.9 x 20.2 = 1452.38 5.   103   49.5  103
 20.2   20.2 
1 1000
6. 69.0 x 21.1 = 1455.9 6.   103   47.3  103
 21.1  21.1
1 1000
7. 65.8 x 22.1 = 1454.18 7.   103   45.2   103
   
22.1 22.1
Result :
1. As P   =costant for different positions of quill tube, Boyle’s law is verified.
1
2. Plotted h  graph is straight line, which intersects the -ve x-axis.


18
 1
Q.No.10 Plot h  graph using Boyle’s apparatus (or) quill tube apparatus. Find the atmospheric

pressure from the graph. (Take 6 observations)
1
Formula : h  graph :


1
1. Take h-values on x-axis, values on y-axis graph is straight line intersecting -ve x-axis.

1
2. -ve intercept (OA) of h  graph gives atmospheric pressure (H)

where  = length of pendulum (cm)
h = h1 – h2 = Difference in mercury level heights. (cm)
h1 = vertical height of the Hg level from ground to open end side.
h2 = vertical height of the Hg level from ground to closed end side.
Table :
Length Vertical heights
Position 1
Sl. of air of mercury level h = h1 – h2
No.
of quill
column (cm) (cm) 
tube
 (cm) h1 h2 (cm-1)

Procedure :
1. Verify fit the quill tube to the retart stand.
2. Measure length of air column 1 using scale fixed to quill tube.
3. Measure vertical height of Hg level on open end side of tube as 1.
4. Measure vertical height of Hg level on closed end side of tube as h.
5. Rotate the quill tube to 450 and measure  , h1 and h2. Repeat the experiment 6 times.
6. Measure difference in mercury level heights as h = h1 – h2.
1 1
7. h  graph : Take h-values on x-axis , values on y-axis graph is straight line intersecting -ve y-
 
axis.
1
8. -ve intercept on of h  graph gives atmospheric pressure (H).

Precautions :
1. Rotate the quill tube slowly.
2. Do not touch the tube at position of air column.
19
 1
Table : To plot h  and find atmospheric pressure


1
Calculation : values

1 1000
1.   103   60.2   103
16.1 16.1
1 1000
2.   103   58.4   103
   
17.1 17.1

1 1000
3.   103   57.1  103
17.5  17.5
1 1000
4.   103   53.1  103
18.8  18.8
1 1000
5.   103   49.5  103
   
20.2 20.2

1 1000
6.   103   47.3  103
 21.1  21.1
1 1000
7.  103   45.2   103
 22.1  22.1
5. Result :
1
1. Plotted h  graph is straight line, which intersects -ve x-axis.

1
2. From h  graph atmospheric pressure H (OA) = 76 cm.


20
Q.No.11 Verify the parallelogram law of forces and find the weight of the given stone in air using
the parallelogram law. (Take 2 observations in each case)
Formula :
1. Parallelogram law of forces : when two vectors are acting at a point then the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed with the two vectors as it sides, represent resulstant in magnitude and direction.
2. If OC = OD & COD  1800 for different weights is proved parallelogram law is verified.
3. Stone wieght in air W1 = diagonal (OC) x scale (gm wt)

Table : To verify the parallelogram law of forces

Sl. P Q R OA OB OC OD COD
No. (gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (degree)

Sto ne
w e ig ht in
P Q R OA OB OC
Sl. N o a ir W 1 =
(gm w t) (g m w t) (gm w t) (cm ) (c m) (cm )
O c x sc ale
(gm w t)

Procedure :
To verify parallelogram law of force :
1. Fix two pulleys at the top of vertical drawing board.
2. Two weigths P, Q are suspended to the ends of a thread passing over pulleys. Another weight R is
hanged in the middle of thread.
3. R is pulled down and released, when system comes to rest note position of thread, on white paper
using a mirror.
4. Join all points at the centre, you get Y shape.
5. Take suitable scale (Ex :-50 gm wt = 1 cm) draw OA on P side, OB on Q side, OD on R side
6. Draw parallel lines to OA, OB using set squares, they intersect at C.
7. Its diagonal = 0C. If OC = OD & COD  1800 . Parallelogram law is verified.
8. Repeat the experiment by changing P, Q & R weights.
To find weight of stone in air W1 :
9. In place of R, suspend a stone, repeat the experiment as above find OC value.
10. Since midpoint O is in equilibrium, Upward force = Downward force
Weight of stone in air W1 = diagonal OC x scale (gm wt)
11. Repeat the experiment by changing P, Q weights and calculate average of W1.
Precautions :
1. Pulleys should be frictionless. 2. Strings and weights should not touch drawing board.

21
Table :
Table : To verify the parallelogram law of forces - scale = 50 gm wt = 1 cm.

Sl. P Q R OA OB OC OD COD
No. (gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (degree)
1 100 100 100 2 2 2 2 1800
2 150 150 150 3 3 3 3 1800

Stone
weight in
P Q R OA OB OC
Sl.No air W1 =
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
Oc x scale
(gm wt)
1 100 100 Stone in 2 2 21.6 80
2 150 150 air (w1) 3 3 1.6 80

Calculations :
Stone weight in air W1 = OC x scale
For P = 100 gm wt, Q = 100 gm wt log W1 = log (16) + log (5)
W1 = (1.6) x 50 = 80 gm wt = 1.2041 + 0.6990
= 1.9031
For P = 150 gm wt, Q = 150 gm wt
W1 = Anti log (1.9031) =80.1
W1 = (1.6) x 50 = 80 gm wt
80  80 160
Average W1    80gm wt
2 2
Observations :
1. Selected scale 50 gm wt = 1 cm
2. For different weights COD  1800 .
3. In verification slotted weights sets are
(P = 100, Q = 100, R = 100) & ( P = 150, Q = 150, R = 150) gm wt
4. In case of stone weights, slotted weights sets are (P = 100, Q = 100) and (P = 150, Q = 150) gm
wt.
Result :
1. As OC = OD and COD  1800 parallelogram law of force verified.
2. Average stone weight in air W1 = 80 gm wt.

22
Q.No.12 Find the relative density of the given body using parallelogram law of forces. (Take 2
observations in each case)
W1
Formula : Relative density of stone d  W  W (no unit)
1 2

Where Stone weight in air W1 = diagonal (OC) x scale (gm wt)

Stone weight in water W2 = diagonal (OC) x scale (gm wt)

Table : To find the weight of the stone in air (W1)

Stone weight in
P
Q R OA OB OC air
Sl.No. (gm
(gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) W1 = OC x scale
wt)
(gm wt)

Stone weight in
P Q R OA OB OC water
Sl.No.
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) W2 = OC x Scale
(gm wt)

Procedure :
To find weight of stone in air (W1) :
1. Fix two pulleys at the top vertical drawing board.
2. Two weights P, Q are suspended to the ends of a thread passing over pulleys. Stone R = W1 is
hanged in the middle of thread.
3. W1 is pulled down and released, when system comes to rest note position of thread, on white paper
using a mirror.
4. Join all points of the centre O, you get Y shape.
5. Take suitable scale (Ex : gm Wt = 1cm) draw OA on P side, OB on Q side.
6. Draw parallel lines to OA, OB using set squares, they intersect at C. Diagonal is measured as OC.
7. Weight of stone in air calculated as W1 = diagonal OC x scale
8. Experiment is repeated by changing P & Q weights and calculate average as W1.
To find weight of stone in water (W2) :
9. By dipping stone completely in water, experiment is repeated and OC is measured.
Weight of stone in water calculated as W2 = diagonal OC x scale
10. Experiment repeated by changing P & Q weights and calculate averge as W2.
W1
11. Relative density of stone calculated as d  W  W .
1 2
5. Precautions :
1. Pulleys should be frictionless.
2. Strings and weights should not touch drawing board.
23
Table :
Table : To find the weight of the stone in air (W1) Scale : 50 gm wt = 1cm

Stone weight in
P
Q R OA OB OC air
Sl.No. (gm
(gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) W1 = OC x
wt)
scale
1 100 100 Stone in 2 2 1.6 80
air
2 150 150 (w1 ) 3 3 1.6 80

Calculations :
Stone weight in air W1 = OC x scale log (16) = 1.2041
For P = 100 gm wt, Q = 100 gm wt log (5) = 0.6990
W1 = (1.6) x 50 = 80 gm wt log w1 = log 16 + log 5
For P = 150 gm wt, Q = 150 gm wt = 1.9031
W1 = (1.6) x 50 = 80 gm wt w1 = Anti log (1.9031) = 80.1
80  80 160
Average W1    80gm wt
2 2
Table : To find the weight of the stone in water (w2) Scale : 50 gm wt = 1 cm

Stone weight in
P Q R OA OB OC water
Sl.No.
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) W2 = OC x Scale
(gm wt)
1 100 100 Stone in 2 2 1 50
2 150 150 water (w2) 3 3 1 50

Calculation :
Stone weight in water W2 = OC x scale
For P = 100 gm wt, Q = 100 gm wt
W2 = (1) x 50 = 50 gm wt
For P = 150 gm wt, Q = 150 gm wt
W2 = (1) x 50 = 50 gm wt
50  50
Average W2   50 gm wt
2
Calculation :
1 W
Relative density d  W  W log d = log 8 - log 3 = 0.9031 – 0.4771
1 2
d = Anti log(0.426) = 2.65
80 80
d   2.66  no unit 
80  50 30

Observations :
1. Selected scale 50 gm wt = 1 cm
2. Average stone weight in air W1 = 80 gm wt
3. Average stone weight in water W2 = 50 gm wt
4. W1 > W2
Result :
Relative density of stone d = 2.66 (no unit)

24
25
Q.No.13 Verify the triangle law of forces and find the weight of the given stone in air using the
triangle of law of forces. (Take 2 observations in each case)
Formula :
Triangle law of forces
1. The two vectors are acting at a point are represented in order in magnitude and direction by the two
sides of a triangle then the closing side taken in the reverse direction represents resulstant in magnitude
and direction.
P Q R
2. If p  q  r is proved for different weights, triangle law of forces is verified.

P
3. Stone weight in air W1  p  r  gm wt 

Tablets :
Table : To verify the triangle law of forces.

P Q R p q r P Q R
Sl. No.
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) p q r

Table : To find the weight of stone in air. (W1).

Stone weight in air

P Q R p q r P
Sl.No. W1   r  gm wt 
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
p

Procedure :
To verify triangle law of forces :
1. Fix two pulleys at the top of vertical drawing board.
2. Two weights P, Q are seperated to the ends of a thread passing over pulleys. Another weight R is
hanged in the middle of thread.
3. R is pulled down and released, when system comes to rest note position of thread, on white paper
using a mirror.
4. Join all points at the centre, you get Y shape.
5. Draw parallel lines to OP, OQ, OR using set squares, a triangle is formed.
6. Length of side of triangle along P direction is p cm, Q direction is q cm, R direction is r cm.
P Q R
7. If p  q  r is proved for different weights, triangle law of forces is verified.

8. Experiment is repeated by changing P, Q & R weights.

To find weight of the stone in air W1 :
P
9. In place of R, suspended a stone, repeat the experiment find weight of stone in air as W1 = p  r .

10. Experiment is repeated by changing P & Q weights and calculate average as W1.
5. Precautions :
1. Pulleys should be friction less. 2. Strings and weights should not touch drawing board.
26
Tables :
Table : To verify the triangle law of forces.

Sl. P Q R p q r P Q R
No. (gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm) p q r
1 100 100 100 3.4 3.5 3.6 29.41 28.57 27.77
2 150 150 150 3.5 3.4 3.4 42.85 44.11 44.11

Table : To find the weight of stone in air (W1)

Stone weight in air

P Q R p q r P
Sl. No. W1   r (gm wt)
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
p
1 100 100 Stone in 3.4 3.4 2.8 82.35
2 150 150 air (W1) 3.9 3.9 2.1 80.76

P
Calculation : Stone weight in air W1  p  r gm wt
log W1 = log (100) – log (3.4) + log (2.8)
For P = 100 gm wt, Q = 100 gm wt = 2 – 0.5315 + 0.4472 = 1.9157
W1 = Anti log (1.9157) = 82.34
100 
W1    2.8   82.35 gm wt
3.4 log w1 = log 15 – log(3.9) + log 21
For P = 150 gm wt, Q = 150 gm wt = 1.1761 – 0.5911 + 1.3222
= 1.9072
150  W1 = Anti log (1.9072) = 8.76
W1    2.1  80.76 gm wt
3.9
82.35  80.76 163.11
Average W1    81.55gm wt
2 2
Observations :
1. Point ‘O’ always in equilibrium.
2. In verification slotted weight sets are
(P = 100, Q = 100, R = 100) & (P = 150, Q = 150, R = 150) gm wt
3. In case of stone weights, slotted weights sets are (P = 100, Q = 100) and (P = 150, Q = 150) gm
wt.

Results :
P Q R
1. As p  q  r is proved triangle law of forces verified.

2. Stone weight in air W1 = 81.55 gm wt.

27
28
Q.No.14 Find the volume of the given stone using triangle law of forces. (Take 2 observations in
each case.)
Formula : Volume of the stone V = W1 – W2 (cm3)
P
Where Stone weight in air W1  p  r  gm wt 
P
Stone weight in water W2  p  r  gm wt 

Table :
Table : To find the weight of stone in air (W1)
Stone weight in air
P Q R p q r P
Sl.No. W1   r(gm wt)
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
p

Table : To find the weight of stone in water (W2)

Stone weight in air
P Q R p q r P
Sl.No. W2   r(gm wt)
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
p

Procedure :
To find weight of the stone in air W1 :
1. Fix two pulleys at the top of vertical drawing board.
2. Two weights P, Q are suspended to the ends of a thread passing over pulleys. Stone R = W1 is hanged
in the middle of thread.
3. W1 is pulled down and released, when system comes to rest note position of thread, on white paper
using a mirror.
4. Join all points at the centre O, you get Y shape.
5. Draw parallel lines to OP, OQ, OR using set squares, a triangle is formed.
6. Length of side of triangle along P direction is pen, Q direction is q cm, R = W1 direction is r cm.
P
7. Weight of stone in air calculated as W1  p  r .
8. Repeat the experiment by changing P, Q weights and calculate average as W1.
To find weight of the stone in water W2 :
9. By dipping stone completely in water experiment is repeated, weight of stone in water calculated as
P
W2  r
p .
10. Repeat the experiment by changing P, Q weights and calculate average as W2.
11. Volume of the stone calculated as V = W1 – W2.
Precautions :
1. Pulleys should be frictionless.
2. Strings and weights should not touch drawing board.

29
Table :
Table : To find the weight of stone in air (W1)

Stone weight in air

P Q R p q r P
Sl. No. W1   r (gmwt)
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
p
1 100 100 Stone in 3.4 3.4 2.8 82.35
2 150 150 air (W1) 3.9 3.9 2.1 80.76

P
Calculation : Stone weight in air W1  p  r (gm wt) *For P=100g = Q
log (100) = 2
For P = 100 gm wt, Q = 100 gm wt log (3.4) = 0.5315
log (2.8) = 0.4472
100   2.8  82.35gm wt
W1    log w1 = log (100) – log (3.4) + log (2.8)
 3.4  = 2 – 0.5315 + 0.4472 = 1.9157
For P = 150 gm wt, Q = 150 gm wt W1 = Ant (1.9157) = 82.3
150   2.1  80.76gm wt
W1    *For p = 150g = Q
 3.9  low w1 = log 15 + log 21 - log (3.9)
82.35  80.76 163.11 = 1.1761 + 1.3222 – 0.5911 = 1.9072
Average W1    81.55gm wt w1 = Anti log(1.9072) = 80.76
2 2
Table : To find the weight of stone in water (W2)

Stone weight in air

P Q R p q r P
Sl. No. W1   r (gm wt)
(gm wt) (gm wt) (gm wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)
p
1 100 100 Stone in 2.7 2.7 1.3 48.14
water
2 150 150 4 4 1.2 45
(W2)

P
Calculation : Stone weight in water W2  p  r (gm wt)
log 10 = 1
For P = 100 gm wt, Q = 100 gm wt log 13 = 1.1139
100   1.3  48.14gm wt log 2.7 = 0.4314
W2    log w2 = log 10 + log 13 – log (27)
 2.7 
= 1 + 1.1139 – 0.4314 = 1.6825
For P = 150 gm wt, Q = 150 gm wt W2 = Anti log (1.6825) = 48.1
150   1.2  45gm wt
W2    log 15 = 1.1761, log 12 = 1.0792
 4 log 4 = 0.6021
48.14  45 93.14 log w2 = log 15 + log 12 – log 4
Average W2    46.57 gm wt = 1.1761 + 1.0792 – 0.6021
2 2
= 1.6532
Calculation : Volume of the stone
W2 = Anti log (1.6532) = 44.9
V = W1 – W2 = (81.55) – (46.57) = 34.98 cm3
Observations :
1. In case of stone weights, slotted weight sets are (P = 100, Q = 100) and (P = 150, Q = 150) gm wt.
2. Average stone weight in air W1 = 81.55 gm wt
3. Average stone weight in water W2 = 46.57 gm wt
W1 > W2
Result :Volume of the stone V = 34.98 cm3

30
31
Q.No.15 Find the force constant (or) spring constant of the given helic spring by the method of
oscillation using different suspension weights. (Take 3 observations)
Formula :
F
Force constant of the given helical spring F = kx (or) k 
x
Here F = ma where m is the mass of the object attached to the spring and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
If F is in Newton and X is in meter then k will be N/m or Nm–1.
Table : To find the force constant of a spring (k).

Reading on the scale Force

Mean Extension
Load in Pan while (cm) constant
 
S.No. F  1 2 x    0  F
loading Loading 2 k
(gm wt) (cm) x
1 2 (cm)
(gm wt cm-1)

Procedure :
Add a mass of 50 gm (or convenient mass) to the hanger weight. The position of the needle
changes from X0 to another place. Let it be X1. Note the reading X1 on the meter scale. The
difference between these two readings  X1  X 0  gives the elongation a (stretch) of the spring for
a mass of 50 gm (or convenient mass).
Repeat the experiment 5 or 6 times by increasing the mass in steps of 50gm, note down the
corresponding readings against the top of the needle and tabulate reading in Table 1 and obtain the
average value of K from the last column of the table.
Precautions :
1. Oscillations of the helical spring should be in vertical.
2. Leading should be with in the elastic limit.

32
 Table :
To find the force constant of a spring (k).
Initial reading of the pointer on the scale with 50 gm wt load 1.9.

Reading on the scale Force

Mean
Load in while (cm) Extension constant
Sl.  
pan F (gm leading leading  1 2 x    0  F
No. 2 K
wt) (cm) x
1 2 (cm)
(gm wt cm-1)
1 60 5.6 5.6 5.6 3.7 16.21
2 80 6.9 6.9 6.9 5.0 16.00
3 100 7.9 7.9 7.9 6.0 16.66

Calculation :
1. For F = 60 gm wt x = 3.7 cm
F 60
K   16.21gm wt cm1
x 3.7 log k = log 48.87 – log 3
2. For F = 80 gm wt x = 5.0 cm = 1.6890 – 0.4771 = 1.2119
k = Anti log (1.2119) = 16.28
F 80
K   16.00gm wt cm 1
x 5.0
3. For F = 100 gm wt x = 6.0 cm
F 60
K   16.66gm wt cm 1
x 3.7
16.21  16.00  16.66
Average force constant of the spirng K 
3
48.87
K
3
K = 16.29 gm wt cm-1

5. Results :
Force constant of the given helical spring K = 16.28 gm wt cm–1

33
Q.No.16 Determine the coefficient of apparent expansion of the given liquid using specific gravity
bottle.
Q.NO.17 Find the coefficient of real expansion of the given liquid using specific gravity bottle.
(Given that the coefficient of linear expansion of glass =  g =0.000009
(Mass need not be calculated correct upto Milligram)
Formula :
w w 
2 3
Co-efficient of apparent expansion of the liquid ra   w  w  t  t
3 1  2 1
 o 1
c 
Where W1 = Mass of empty specific gravity bottle (gm)
W2 = Mass of (bottle + liquid) (gm)
W3 = Mass of (bottle + remaining liquid ) (gm)
t1 = Initial temperature (0c)
t2 = Final temperature (0c)
Co-efficient of real expansion of the given liquid  r   a   g   a  3g (  g  3g )
Table :
Mean
Contents in the pan Turning points turning Resting
points points Mass
Sl.No.
Right a b (gm)
Left Left Right
weights Left Right 2
(body) (a) (b)
(gm)

Procedure :
1. Mass of empty specific gravity bottle measured as W1.
2. Fill completely bottle with given liquid and fit with a stoper having a bore measure its mass is W2.
3. Suspend the bottle upto neck in waterbath and note temperature as t10c.
4. Boil water upto steady temperature t20c and heat it for 5 to 10 minutes.
5. Using blotting paper remove the liquid oozes through the stopper.
6. Cool the bottle to room temperature and mass is measured as W3 gm.

2 3 W W 
7. Co-efficient of apparent expansion of liquid is calculated as  a   W  W  t  t .
3 1  2 1

8. Then co-efficient of real expansion of liquid can be calculated as  r   a   g =  a  3g .

Precautions :
1. Expelled liquid should be removed with blotting paper.
2. Do not weight very hot body in physical balance.

34
35
Table :
Table : To find co-efficient apparent expansion of liquid  .

Mean
Contents in the pan Turning points turning Resting
Sl. points points
Mass (gm)
No. Right ab
Left Left Right
weights Left Right 2
(body) (a) (b)
(gm)
1 - - 4 4 5 16 16 4.33 16 ZRP=10.16 -
17.79 2 2 3 17 17 2.33 17 LRP = 9.66 At HRP
2 Bottle W1 =
17.69 7 7 7 17 17 7 17 HRP=12
17.690
LRP =
41.25 5 6 6 15 14 5.66 14.5 At HRP
Bottle + 10.80
3. W2 =
liquid HRP =
41.35 3 4 4 17 17 3.66 17 41.150
10.33
Bottle + HRP =
40.30 7 7 7 18 18 7 18 At HRP
4 remaining 12.5
W3 =41.300
liquid 40.40 3 3 3 15 15 3 15 LRP = 9

Calculation :
W1 = 17.690 gm
W2 = 41.150 gm log (0.85) = – 0.0706, log (71) = 1.8513
W3 = 40.300 gm log (22.61) = 1.3543
t1 = 270c log  a = log 0.85 – log (22.61) – log (71)
t2 = 960c = – 3.9116

a 
 w 2  w1   41.150  40.300

0.86
 w 3  w1   t 2  t1   40.300  17.690  96  25   22.61 71
 a =5.29 x10–14 = 0.0005290c–1
g =0.000009oc–1
 a = Anti log (– 3.9116)
 r  a  3g = 5.28 X 10–4
 r  0.000529  3 .000009   0.000529  0.000027

 r  0.000556o c 1
Observations :
1. Mass of empty specific gravity bottle W1 = 17.690 gm
2. Mass of (bottle + water) W2 = 41.150 gm.
3. Mass of (bottle + remaining liquid) W3 = 40.300 gm
4. Initial temperature t1 = 270c
5. Final temperature t2 = 960c
Results :
1. Co-efficient of apparent expansion of liquid  a  0.000529o c1 .
2. Co-efficient of real expansion of liquid  r  0.000526o c 1 .

36
Q.NO.18 Find the specific heat of the given solid by using principle of method of mixture.
(Mass need not be calculated correct up to milligram)
Formula :
1. Principle method of mixtures :
Heat lost by hot body = Heat gained by cold body.
2. Specific heat of solid
[W1S1   W2  W1  S2 ]  t 3  t1 
S cal gm 1 o c 1
 W3  W2  t 2  t 3 
Where
W1 = Mass of empty calorimeter (gm)
W2 = Mass of (calorimeter + water ) (gm)
W3 = Mass of (calorimeter + water + solid pieces) (gm)
t1 = (calorimeter + water) temperature (0c)
t2 = Solid pieces temperature (0c)
t3 = Mixture temperature (0c)
S1 = (calorimeter + stirrer) specific heat = 0.1 cal gm–1 0c–1
S2 = Water specific heat = 1 cal gm–1 0c–1
Table :

Mean
Contents in the pan Turning points turning Resting
points points Mass
Sl.No. ab
Right (gm)
Left Left Right
weights Left Right 2
(body) (a) (b)
(gm)

Procedure :
1. Mass of empty (calorimeter + stirrer) is measured as W1.
2. Fill calorimeter1/3 rd with water and measure is mass as W2.
3. Temperature is measured as t10c.
4. Solid pieces are heated in steam of t20c.
5. Host solid pieces are transferred into the calorimeter so that temperature of water rises to 50c.
6. Contents in calorimeter are stirred well and mixture temperature calculated as t30c.
7. Mass of (calorimeter + water + solid) pieces is measured as W3.
8. Specific heat solid pieces is calculated as
[W1S1   W2  W1  S2 ]  t 3  t1 
S
 W3  W2  t 2  t 3 
Precautions :
1. Quickly drop solid pieces into calorimeter.
2. Do not weight hot bodies in physical balance.

37
3. Table :
Table : To find specific heat of solid (s)

Mean
Contents in the pan Turning points turning Resting
Sl. points
ab Mass (gm)
No. Right points
Left Left Right 2
weights Left Right
(body) (a) (b)
(gm)
1 - - 7 7 8 13 13 7.33 13 ZRP=10.165 -
Calori 36.05 7 8 9 14 13 8 13.5 HRP = 10.78 At HRP
2
meter 36.15 9 8 8 10 11 8.33 10.5 LRP = 9.415 W1 = 36.05
Calori 72.292 6 7 7 15 14 10 14.5 HRP = 12.25 At HRP
3. meter + W2 =
72.302 8 7 8 11 12 7.66 11.5 LRP = 9.28
water 72.292
Calori 162.34 5 6 7 16 15 6 15.5 HRP = 10.75
meter + At HRP
4
water + 162.44 9 9 8 10 10 8.66 10 LRP = 9.33 W3=162.34
solid

Calculation :
W1 = 36.05 gm
W2 = 72.292 gm
log (197.4325) = 2.2954
W3 = 162.34 gm log (522.784) = 2.7183
t1 = 280c log S = log (197.4325) – log (522.784) = – 0.4229
t2 = 910c S = Anti log (–0.4229) = 378 x 10–4
t3 = 330c
S1 = 0.1 cal gm–1 0c–1
S2 = 1 cal gm–1 0c–1
[W1S1   W2  W1  S2 ]  t 3  t1 
S ca lg m 1 o c1
 W3  W2  t 2  t 3 
 36.05  0.09    72.292  36.05 1   33  28 
S 
162.34  72.292 91  33
 3.2445  36.242  5  39.4856  5 197.4325
S  
90.048  58 5222.784 522.784
–1 0 –1
S = 0.0378 cal gm c
Observation :
1. Mass of empty calorimeter W1 = 36.05 gm
2. Mass of (calorimeter + water) W2 = 72.292 gm
3. Mass of (calorimeter + water + solid pieces) W3 = 162.34 gm
4. (Calorimeter + water) temperature t1 = 280c
5. Solid pieces temperature t2 = 910c
6. Mixture temperature t3 = 330c.
Result :
Specific heat of solid S = 0.0378 cal gm–1 0c–1

38
Q.NO.19 Determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
Formula :
1  r 1
1. Surface tension of water T  rdg  h   dynecm
2  3
D
Where r  cm = radius of capillary tube (cm)
2
d = density of water (d = 1 gm cm–3)
h = h1 – h2 = Height of water in capillary tube (cm)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (g = 980 cm s–2)
1M.S.D.
2. Travelling microscope L.C.  (cm)
N
3. Total reading = M.S.R. + (V.C. x L.C.) (cm)
4. Diameter of capillary tube D = (D2 – D1) (cm)
where D1 = Microscope reading at left edge of the bore (cm)
D2 = Microscope reading at right edge of the bore (cm)
Table : To find height of water (h)
Microscope Readings
At Miniscus h1 At tip of needle h2 Water
VC x height
Sl.No. MSR V.C. x LC h1 = MSR
LC h2 = (a+b) h = h1 – h 2
a VC b (a+b) a VC
b (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)

Table : To find diameter of bore (D)

Microscope Readings
Bore
At left side D1 At right side D2
diameter
Sl.No. MSR V.C. x LC D1 = MSR VC x LC D2 =
D = D2 – D1
a VC b (a+b) a VC b (a+b)
(cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Procedure :
1. Capillary tube is cleaned with mixture of potassium dichormate and sulphuric acid is dipped in a
beaker containing water, adjust the tip of the needle to touch the surface of water.
2. From total M.S.R. = (V.C. x L.C.), focussing horizontal cross wires at lower end of minuscus of
water rises in capillary tube due to capillary reading as h1, beaker is removed without disturbing the
position of capillary tube horizontal cross wire is focussed to the pin tip and h2 is calculated and height
of water in tube h = h1 – h2.
3. The capillary tube is clamped horizontally microscope is focused on the end of the tube.
4. When vertical cross wire is tangential to the inner circle on the left side measured as D1, right side as
D2 and calculated diameter of bore as D = D2 – D1.
5. Repeat the experiment 3 times, find average height of water h1, diameter of bore D with that calculate
radius of bore r.
1  r
6. Surface tension of water is calculated as T  rdg h   .
2  3
Precautions :
1. The tube should be clamped vertically. 2. V.C. should note with out parallax.
39
Table : To find height of water (h)

Microscope Readings
At Miniscus h1 At tip of needle h2 Water
VC x height
Sl.No. MSR V.C. x LC h1 = MSR
LC h2 = (a+b) h = h1 – h 2
a VC b (a+b) a VC
b (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
1 6.15 0 0 6.15 1.1 45 0.045 1.145 5.005
2 6.10 10 0.01 6.11 1 10 0.010 1.010 5.090
3 8.34 14 0.014 8.364 2.9 32 0.032 2.932 5.432

Table : To find diameter of bore (D)

Microscope Readings
Bore
At left side D1 At right side D2
diameter
Sl.No. MSR V.C. x LC D1 = MSR VC x LC D2 =
D = D2 – D1
a VC b (a+b) a VC b (a+b)
(cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 5.25 41 0.041 5.291 5.35 20 0.020 5.355 0.064
2 6.80 0 0 6.80 6.75 0 0 6.75 0.050
3 7.75 7 0.007 7.757 7.8 8 0.008 7.808 0.051

Calculation :
5.005  5.09  5.43 15.527
Average h    5.175cm
3 3
0.064  0.05  0.051 0.165
D   0.55cm
3 3
D 0.55
r   0.0275cm
2 2
Calculation :
Average h = 5.175 cm, Average r = 0.0275 cm, d = 1 gm/cm3 , g = 980 cm/s2
 r
 h   rdg
3
T
2
log (5.1841667) = 0.7147
 0.0275  log (0.0275) = – 1.5607
 5.175    0.0275 1 980  log (490) = 2.6902
3 
T log T = log (5.1841667) + log (0.0275) + log (490)
2
= 0.7147 – 1.5607 + 2.6902 = 1.8442
T = (5.1841667) (0.0275) (490) T = Anti log (1.8442) = 69.852
T = 69.8566 dyne/cm
Observations :
1. 1 M.S.D. = 0.05 cm 2. No. of vernier scales divisions = 50
3. Travelling microscope L.C. = 0.001 cm 4. Acceleration due to gravity g = 980 cms–2.
5. Density of the water d = 1 gm cm–3.
Results :
Surface Tension of water T = 69.8566 dyne cm–1

40
Q.NO.20 Determine the focal length of the given concave mirror by u -v method. Verify the result
from u-v graph.
Formula :
To determine focal length of the concave mirror :
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Distant object method       f  v cm
f u v  v v
uv
2. u-v method f   cm  where u = distance of the object from the mirror (cm)
uv
v = distance of the image from the mirror (cm)
3. u-v graph method :

Taking u-values on X-axis and v-values on Y-axis graph is a rectangular parabola.

OA  OB
f
4
Table :
Table : To find focal length of the concave mirror (f)
Distant-object method focal length f = 20 cm
Focal length
Object distance Image distance
uv
Sl. No. u v f 
uv
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Procedure :
Find focal length of the mirror in distant-object method
1. Plane the wire mesh illuminated by candle infront of the mirror at a distance greater than focal length
of the mirror obtained by distant-object method and for clear reflected image on the screen measure
the distance ‘u’ of the object and ‘v’ of the image from the pole of the mirror.
2. Repeat the experiment 6 times increasing u in steps of 5cm measure u and v calculated focal length
uv
as f  .
uv
3. u-v graph method :
As the formula plot u-v graph draw the line 450 with X-axis which intercept the graph at P. Draw
normals PA and PB on to X and Y axis respectively.
OA  OB
Note : OA = OB - 2f and calculate the focal length as f 
4
Precautions :
1. Concave mirror pole and object centre should be at the same height from the table.
2. The image formed should be clear.
41
Table :
Table : To find focal length of the concave mirror (f)
Distant-object method focal length f = 20 cm

Focal length
Object distance Image distance
Sl. uv
u v f
No. uv
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1 25 100 20.00
2 30 60.5 20.05
3 35 48.2 20.27
4 40 40.6 20.14
5 45 37.3 20.39
6 50 34.5 20.41

Calculation :
1. For u = 25 cm, v = 100 cm log(2500) = 3.3979
log(125) = 2.0969
uv  25 100  2500 log f = log(2500) - log(125)
f    20.00cm
uv 25  100 125 = 1.3010
2. For u = 30cm, V=60.5 cm f = A(1.3010) = 20

uv  30  60.5  1815 log(1815) = 3.2589

f    20.05cm
uv 30  60.5 90.5 log(90.5) = 1.9560
log f = 3.2589 – 1.9560
3. For u = 35 cm, V = 48.2 cm
log f = 1.3023
uv  35  48.2  1687 f = 20.05
f    20.27 cm
uv 35  48.2 83.2
log(1687) = 3.2271
4. For u = 40 cm, v = 40.6 cm
log(83.2) = 1.9201
uv  40  40.6  1624 log f = 1.3070
f    20.14 cm f = 20.2699
uv 40  40.6 80.6
5. For u = 45cm, v = 37.3 cm log(1624) = 3.2106
uv  45  37.3 1678.5 log(80.6) = 1.9063
f    20.39 cm log f = 3.2106 – 1.9063
uv 45  37.3 82.3
log f = 1.3043
6. For u = 50 cm, v = 34.5 cm f = A(1.3043) = 20.14
uv  50  34.5 1725
f    20.41 cm
u  v 50  34.5 84.5 log (1678.5) = 3.2249
Average focal length of the concave mirror log (82.3) = 1.9154
20.00  20.05  20.27  20.14  20.39  20.41 121.26 log f = 3.2249 – 1.9154
f   20.21cm = 1.3095
6 6 f = 20.395
From u-v graph method : OA = 40 cm, OB = 40 cm
log(1725) = 3.2368
OA  OB  40.0    40.0  80
f    20.0cm log( 84.5) = 1.9269
4 4 4 log f = 3.2368 – 1.9269
Result : = 1.3099
Focal length of the concave mirror in f = 20.41
1) u-v method f = 20.21 cm
log 121.26 = 2.0837
2) u-v graph method f = 20.0 cm both ae nearly equal to each other.
log 6 = 0.7782
2.0837 – 0.7782 = log f =
1.3055
f = 20.21
42
Q.NO.21 Determine the focal length of the given concave mirror by u-v method. Verify the result
1 1
from  graph. (Take 6 observations)
u v
Formula :
To determine focal length of the concave mirror
1. Distant - object method
1 1 1 1 1 1
      f  v  cm 
f u v  v v
uv
2. u - v method f  (cm)
uv
where u = distance of the object from the mirror (cm)
v = distance of the image from the mirror (cm)
1 1
3.  graph method :
u v

1 1
Taking - values on x-axis and -values on y-axis graph is a straight line intersecting X and Y
u v
axes at A and B respectively.
Table :
Object Image Focal length 1 1
Sl. distance distance uv u v
f
No. u v u v (cm-1) (cm-1)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Procedure :
1. Find focal length of the mirror in distant - object method.
u - v method :
2. Place the wire mesh illuminated by candle infront of the mirror at a distance greater than focal length
of the mirror obtained by distant - object method and for dear reflected image on the screen measure
the distance ‘u’ of the object and ‘v’ of the image from pole of the mirror.
3. Repeat the experiment 6 times increasing u in steps of 5 cm measure u and v calculated focal length
uv
as f 
uv
1 1
 graph method :
u v
1 1 1 2
4. As in formula plot  graph. Note OA = OB = and calculate the focal length as f  .
u v f OA  OB
Precautions :
1. Concave mirror pole and object centre should be at the same height from the table.
2. The image formed should be clear.

43
Table : To find focal length of the concave mirror (f)
Distant - object method focal length f = 20 cm.
Focal length
Object distance Image distance 1 1
Sl. uv
u v f u v
No. u v
(cm) (cm) (cm-1) (cm-1)
(cm)
1 25 100 20.00 40.0 x 10-3 10.00 x 10-3
2 30 60.5 20.05 33.3 x 10-3 16.52 x 10-3
3 35 48.2 20.27 28.5 x 10-3 20.74 x 10-3
4 40 40.6 20.14 25.0 x 10-3 24.63 x 10-3
5 45 37.3 20.39 22.2 x 10-3 26.80 x 10-3
6 50 34.5 20.41 20.0 x 10-3 28.99 x 10-3

1. For u = 25cm, v = 100 cm

uv  25 100  2500
f    20.00
uv 25  100 125 log(2835) = 3.4526
2. For u = 30 cm, v = 60.5 cm log(116) = 2.0645
 30  60.5 1815 log f = 3.4526 – 2.0645 = 1.3881
uv
f    20.05 f = A(1.3881) = 24.43
uv 30  60.5 90.5
3. For u = 35 cm, v = 48.2 cm
log(2520) = 3.4014
uv  35  48.2  1687 log (103) = 2.0128
f    20.27
uv 35  48.2 83.2 log f = 3.4014 – 2.0128 = 1.3886
4. For u = 40 cm, V = 40.6 cm f = A(1.3886) = 24.46
uv  40  40.6  1624
f    20.14cm log(2385) = 3.3775
uv 40  40.6 80.6
5. For u = 45 cm, v = 37.3 cm log(98) = 1.9912
log f = 3.3775 – 1.9912 = 1.3863
uv  45  37.3 1678.5 f = A (1.3863) = 24.33
f    20.39cm
uv 45  37.3 82.3
6. For u = 50 cm, v = 34.5 cm
uv  50  34.5 1725
f    20.41cm
uv 50  34.5 84.5
Average focal length of the concave mirror
20.00  20.05  20.27  20.14  20.39  20.41 121.26
f   20.21cm
6 6
1 1
From  graph method :
u v
OA = 50 x 10–3 cm–1 , OB = 50 x 10–3 cm–1
2 2 2  103
f  
 log  2 * log 10
OA  OB   
50  103  50  103 
100 
f = 20.00 cm log f = 0.3010 + 1 = 1.3010
f = A (1.3010) = 20.00 cm
Observations :
1. In Distant - object method object distance u =  .2. In Disntant - object method f = 20 cm.
1 1
3.  graph is a straight line. 4. Image by concave mirror is real and inverted.
u v
Result :
Focal length of the concave mirror is 1. u - v method f = 20.21 cm
1 1
2.  graph method f = 20.00 cm both are nearly equal to each other..
u v
44
Q.NO.22 Determine the focal length of the given convex lens by u - v method. Verify the result
from u - v graph (Take 6 observations)
Formula :
To determine the focal length of the convex lens :
1. Distant - object method
1 1 1 1 1 1
      f  v  cm 
f u v  v v
uv
2. u - v method f   cm 
uv
where u = distance of the object from the lens (cm)
v = distance of the image from the lens (cm)
3. u - v graph method :

Taking u -values on x - axis and v - values on y - axis graph is a rectangular parabola.

OA  OB
f
4
Table :
Focal length
Object distance Image distance
uv
Sl. No. u v f
uv
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

2. Procedure :
1. Find focal length of the lens in distant-object method.
u - v method :
2. Place the wire mesh illuminated by candle infront of the lens at a distance greater than focal length of
the lens obtained by distant-object method and for clear transmitted image on the screen measure the
distance ‘u’ of the object and ‘v’ of the image from the optice centre of the lens.
3. Repeat the experiment 6 times increasing u in steps of 5 cm measure u and v calculated focal length
uv
as f  .
uv
u - v graph method :
4. As in formula plot u - v graph. Draw the line 450 with x-axis which intercept the graph at P. Draw
normal PA and PB on to x and Y axes respectively. Note : OA = OB = 2f and calculate the focal length
OA  OB
as f  .
4
5. Precautions :
1. Convex lens optic centre and object centre should be at the same height from the table.
2. The image formed should be clear.
45
Table :
To find local length of the convex lens (f)
Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm
Object distance Image distance Focal length
Sl.
u v uv
No. f (cm)
(cm) (cm) uv
1 35 81 24.43
2 40 63 24.46
3 45 53 24.33
4 50 47.6 24.38
5 55 44 24.44
6 60 41 24.35

Calculation :
1. For u = 35 cm, v = 81 cm
uv  35  81 2835 log (2380) = 3.3766
f    24.43cm
uv 35  81 116 log (97.6) = 1.9894
log f = 3.3766 – 1.9894 = 1.3892
2. For u = 40 cm, v = 63 cm
f = 24.38
uv  40  63 2520
f    24.46cm log (2420) = 3.3838
uv 40  63 103
log(99) = 1.9956
3. For u = 45cm, v = 53 cm
log f = 1.3882
uv  45  53 2385 f = 24.44 cm
f    24.33cm
uv 45  53 98
log(2460) = 3.3909
4. For U = 50 cm, v = 47.6 cm log(101) = 2.0043
uv  50  47.6  2380 log f = 1.3866
f    24.38cm f = 24.35 cm
uv 50  47.6 97.6
5. For u = 55 cm, v = 44 cm
uv  55 44  2420
f    24.44cm
uv 55  44 99 log 97 = 1.9868
6. For u = 60 cm, v = 41 cm log 4 = 0.6021
log f = 1.3847
uv  60  41 2460 f = A(1.3847) = 24.25
f    24.35cm
uv 60  41 101
Average focal length of the convex lens
24.43  24.46  24.33  24.38  24.44  24.35 146.39
f   24.398cm
6 6
From u - v graph method :
OA = 48.5 cm, OB = 48.5 cm
OA  OB  48.5    48.5  97
f    24.25cm
4 4 4
Observations :
1. In Distant - object method object distance u =  . 2. In Distant - object mtehod f = 25 cm.
3. u - v graph is a rectangular hyperbola. 4. Image by convex lens is real and inverted.
Result :
Focal length of the convex lens in
1) u - v method f = 24.398 cm 2) u - v graph method f = 24.25 cm
both are nearly equal to each other.
46
Q.NO.23 Determine the focal length of the given convex lens by u - v method. Verify the result
1 1
with  graph. (Take 6 observations)
u v
Formula :
To determine the focal length of the convex lens :
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Distant - object method       f  v  cm 
f u v  v v
uv
2. u - v method f   cm  where u = distance of the object from the mirror (cm)
uv
v = distance of the image from the mirror (cm)
1 1
3.  graph method :
u v

1 1
Taking values on x - axis and - values on y - axis graph is a straight line intersecting X and Y axes
u v
2
at A and respectively. f 
OA  OB
Table :
To find focal length of the convex lens (f)
Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm
Object Image Focal length 1 1
Sl. distance distance uv u v
f
No. u v u v (cm-1) (cm-1)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Procedure :
1. Find focal length of the lens in distant-object method.
u - v method :
2. Place the wire mesh illuminated by candle infront of the lens at a distance greater than focal length of the
lens obtained by distant-object method and for clear transmitted image on the screen measure the
distance ‘u’ of the object and ‘v’ of the image from the optic centre of the lens.
3. Repeat the experiment 6 times increasing u in steps of 5 cm measure u and v calculated focal length as
uv
f .
uv
1 1
 graph method :
u v
1 1 1 2
4. As in formula plot  graph. Note : OA = OB = and calculate the focal length as f  .
u v f OA  OB
Precautions :
1. Convex lens optic centre and object centre should be at the same height from the table.
2. The image formed should be clear.
47
Table :
To find local length of the convex lens (f)
Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm
Object Image Focal length 1 1
Sl. distance distance u v
uv
No. u v f (cm) (cm -1) (cm -1)
(cm) (cm) uv
1 35 81 24.43 28.57 x 10 -3 12.34 x 10-3
2 40 63 24.46 25.00 x 10 -3 15.87 x 10-3
3 45 53 24.33 22.22 x 10 -3 18.86 x 10-3
4 50 47.6 24.38 20.00 x 10 -3 21.00 x 10-3
5 55 44 24.44 18.18 x 10 -3 22.72 x 10-3
6 60 41 24.35 16.16 x 10 -3 16.66 x 10-3

Calculation :
1. For u = 35 cm, v = 81 cm
uv  35  81 2835
f    24.43cm
uv 35  81 116
2. For u = 40 cm, v = 63 cm
uv  40  63 2520
f    24.46cm
uv 40  63 103
3. For u = 45cm, v = 53 cm
uv  45  53 2385
f    24.33cm
uv 45  53 98
4. For U = 50 cm, v = 47.6 cm
uv  50  47.6  2380
f    24.38cm
uv 50  47.6 97.6
5. For u = 55 cm, v = 44 cm
uv  55 44  2420
f    24.44cm
uv 55  44 99
6. For u = 60 cm, v = 41 cm
uv  60  41 2460
f    24.35cm
uv 60  41 101
Average focal length of the convex lens
24.43  24.46  24.33  24.38  24.44  24.35 146.39
f   24.398cm
6 6
1 1
From  graph method :
u v
OA = 41 x 10–3 cm–1, OB = 41 x 10–3 cm–1
2 2 2x103
f    24.39cm
OA  OB   
41  103  41  103 
82
Observations :
1. In Distant - object method object distance u =  . 2. In Distant - object mtehod f = 25 cm.
1 1
3.  graph is a straight line. 4. Image by convex lens is real and inverted.
u v
Result :
Focal length of the convex lens in 1) u - v method f = 24.398 cm
1 1
2)  graph method f = 24.25 cm both are nearly equal to each other.
u v

48
Q.NO.24 Find the focal length of the given convex lens by conjugate-foci method and verify the
result with the value obtained from u - v graph. (Take 6 observations)
Formula :
To find focal length of convex lens :
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Distant - object method       f  v (cm)
f u v  v v

2  d 2
2. Conjugate - foci method : f 
4
where d = (L2 – L1) = displacement of the lens (cm)
 = distance between the object and screen (cm)
L1 = Magnified 1st position of the lens (cm)
L2 = magnified 2nd position of the lens (cm)
3. u - v graph method :

Taking u - values on x-axis and v-values on y - axis graph is a rectangular parabola.

OA  OB
f
4
Tables :
Table 1 : To plot u - v graph Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm.

Sl. Object distance u Image distance v

No. (cm) (cm)

Table 2 : To find focal length of the convex lens Conjugate-foci method

Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm

Reading on the scale for the Displacement Focal length

Distance (cm) of the lens 2  d2
Sl. No. between object f
1 position of 2nd position
st
d = L2 – L1 4
& screen 
the lens L1 of the lens L2 (cm) (cm)

49
Procedures :
1. Find focal length of the lens in distant-object method.
Conjugate – foci method :
2. Place the object and screen at seperation '  ' which is more than four times the focal length of the
lens.
3. Then move the lens placed in between object and screen slowly from the object towards the screen
until a clear ‘magnified’ image is formed on the screen. Note the position of the lens L1 from the image
on the scale.
4. Then move the lens further towards the screen until a clear, diminished image is formed on the
screen. Note the position of the lens L2 from the image on the scale.
5. Repeat the experiment 6 times increasing the value of  in steps of 2 measure L1 and L2 enter in
table.
2  d 2
6. The focal length ‘f’ of the lens can be calculated as f 
4
u-v graph method :
7. In u-v method measure u and v values, repeat the experiment 6 times increasing u in steps of 5cm.
8. As in formula plot u-v graph. Draw the line 450 with x-axis which intercept the graph at P. Draw
normals PA and PB on to X and Y axes respectively. Note OA = OB = 2f and calculate the focal length
OA  OB
as f 
4
Precautions :
1. Convex lens optic centre and object centre should be at the same height from the table.
2. The image formed should be clear.

50
 Tables :
Table 1 : To plot u - v graph Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm.

Sl. Object distance u Image distance v

No. (cm) (cm)
1 35 81
2 40 63
3 45 53
4 50 47.6
5 55 44
6 60 41

Table 2 : To find focal length of the convex lens Conjugate-foci method

Distant - object method focal length f = 25 cm

Distance Reading on the scale for

between the (cm) Displacement Focal length
object & 1st of the lens 2  d 2
Sl. No. 2nd position f
screen position d  L 2  L1 4
of the lens
 of the lens (cm) (cm)
L2
(cm) L1
1 105 38.40 66.50 28.10 24.36
2 107 37.50 69.50 32.00 24.38
3 109 37.50 73.20 35.70 24.32
4 111 36.50 74.50 38.00 24.49
5 113 36.00 78.50 42.50 24.25
6 115 34.40 80.00 44.60 24.42

Calculation :
2 2
2 2  d 2 105   28.1 10235.39
1. For  =105 cm, d = 28.1 cm f     24.36
4 4 105 420

2 2
2  2  d 2 107    32.0  10425.00
2. For  =107cm, d = 32.0 cm f     24.35
4 4 107  428

2 2
2 2  d 2 109    35.7  10606.51
3. For  =109cm, d = 35.7 cm f     24.32
4 4 109  436

2 2
2  d 2 111   38.0  10877.00
2
4. For  =111cm, d = 38.0 cm f     24.49
4 4 111 444

2 2
2  d 2 113   42.5
2 10962.75
5. For  =113cm, d = 42.5 cm f     24.25
4 4 113 452

51
 2 2
2  d 2 115   44.6 
2 11235.84
6. For  =115 cm, d = 44.6 cm f     24.42
4 4 115 460

24.36  24.35  24.32  24.49  24.25  24.42 146.19

Average f    24.365
6 6
From u - v graph method : OA = 48.5 cm, OB = 48.5 cm
OA  OB  48.5    48.5  97
f    24.25cm
4 4 4
5. Results : log (10235.39) = 4.0101
Focal length of the convex lens in log (420) = 2.6232
log f = 1.3869
1) Conjugate -foci method f = 25 cm
f = A(1.3869) = 24.36
2) u - v graph method f = 25 cm
both are nearly equal to each other. log (10425) = 4.0181
log (436) = 2.6314
log f = 4.0181 – 2.6314 = 1.3867
f = 24.35

log (10606.51) = 4.0256

log (436) = 2.6395
log (f) = 1.3867
f = 24.32

log (10877.06) = 4.0365

log (444) = 2.6474
log f = 4.0365 – 2.6474 = 1.3891
f = 24.49

log (10962.75) = 4.0399

log (452) = 2.6551
log f = 4.0399 – 2.6551 = 1.3848

log (11235.84) = 4.0506

log (460) = 2.6628
log f = 1.3878

log (146.19) = 2.1649

log 6 = 0.7782

log f = 2.1649 – 07782 = 1.3867

log f = 24.32

log(97) = 1.9868
log 4 = 0.6021
log f = 1.3847
f = 24.25

52
Q.NO.25 Draw i-d curve and find the refractive index of the material of the given prism. (Given
t hat t he angle of t he pr ism, A = 600)
Formula :
Refractive index of prism
 A  Dm 
sin  
  2  (no unit)
A
sin  
2
Where A = Angle of prism (600)
Dm = Angle of minimum deviation (degree)
i - d curve :

Take angle of incidence i on X-axis and angle of deviation D on y - axis is parabola. From i-d curve
angle of minimum deviation is measured.
Table : To find angle of minimum deviation Dm.

Incident Angle Angle of deviation

Sl.
(i) (d)
No.
(degree) (degree)

Procedure :
1. A plane paper is fixed on the drawing board, given prism is placed on the paper shape of prism
ABC is drawn.
2. On AB plane normal N is drawn.
3. A line is drawn with an angle i = 300 from normal and P, Q pins are fixed on the line of incidence.
4. The pins are viewed from AC surface R, S pins are fixed on the same straight line of PQ.
5. Now prism is removed and PQ and RS lines are extended. They intersect at T.
6. At T the angle between PQT and RS as angle of deviation d.
7. Experiment is repeated for different incident angles i.e., 350, 400, 450, 500, 550 and angle of deviation
is measured.
8. Dm is measured from i - d curve.
9. Refractive index of prism is calculated as
 A  Dm 
sin  
  2 
A
sin  
2
5. Precautions :
1. The same prism is used for all the observations. 2. Pins must be fixed vertically.

53
Table :
Tables : To find angle of minimum deviation Dm.

Incident Angle Angle of deviation

Sl.
(i) (d)
No.
(degree) (degree)
1 300 45 0
2 350 41 0
3 400 39 0
4 450 38 0
5 500 39 0
6 550 40 0

log  = log 2 + log 0.7547

Calculation : = 0.3010 – 0.1222

log = 0.1788
When A = 600,
 = An (0.1788) = 1.5094

    
 600  380
 A  D m  sin 
sin   2 
 2    sin  49 
 
A  600  =  2   0.7547   1.5094 no unit
sin   sin   1/ 2
2  2 

Observations :
1. Angle of prism A = 600
2. Angle of minimum deviations Dm = 380
3. i - d curve is parabola.
4. Angle of incidents are 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550.

Result :
Refractive index of prism   1.5094  no unit  .

54
Q.NO.26 Draw i-d curve and determine the angle of Prism (A) ossuming the refractive index of the
material of the prism,   1.5 .
Formula :
  Dm  
 sin  2  
A  2 tan 1      deg ree 
1. Angle of the prism   D m 
   cos  2 


where  = refractive index of Prism = 1.5
2. i - d curve :

Take angle of incidence 1 on X-axis and angle of deviation d on Y-axis is parabola. From i-d curve
angle of minimum deviation is measured.
Table : To find angle of minimum deviation Dm
Incident Angle Angle of deviation
Sl.
(i) (d)
No.
(degree) (degree)

Procedure :
1. A plane paper is fixed on the drawing board, given prism is placed on the paper shape of prism
ABC is drawn.
2. On AB plane normal N is drawn.
3. A line drawn with an angle i = 300 from normal and P, Q pins are fixed on the line of incidence.
4. The pins are viewed from from AC surface R, S pins are fixed on the same straight line of PQ.
5. Now prism is removed and PQ and RS lines are extended. They intersect at T.
6. At T an angle between PQT and RS as angle of deviation d.
7. Experiment is repeated for different incident angles i.e., 350, 400, 450, 500, 550 and angle of deviation
is measured.
8. Dm is measured from i - d curve.
  Dm  
 sin  2  
1  
9. Angle of prism A is calculated as A  2 tan  
D
 m 
   cos  2 


Precautions :
1. The same prism is used for all the observations.
2. Pins must be fixed vertically.
55
Table :
Table : To find angle of minimum deviation Dm

Incident Angle Angle of deviation

Sl.
(i) (d)
No.
(degree) (degree)
1 300 45 0
2 350 41 0
3 400 39 0
4 450 38 0
5 500 39 0
6 550 40 0

log A = log 2 + log 30.42

Calculation : = 0.3010 + 1.4832 = 1.7842
When  =1.5, A value A = Anti (1.7842) = 60.84

  Dm     38  
 sin  2    sin  2  
A  2 tan 1     2 tan 1     1  sin 19  
  Dm  = 1.5  cos  38   = 2 tan 1.5  cos 19  
   cos  2      
   2 

1 0.3256  1  0.3256 

= 2 tan   = 2 tan  = 2 tan 1  0.5879  =2(30.42) = 60.84
1.5  0.9455   0.5545 
Observations :
1. Refractive index of prism   1.5 (no unit).
2. Angle of minimum deviations Dm = 380.
3. i - d curve is parabola.
4. Angle of incidents are 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550.

Result :
Angle of the prism A = 60.84

56
Q.NO.27 Determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature. Using resonance apparatus
and calculate the value of velocity. Sound at 00c. (Use 2 tuning forks of different frequencies.)
Formula :

1. At room temperature velocity of sound in air v t  2n   2  1  cm s

1
 
 t 
2. At 00 velocity of sound in air v 0  v t 1 
 546 
 cms  .
1

Where 1 = First resonating length (cm)

 2 =second resonating length (cm)
t = Room temperature (0c)
n = frequency of the tunning fork (Hz)
Table :
Table : To find the velocity of sound at t0c.

1st Resonating air column

2nd Resonating air
Frequency length (cm)
column length (cm)
of tunning Vt  2n   2  1 
Sl.
fork Average   2  1 
No. Trail Trial Average (cm)
n a b Trail Trial (cm/s)
1 2 1  ab
(H2) 2 1 (a) 2 (b) 2 
(a) (b) 2

Procedures :
1. Fill the tube completely with water by lifting reservoir.
2. Excited n1 fork is kept over open end of tube.
3. Reservoir is slowly lowered, until a large booming sound is heard measure resonating air column
length a.
4. Repeat the experiment, again measure b take their average as 1 .
5. Further lower the reservoir till the length of air column is nearly 31 , again for second time we hear
a large booming sound. Measure it as a.
6. Repeat the experiment, measure b take their average as  2 .
7. Velocity of sound at room temperature Vt is calculated from Vt  2n   2  1  .
8. Repeat the experiment, with another fork n2 and v2 is measured. Calculate average value as vt.
 t 
9. Velocity of sound is air at 00c is calculated as V0  Vt 1  .
 546 
Precautions :
1. Hold tunning fork by its stem.
2. The lengths of air column are noted without parallax error.

57
 Table :
Table : To find the velocity of sound at t0c.

Frequency 1st Resonating air 2nd Resonating air

Sl.
of tunning column length (cm) column length (cm)   2  1 v t  2n  2  1 
fork trail trail Average trail trail Average
No. (cm/s)
n 1 2 ab 1 2 ab (cm)
1  2 
(H2) (a) (b) 2 (a) (b) 2
1 n1 = 512 15.1 15.1 15.1 50.1 50.1 50.1 35 35840
2 n2 = 480 16.8 16.8 16.8 52.8 52.8 52.8 36 34560

Calculation :At room temperature velocity of sound v1  2n   2  1  cm / s .

For n1 = 512 Hz
v1 = 2(512) (50.1 – 15.1)
v1 = 2(512) (35) = 35840 cm/s
For n2 = 480 Hz log V1 = log 2 + log 512 + log 35
v2 = 2(480) (52.8 – 16.8) = 0.3010 + 2.7093 + 1.5441
log V1 = 4.5541
v2 = 2(480) (36) = 34560 cm/s
V1 = An (4.5544) = 35840
v1  v2
Average velocity of sound v t  log V2 = log 2 + log 480 + log 36
2
= 0.3010 + 2.6812 + 1.5563
 35840    34560  = 4.5385
vt 
2 V2 = An (4.5385) = 34560

 70400  log Vt = log (70400) – log 2

vt 
2 = 4.8476 – 0.3010
At room temperature average velocity of sound vt = 35200 cm/s = 4.5466
Vt = 35200
Room temperature t = 260c
 t 
At 00c velocity of sound v 0  v t 1  cm / s
 546 

  26  
v 0   35200  1  
 546 

v 0   35200  0.9523 
v 0  33523.81cm / s
Observations :
1. Room temperature t = 260c.
2. Generally at 00c velocity of sound in air v0 = 33000 cm s–1.
Result :
1. At t0c velocity of sound vt = 35200 cms-1
2. At o0 velocity of sound v0 = 33523.81 cms–1.

58
Q.NO.28 Compare the frequencies of the given two tunning forks using resonance apparatus.
Formula :

n11 
 21   11   no unit 
1. Ratio of frequencies of tunning forks 1 
n2   2  1 
Where n1 = frequency of 1st tunning fork (H2)
n2 = frequency of 2nd tunning fork (H2)
1 ,  2 =1st and 2nd resonating lengths of air columns with n1 fork respectively (cm)

11 ,  21 = 1st and 2nd resonating lengths of air columns with n2 fork respectively. (cm)
Table :

1st Resonating air column

Frequency 2nd Resonating air differenc
length (cm)
Sl.
of tunning column length (cm) e in air n1


 21  11
fork Average Average column n2  2  1 
No. Trail Trial
n Trail Trial lengths
1 2 a b ab (no unit)
(H2) 1 (a) 2 (b) (cm)
(a) (b) 2 2

Procedure :
1. Fill the tube completely with water by lifting reservoir.
2. Excited n1 fork is kept over open end of tube.
3. Reservior is slowly lowered, until a large booming sound is heard measure resonating air column
length a
4. Repeat the experiment, again measure b take their average as 1 .
5. Further lower the respective till the length of air column is nearly 31 , again for second time we hear
a large booming sound. Measure it as a.
6. Repeat the experiment, measure b take their average as  2 .
7. Repeat the experiment with another fork n2 and measure 11 and  21 .

n11 
 21   11 
8. Ratio of frequencies of tunning fork is calculated as 1  .
n2   2  1 
Precautions :
1. Hold tunning fork by its stem.
2. The lengths of air column are noted without parallax error.

59
Table : To find ratio of frequencies two tunning forks.

Frequency 1st Resonating air 2nd Resonating air Differen

Sl.
of tunning column length (cm) column length (cm) ce in air n1


 21  11 
fork trail trail Average trail trail Average column n 2   2  1 
No.
n 1 2 a b 1 2 ab lengths
(H2) (a) (b) (a) (b) (cm) (no unit)
2 2
1 n1 = 512 15.1 15.1  1 =15.1 50.1 50.1  2 =50.1 35
1.02
2 n2 = 480 16.8 16.8 11 =16.8 52.8 52.8  21 =52.8 36

log (36) = 1.5563

log (35) = 1.5441
Calculation : log (36) – log (35) = 0.0122
n1
n11

  21   11   no unit  log  11   0.0122
n 
Practically  2 
n 21   2  1 
n11
n11  36   1.02 = Anti (0.0122)
 n 21
n 21  35 = 1.02 : 1
n11 : n21 = 1.02 : 1 (no unit) log (512) = 2.7093
n1 = 512 Hz, n2 = 480 Hz log (480) = 2.6812

n1  512  n 
  1.06 log  1   2.7093  2.6812  0.0281
n 2  480   n2 

n1 : n2 = 1.06 : 1 (no unit) n1

 Ant  0.0281  1.06 :1
n2
Observations :
With fort n1
1. 1st resonating air column length 1  15.1cm .
2. 2nd resonating air column length  2  50.1cm .
Result :
n11
1. Practically Ratio of frequencies  1.02 :1 . (no unit)
n 21

1 n
2. Theoritically Ratio of frequencies n  1.06 :1 (no unit)
2

60
Q.NO.29 Draw the magnetic field lines in the combined magnetic field due to the earth and the
short bar manget placed in the magnetic meridian with its North-pole pointing towards the
geographical south. Locate Null points and calculate the magnetic moment of the given bar
magnet. (Give that, BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla)
Formula :
1. When N-pole of bar magnet is pointing towards s-earth null points located on axial line.
Hd 3
2. Magnetic moment of barmagnet M 
2
 
 107 A m 2 .

Where H = BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla

d1  d 2
d =average distance between the null points of centre of the magnet (cm)
2
d1 = Null point N1 distance from centre of bar magnet (cm)
d2 = Null point N2 distance from centre of bar magnet (cm)
Table :
To find M when North-pole pointing towards the geographical south.

Null point N1 Null point N2 Average Magnetic moment

Distance Distance d  d2 Hd3
Sl . No. d 1 M  107
d1 d1 2 2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (Am2)

Procedure :
1. Fix the drawing paper on the drawing board.
2. Using compass needle draw the magnetic meridian line.
3. Short bar magnet is placed at the middle of meridian line with its N-pole pointing towards S-earth.
4. Compass is made to move from N to S. At every step the position of tip of compass is noted.
5. Joining all point magnetic lines of force can be obtained.
6. Compass is moved along the axial the null points N1 & N2 will be formed both side of the magnet.
d1  d 2
7. N1 , N2 distances from the centre of magnet d1 , d2 are measured respectively, then d  is
2
calculated.
Hd 3
8. Magnet moment of bar magnet is calculated as M   107 .
2
Precautions :
1. Magnetic materials keep away from experiment.
2. Drawing board should not be distured until experiment is completed.

61
Table :
To find M when North-pole pointing towards the geographical south.

Null point N1 Null point N2 Average Magnetic moment

distance distance d d Hd 3
Sl. No. d 1 2 M 10 7
d1 d2 2 2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (Am2)
1 14.1 14.3 14.2 544.02 x 10-3

Calculation : d1 = 14.1 cm, d2 = 14.3 cm

d1  d 2 14.1  14.3 28.4
Average d   
2 2 2
d = 14.2 cm = 14.2 x 10–2 m log M = log (0.19) + log (2863.28)
Calculation : d = 14.2 x 10–2 m = – 0.7212 + 3.5870
H = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla log M = 2.8658
M = Anti (2.8658)
Hd3 M = 544.02 x 10–3
Magnetic moment M   107
2
3

M
 0.38 10 14.2 10 
4 2

 107
2
M = (0.19) (2863.28) x 10–3
M = 544.02 x 10–3 A m2.
Observations :
1. BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla
2. Null point N1 distance d1 = 14.1 cm
3. Null point N2 distance d2 = 14.3 cm
4. N - pole pointing towards search null points will be on axial line.
Result :
1. Magnetic lines are ploted and null points located.
2. Magnetic moment M = 544.02 x 10–3 AM2.

62
Q.NO.30 Draw the magnetic field lines in the combined magnetic field due to the earth and the
short bar manget placed in the magnetic meridian with its North-pole pointing towards the
geographical north. Locate Null points and calculate the magnetic moment of the given bar
magnet . (Give t hat , B H = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla)
Formula :
1. When N-pole of bar magnet is pointing towards N-earth null points located on axial line.
2. Magnetic moment of barmagnet M  Hd3  107  A m 2  .
Where H = BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla
d1  d 2
d =average distance between the null points of centre of the magnet (cm)
2
d1 = Null point N1 distance from centre of bar magnet (cm)
d2 = Null point N2 distance from centre of bar magnet (cm)
Table :

Null point N1 Null point N2 Average

d  d2 Magnetic moment
Distance Distance
Sl . No. d 1 M = Hd 3 x 107
d1 d1 2 (Am2)
(cm) (cm) (cm)

Procedure :
1. Fix the drawing paper on the drawing board.
2. Using compass needle draw the magnetic meridian line.
3. Short bar magnet is placed at the middle of meridian line with its N-pole pointing towards N-earth.
4. Compass is made to move from N to S. At every step the position of tip of compass is noted.
5. Joining all point magnetic lines of force can be obtained.
6. Compass is moved along the quitorial line the null points N1 & N2 will be formed both side of the
magnet.
d1  d 2
7. N1 , N2 distances from the centre of magnet d1 , d2 are measured respectively, then d  is
2
calculated.
8. Magnet moment of bar magnet is calculated as M  Hd 3  107 .
Precautions :
1. Magnetic materials keep away from experiment.
2. Drawing board should not be disturbed until experiment is completed.

63
Table :
To find M when North-pole pointing towards the geographical North.

Null point N1 Null point N2 Average

Magnetic moment
Distance Distance d  d2
Sl . No. d 1 M = Hd 3 x 107
d1 d1 2 (Am2)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1 10.8 11.6 11.2 533.87 x 10-3

Calculation : d1 = 10.8 cm, d2 = 11.6 cm

d1  d 2 10.8  11.6 22.4
Average d   
2 2 2
d = 11.2 cm = 11.2 x 10–2 m
Calculation : d = 11.2 x 10–2 m log M = log (0.38) + log (144.92) – log 3
H = BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla = – 0.4202 + 2.1611 – 0.4771
Magnetic moment M  Hd3  107 = – 0.8973 + 2.1611 = 1.2638
M = An (1.2638) = 533.87 x 10–3
3
 
M  0.38  104 11.2  102   107

M = (0.38) (144.92) x 10–3

M = 533.87 x 10–3 Am2
Observations :
1. BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla.
2. Null point N1 distance d1 = 10.8 cm.
3. Null point N2 distance d2 = 11.6 cm.
4. N-pole pointing towards S-earth, null points will be on equitorial line.
Result :
1. Magnetic lines are ploted and null point located.
2. Magnetic moment M = 533.87 x 10–3 Am2.

64
Q.NO.31 Find the strength of the electric current in an elestic circuit using tangent galvanometer.
(Take 6 observations)
Formula :
1. Electric current in an electric circuit i  k tan  (ampere)
where k = reduction factor (ampere)
 = mean of 4 deflections (degree)
2rB
H
2. Theoritically reduction factor k   n (ampere)
0

where r  X / 2 = radius of the circular coil (cm)

X  2 r =perimeter of the circular coil (cm)
BH = 0.35 x 10–4 (tesla)
n = no. of turns (no unit)
Circuit Diagrams :

Table :
Ammeter Deflections (degree)
Sl. reading One side Opposite side Mean tan  i  k tan 
No. A  (no unit) (ampere)
1 2 3 4
(ampere)

Procedure :
1. Wires are connected as shown in circuit diagram.
2. No. of turns n in T.G. and resistance of Rheostat are adjusted so that deflection in the range of 300
– 600.
3. Primary adjustments are made to T.G.
4. By adjusting Rheostat A current is passing through T.G. and deflects 1 , 2 are noted.
5. The direction of current is reversed by using commutator and deflections 1 , 2 are noted.
6. Average of the 4 deflections  is calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated by adjusting Rheostat with different current values and every time
calculated the average deflection.
X
8. Radius of the coil is measured from X  2r  r  .
2
2rBH
9. Theoritically reflection factor calculated as K   n .
0
10. Current in circuit is calculated as i  k tan  .
Precautions :
1. Magnetic materials keep away from experiment.
2. Deflections are noted without parallax error.

65
Table : To find strength of current (i)

Ammeter Deflections (degree)

tan
Sl. reading One side Opposite side Mean i  k tan 
(No
No. A  (ampere)
1 2 3 4 unit)
(ampere
1 0.1 47 49 46 50 48 1.1106 0.10695
2 0.2 66 64 63 63 64 2.0503 0.1974
3 0.3 75 73 71 69 72 3.0777 0.2963
4 0.4 78 79 74 73 76 4.0108 0.395
5 0.5 82 83 77 74 79 5.1446 0.495
6 0.6 83 84 78 76 80.25 5.8197 0.5587

Calculation :
Perimeter of coil X = 50 cm = 50 x 10–2

Radius of coil r 
x
=

50  102
7

2 2  3.14
BH = 0.38 x 10–4 (tesla) log i = log (0.09633) + log (1.1106)
= – 1.0162 + 0.0456 = – 0.9706
2rBH
Theoritically K   n = 
 
2  7.96  102  0.38  10 4 i = An (–0.9706) = 0.10695
o 4  107  50
log i = log (0.09633) + log (2.0503)
= 0.09633 ampere. = – 1.0162 + 03118 = – 0.7044
Calculation : i = An (–0.7044) = 0.1974
For A = 0.1 ampere, Tan  1.1106
log i = log (0.09633) + log (3.0777)
i  k tan    .096331.1106   0.10695ampere = – 1.0162 + 0.4882 = –0.5280
For A = 0.2 ampere, Tan   2.0503 i = An (–0.5280) = 0.2963 Amp

i  k tan    0.09633 2.0503   0.1974ampere log i = log(0.9633) + log (4.0108)

For A = 0.3 ampere, Tan  3.0777 = – 1.0162 + 0.6032 = – 0.4130
i = An (–0.4130) = 0.395 Amp
i  k tan    0.09633 3.0777   0.2963ampere
For A = 0.4 ampere, Tan  4.0108 log i = log(0.9633) + log (5.1446)
= – 1.0162 + 0.7114 = – 0.3048
i  k tan    0.09633 4.0108   0.395ampere i = An (–0.3048) = 0.495 Amp
For A = 0.5 ampere, Tan  5.1446
log i = log(0.9633) + log (5.18977)
i  k tan    0.09633 5.1446   0.495ampere = – 1.0162 + 0.7649 = – 0.2513
For A = 0.6 ampere, Tan  5.8197 i = An (–0.2513) = 0.5587 Amp

i  k tan    0.09633 5.8197   0.5587 ampere

Result :
Strength of current in the circuit i is measured with T.G. is nearly equal to ammeter (A) readings.

66
Q.NO.32 Determine the reduction factor (or) galvanometer constant (k) of the tangent galvanometer
using ammeter. (Take 6 observations)
Formula :
A
1. Practically reduction factor K p  (ampere)
tan 
where A = current in ammeter (ampere)
 = mean of 4 deflections (degree)
2rB
H
2. Theoritically reduction factor k   n  ampere 
o

where r  X / 2 radius of the circular coil (cm)

X  2 r =perimeter of the circular coil (cm)
BH = 0.38 x 10–4 (tesla)
n = no. of turns (no unit)
Circuit diagrams :

Table :
To find reduction factor (k)
Ammeter Deflections (degree) A
Sl. reading One side Opposite side Mean tan  K
No. A  (no unit) tan 
1 2 3 4 (ampere)
(ampere)

Procedure :
1. Wires are connected as shown in circuit diagram.
2. No. of turns n in T.G and resistance of Rheostat are adjusted so that deflection in the range of 300
– 600.
3. Primary adjustments are made to T.G.
4. By adjusting rheostat A current is passing through T.G. and deflection 1 , 2 are noted.
5. The direction of current is reversed by using commutator and deflections 1 , 2 are noted.
6. Average of the 4 deflections  is calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated by adjusting rheostat with different current values and every time calculated
the average deflection.
A
8. Practically reduction factor calculated as k p  .
tan 
9. Radius of the coil is measured from X  2 r  r  X / 2 .
2rB
H
10. Theoritically reduction factor k   n is calculated.
o

Precautions :
1. Magnetic materials keep away from experiment. 2. Deflections are noted with out parallax error.
67
Table :
To find reduction factor (k)

Ammeter Deflections (degree)

Opposite A
Sl. reading One side Mean tan  K
No. A side  (no unit) tan 
(ampere) 1 2 3 4 (ampere)
1 0.1 47 49 46 50 48 1.1106 0.090
2 0.2 66 64 63 63 64 2.0503 0.097
3 0.3 75 73 71 69 72 3.0777 0.097
4 0.4 78 79 74 73 76 4.0108 0.099
5 0.5 82 83 77 74 79 5.1446 0.097
6 0.6 83 84 78 76 80.25 5.8197 0.103

Calculation :
Perimeter of coil X = 50 cm = 50 x 10–2 m
X
Radius of coil r 
2

r
 50 10   7.96  10
2
2
2  3.14
BH = 0.38 x 10–4 tesla
2rBH
Theoritically K   n 
 
2  7.96  10 2  0.38
 0.9633ampere
o 4  107  50
Calculations :
For A = 0.1 ampere, tan   1.1106
A 0.6 log k = log (0.6) – log (5.8197)
K   0.090ampere
tan  5.8197 = – 0.2218 – 0.7649 = –0.9867
For A = 0.2 ampere, tan   2.0503 k = Anti (–0.9867) = 0.090 Am
A 0.2
K   0.097 ampere log k = log(0.2) – log (2.0503)
tan  2.0503 = – 0.6990 – 0.3118 = – 1.0108
For A = 0.3 ampere, tan   3.0777 k = Anti (–1.0108) = 0.097
A 0.3
K   0.097 ampere log k = log(0.3) – log (3.0777)
tan  3.0777
= – 0.5229 – 0.4882 = – 1.0111
For A = 0.4 ampere, tan   4.0108
k = Anti (–1.0111) = 0.097
A 0.4
K   0.099ampere
tan  4.0108 log k = log(0.4) – log (4.0108)
For A = 0.5 ampere, tan   5.1446 = – 0.3979 – 0.6032 = – 1.0011
k = Anti (–1.0011) = 0.099
A 0.5
K   0.097 ampere
tan  5.1446 log k = log(0.5) – log (5.1446)
For A = 0.6 ampere, tan   5.8197 = – 0.3010 – 0.7114 = – 1.0124
A 0.6 k = Anti (–1.0124) = 0.097
K   0.103ampere
tan  5.8197
0.090  0.097  0.097  0.099  0.097  0.103
Practically average k p 
6
0.584
kp   0.0962 ampere
6
Result :
1. Practically reduction factor kp = 0.0962 ampere
2. Theoritically reduction factor k = 0.9633 ampere
68
Q.NO.33 Verify ohm’s law using R  cot  graph method. (Take 6 observations)
Formula :
1. Ohm’s law : At constant physical conditions, the current passing through a conductor (i) is directly
proportional to the potential difference (v) between its ends.
2. According to Ohm’s law
v  i  V   Total resis tan ce   i
 V   R  B  G  i -------> (1)
But in T.G. i  k tan  ------>(2)
From (1) & (2) V   R  B  G  k tan 
V
  R  B  G  tan   cons tan t
K
If  R  B  G  tan   cons tan t is proved, Ohm’s law is verified.
Where R = Resistance in Resistance Box (  )
(B + G) = Sum of internal resistances of Battery and galvanometer (  ).
Circuit Diagram :

R  cot  graph :
Taking R-values on X-axis and cot  values on Y-axis graph is a straight line intersect -ve x-axis at A.
OA gives (B + G) value.
Table :
Deflections (degree) Mean cot  = (R+B+G)
Sl. Resistance tan 
 tan 90    tan =
No. R ( ) 1 2 3 4 (no unit)
(degree) (no unit) constant

Procedure :
1. Wires are connected as shown in circuit diagram.
2. The adjustments of the T.G. are made.
3. Key is closed & suitable resistance R is removed from R.B.
4. The corresponding deflections in compass box may be noted as 1 , 2 by reversing the keys in
commutator another set of deflections 3 , 4 are noted.
5. Experiment is repeated with different resistance R values.
6. Every time deflections 1 , 2 , 3 & 4 are measured, average deflection  . tan  and cot  are
calculated.
7. From R  cot  graph OA = (B + G) value is calculated.
8. As (R + B + G) tan  = constant is proved, Ohm’s law is verified.
Precautions :
1. Magnetic materials keep away from experiment.
2. Deflections are noted with out parallax error.
69
Table :
To verify Ohm’s law

Deflections in T, G Mean tan  cot  = (R+B+G)

Sl. Resistance (Degree)  (no tan 90   tan 
No. R
1 2 3 4 (degree0 unit) (no unit) =constant
1 10 57 60 55 55 56.75 1.5221 0.6570 19.79
2 15 50 50 45 46 47.75 1.0990 0.9099 19.70
3 20 42 41 38 40 40.25 0.8451 1.1830 19.40
4 25 35 36 35 36 35.50 0.7133 1.4019 19.90
5 30 35 35 29 30 32.25 0.6297 1.5880 20.70
6 35 31 30 31 30 30.5 0.5890 1.697 22.30

Calculation : log 13 = 1.1139

log (1.5221) = 0.1824
From R  cot  graph (B + G) = 3
log k = log (13) + log (1.5221) = 1.2963
For R  10, tan   1.5221 K = Anti log (1.2963) = 19.79
K   R  B  G  tan   10  31.5221  19.79
log 18 = 1.2553
log (1.0990) = 0.0410
For R  15, tan   1.0990 log k = log 18 + log (1.0990) = 1.2963
k = Anti log(1.2963) = 19.70
K   R  B  G  tan   15  31.0990   19.70
log 23 = 1.3617
For R  20, tan   0.8451
log (0.8451) = – 0.0731
K   R  B  G  tan    20  3 0.8451  19.40 log k = log (23) + log (0.8451) = 1.2886
k = Anti log (1.2886) = 19.40
For R  25, tan   0.7133
K   R  B  G  tan    25  3 0.7133   19.90 log 28 = 1.4472
log (0.7133) = – 0.1467
For R  30, tan   0.6297 log k = log 28 + log (0.7133) = 1.3005
k = Anti log(1.3005) = 19.90
K   R  B  G  tan    30  3 0.6297   20.70
For R  35, tan   0.5890 log 33 = 1.5185
log 0.6297 = –0.2009
K   R  B  G  tan    35  3 0.5890   22.30 log k = log (33) + log (0.6297) = 1.3176
Result : k = Antilog(1.3176) = 20.70
As (R + B + G) tan  = constant is proved,
log 38 = 1.5798
Ohm’s law is verified. log (0.5890) = – 0.2299
log k = log (38) + log (0.5890) = 1.3499
k = Anti log(1.3499) = 22.30

70
Q.NO.34 Find the specific resistance of the given wire using Meter Bridge. (Take 4 observations)
Formula :
Xr 2
1. Specific resistance of the given wire    m 
L

1
Where X  R   =unknown resistance of the wire (  )
2
R = Resistance in resistance box in the rigid gap (  ), 1 =unknown side balacing length (cm)
d
 2  100  1  known side balancing length (cm), r  = radius of the unknown resistance wire (m)
2
L = Length of the unknown resistance wire (m)
Pitch of screw
2. Screw gauge L.C.  No.of head scaledivisions  0.01mm

Circuit Diagrams :

Table : Table : To find the radius (r) of the wire

PSR Fraction
Total reading
Sl.No. (a) OHSR CHSR b=CHSR x LC
(a+b) mm
Mm (mm)

Table : To find the resistance of the wire (X)

Balancing lengths (cm) Unknown
Resistance in R.B. Unknown Known resistance
Sl. No. R resistance side resistance side 
() X  R  1  
( 1 ) ( 2 ) 2

Procedure :
1. Wires are connected as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Unknown resistance wire is connected in left gap, R.B is connected in right gap.
3. Jockey is pressed at A & B, opposite deflections are observed in G. When H.R. in circuit, some R is
removed in, R.B. Jockey J is pressed. So that deflection is zero in galvanometer.
4. When H.R. in circuit, some R is removed in, R.B. Jockey J is pressed so that deflection is zero in
galvanometer.
5. When H.R. removed from circuit, again bridge is balanced.
6. Balancing lengths measured as 1  AJ .
7. The experiment is repeated 3 times with different values of R and resistance of wire is calculated as
1
X R
2 .
8. The length of unknown resistance wire L is measured with scale & diameter is measured with screw
guage and radius r is calculated. 2
X r
9. With specific resistance is calculated as   .
L
Precautions :
1. Jockey should not be dragged on the meter bridge wire.
2. Remove H.R. from circuit for accurate balancing length.
71
Table :
Table 1 : To find the radius (r) of the wire
Error = –3, correction = +3, L.C. = 0.01 mm
PSR Fraction
Total reading
Sl.No. (a) OHSR CHSR b=CHSR x LC
(a+b) mm
Mm (mm)
1 0 50 53 0.53 0.60
2 0 52 55 0.55 0.59
3 0 50 53 0.53 0.60
4 0 51 54 0.54 0.61

log (2.15) = 0.3324

1. Calculation : log (4) = 0.6021
0.53  0.55  0.53  0.54 2.15 log (d) = log (2.15) – log (4)
Average d    0.537 mm = 0.3324 – 0.6021 = – 0.2697
4 4
d = Antilog (–0.2697) = 0.537 mm
d 0.537
Wire radius r    0.26  0.268  103 m r
d 0.537
  0.268  103 m
2 2 2 2
Table 2 : To find the resistance of the wire (X)

Balancing lengths (cm) Unknown

Resistance in Unknown Known resistance
Sl. No. R.B. resistance side resistance 
R () X  R  1 
( 1 ) side (  2 ) 2
1 1 58 42 1.38
2 2 38 62 1.22
3 3 28.5 71.5 1.19
4 4 24.5 75.5 1.29

2. Calculation :

1   58
For R  1,X  R    1  42   0.2315
2  

1 
  38
For R  2,X  R     2   62   0.234
2  

1    28.5
For R  3,X  R     3  71.5   0.237
2  

1  24.5 
R  4, X  R    4    0.2328
2  75.5 
3. Calculation :
1.38  1.22  1.19  1.29 5.08
Average X    1.27
4 4
Wire length L = 100 cm = 100 x 10–2 m
Wire radius r = 0.268mm = 0.268x10–3m
2


Xr 2 1.27  3.14  0.268  10


3
  0.002864  104   m
L 
100  102 
Result :Spefiic resistance of given wire  =0.002864 x 10–4 m

72
  58 
log X = log  
 42 
log (58) = 1.7634, log (42) = 1.6232
log X = log 58 - log 42 = 1.7634 – 1.6232 = 0.1402
X = An(0.1402) = 0.23

 38 
lox X = log 2.log  
 62 
= 0.3010 + 1.5798 – 1.7924 = 0.0884
X = Anti(0.0884) = 0.23

 38 
3   R
 62 

 28.5 
log X = log 3.log 
 71.5 
= 0.4771 + 1.4548 – 1.8543 = 0.0776
X = A (0.0776) = 0.23

log X = 0.2645
X = Ant (0.2645) = 0.23

 24.5 
X = 4
 75.5 
log X = log (4) + log (24.5) – log (75.5)
= 0.6021 + 1.3892 – 1.8779 = 0.1134
X = An (0.1134) = 0.23

2
1.27    3.14   0.268  10 3 

100  102
log  =log(1.27) + log(3.14) + 2[log(0.268) – 3log 10 – log(100 x 10–2)
log  =0.1038+0.4969–1.1438 – 6 – 0
log  = – 6.5431
 = An(–6.5431) = 0.002864 x 10–4  -m

73
Q.NO.35 Find the individual eletrical resistance of the given two wires by connecting them in series
and parallel using meter bridge. (take 3 observations in each method)
Formula :

R s  R s 2  4R s R p
1. 1st wire resistance R1  
2
2. 2nd wire resistance R2 = RS - R1   

1 
where R s  R  - series net resistance   
2

11
RP  R - parallel net resistance   
 21

1 ,  2 -balancing lengths in series (cm)

11,  21 -balancing lengths in parallel (cm)
R - Resistance in R.B. (  )
Circuit diagram :

Observations :
1. Resistances in resistance box are R = 1  , 2  , 3  .
2. Net resistance in series Rs = 0.6  .
3. Net resistance in parallel RP = 0.12 
4. Rs > RP.
Table :
Table - 1 :

Balancing lengths (cm) Unknown

Resistance in R.B. Unknown Known resistance
Sl. No. R resistance side resistance side 
( ) X  R  1  
( 1 ) ( 2 ) 2

74
Table - 2 :

Balancing lengths (cm) Unknown

Resistance in R.B. Unknown Known resistance
Sl. No. R resistance side resistance side 1
( ) Y  R 11   
( 1 ) ( 2 ) 2

Procedure :
1. Wires are connected as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Unknown resistance wire is connected series in left gap, R.B. is connected in rigid gap.
3. Jockey is pressed at A & B, opposite directions are observed in G.
4. When H.R. in circuit, some R is removed in R.B, Jockey J is pressed so that deflection is zero in
galvanometer.
5. When H.R. removed from circuit, again bridge is balanced.
6. Balancing lengths measured as 1  AJ .
7. The experiment is repeated 2 times with different values of R and net series resistance is calculated
1 
as R S  R  .
2

8. The same wires are connected in parallel in left gap.

9. The experiment is repeated 3 times as above and the net parallel resistance is calculated as
11
RP  R .
 21

R s  R s 2  4R s R p
10. 1st wire resistance is calculated as R1  .
2
11. 2nd wire resistance is calculated as R2 = Rs – R1.
Precautions :
1. Jockey should not be dragged on the meter bridge wire.
2. Remove H.R. from circuit for accurate balancing length.

75
Table :
Table 1 : To find net series resistance (Rs)

Balancing lengths (cm)

Unknown
Resistance in Known
Unknown resistance
Sl. No. R.B. resistance
resistance side 
R () side (  2 ) = X  R  1  
( 1 ) 2
100 -  1
1 1 37.5 62.5 0.60
2 2 23.3 76.7 0.60
3 3 16.7 83.3 0.60

1  37.5 
For R = 1, R   1 
2  62.5 
Calculation :
 37.5 
1  37.5  log X  1 
For R  1,R s  R   1    0.6  62.5 
2  62.5 
log X = log 1 + log 37.5 – log 62.5
   23.3 = 0 + 1.5740 – 1.7959 = – 0.2219
1
For R  2, R s  R     2   76.7   0.6 X = 0.6  –m
2  

1  16.7  log X = log 2 + log 23.3 – log 76.7

R  3,R s  R    3    0.6 = 0.3010 + 1.3674 – 1.8848 = – 0.2164
2  83.2 
X = 0.6  –m
0.6  0.6  0.6 1.8
Average R s    0.6 log X = log 3 + log 16.7 – log 83.3
3 3
= 0.4771 + 1.2227 – 1.9206 = – 0.2208
Table 2 : To find the net parallel resistance (RP) X = An(–02208)
X = 0.6  –m

1.8 
log   =log(1.8) – log (3) = 0.2553 – 0.4771
 3 
= – 0.2218
An(–0.2218) = 06

Balancing lengths (cm) Unknown

Resistance in Unknown Known resistance
Sl. No. R.B. resistance side resistance 1
R () Y  R 11 ()
( 1 ) side (  2 ) 2
1 1 11.5 88.5 0.12
2 2 5.7 94.3 0.12
3 3 4 96 0.12

Calculation : 11.5 
log   log x
11  11.5   88.5 
For R  1 R p  R  1    0.12 
 21  88.5   log x = log(11.5) – log(88.5)
= 1.0607 – 1.9469 = – 0.8862
11  5.7  X = A (–0.8862) = 0.12
For R  2 R p  R   2    0.12 
 21  94.3 

76
 11  4  5.7 
For R  3 R p  R   3    0.12  X = 2
 21  96   94.3 
0.12  0.12  0.12 0.36  log x = log 2 – log(55.7) – log(94.3)
Average R P    0.12  = 0.3010 + 0.7559 – 1.9745
3 3 = 1.0569 – 1.9745 = –0.9176
X = A (–0.9176) = 0.12
R s  R s 2  4R s R p
R1 
2
4
X = 3 
 0.6    0.6 2  4  0.6  0.12   96 
  0.43  log X = log 3 + log 4 – log 96
2
= 0.4771 + 0.6021 – 1.9823
R2 = Rs - R1 = (0.6) – (0.43) - 0.17  = 1.0792 – 1.9823 = – 0.9031
Result : X = An (–0.9031_
1. 1st wire resistance R1 = 0.43 
2. 2nd wire resistance R2 = 0.17  log [ 0.36 ]–log (3) = – 0.4437 – 0.4771
= – 0.9208
Ant (–0.9208) = 0.12

77
Q.NO.36 Draw current - voltage (I - V) characteristics of the junction diode. (Take atleast 6
observations in each bias)
Formula :
1. Forward Bias : +ve terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type & –ve terminal is connected
to the N-type material is F.B.
2. Reverse Bias : –ve terminal of the bettery is connected to the p-type & –ve terminal is connected
to the N-type material is R.B.
3. I - V characterstics : Graph plotted taking V-values on X-axis, i-values on Y-axis is called V-i
characteristics of junction diode.
4. In foward Bias conduction current increases exponentially after knee voltage.
5. In Reverse Bias conduction current increases suddenly after break down voltage.
Circuit Diagram :

V-i characteristics curves :

78
Tables :
Table 1 : Forward Bias

Forward voltage Forward current

Sl.No. Vf If
(v) (mA)

Table : 2 Reverse Bias

Reverse voltage Reverse current

Sl.No. Vr Ir
(v) (  A)

Procedure :
1. Wires are connected as shown in circuit in forward bias.
2. Voltmeter is connected in circuit parallel to diode & milli ammeter is in series.
3. In forward bias we are changing potential values in steps of 0.1v and junction current if is measured.
4. Now diode is connected in reverse bias.
5. In this connection micro ammeter is connected in series, volt meter is connected parallel to diode.
6. In reverse bias we are changing potential values in steps of IV and junction current ir is measured.
7. V-i characteristics : Graph plotted taking V-values on X-axis, i-values on Y-axis gives v-i
characteristics of junction diode.
Precautions :
1. Voltage across diode should be increased in small steps.
2. While connecting p - n junction polarity must be checked properly.

79
Tables :
Table 1 : Forward Bias

Forward voltage Forward current

Sl.No. Vf If
(v) (mA)
1 0 0
2 0.1 0
3 0.2 0.75
4 0.3 1.5
5 0.4 2.75
6 0.5 4.50
7 0.6 6.25
8 0.7 8.25
9 0.8 10.50
10 0.9 12.75
11 1.0 15.00

Table : 2 Reverse Bias

Reverse voltage Reverse current

Sl.No. Vr Ir
(v) (  A)
1 0 0
2 4 10
3 8 15
4 12 22
5 16 30
6 20 36
7 24 42
8 28 49

Calculation :
Scale : In forward Bias :
Voltmeter :0
Milliammeter : 0
In Reverse Bias :
Voltmeter :0
Micro ammeter : 0
Result :
From junction diode v-i charactersitics.
1. In foward bias current increases exponentially with the applied voltage.
2. In Reverse bias current increases suddenly with the applied voltage.

80
Q.NO.37 Draw characteristics of common emitter n-p-n (or) p-n-p transistor configuration and find
the input resistance and output resistance from them. (Take 6 observations)
Formula :
1. n-p-n transistor CE configuration input characteristics :
In CE configuration of n-p-n transistor, the graph plotted between IB on y-axis and input VBE on x-
axis is for a given constant value of collector voltage VCE is called input characterstics.
2. From Input charactersitcs :
VBE
At constant VCE , input resistance ri  I   
B

3. n-p-n transistor CE configuration output characteristics :

In CE configuration of n-p-n transistor, keeping the base current IB constant, a graph plotted between
IC on y-axis and output VCE on x axis is called output characteristics.
4. From output characteristics :
VCE
At constant IB , output resistance r0  I   
C

Scale :

Circuit Diagram :

81
Tables :

Applied Voltage VCE = 4V VCE = 6V VCE = 8V

Sl. No. VBE IB IB IB
(V) (  A) (  A) (  A)

Applied Voltage IB = 80  A IB = 100  A IB = 120  A

Sl. No. VCE IC IC IC
(V) (mA) (mA) (mA)

Procedure :
Input characteristics :
1. Connect the wires as shown in circuit.
2. Keep the voltage VCE as constant at 2v by varying VCC.
3. Vary the input voltage, VBE in steps of 0.1 V from 0v measure the current IB through the ammeter.
4. Repeat the experiment as above for different VCE values.
5. Draw input characteristics for tabulated values.
V BE
6. At constant VCE , calculate input resistance as ri  I .
B

Output characteristics :
7. Varying VBE fix input base current I B  20A , vary the output voltage VCE in steps of N from 0v,
measure current IC with the ammeter.
8. Repeat the experiment as above for various values of IB.
9. Draw output characteristics for tabulated values.
V CE
10. At constant IB, calculate output resistance as r0  I .
C

Precautions :
1. Connections must be done very carefully.
2. Take the readings without parallax error.

82
3. Tables :
Table 1 : To plot input characteristics.
V CE = 4V V CE = 6V VCE= 8V
Sl. Applied voltage IB IB IB
No. VBE (V)
 A   A   A 
1 0.1 0 0 0
2 0.2 0 0 0
3 0.3 0 0 0
4 0.3 0 0 0
5 0.4 0 0 0
6 0.5 0 0 0
7 0.6 35 45 55
8 0.7 205 230 240

Calculation :
From input characteristics :  1 102 
 0.1 
For constant VCE = 8V log r1 = log   = log  3 

 185  106   185  10 
BE V = log (1 x 102) – log (185 x 10–3)
Input resistance ri  I
B = 2 log 10 – log 185 – log 10–3
= 2 – 2.2672 + 3 = 5 – 2.2672 = 3.7328
ri 
 0.7  0.6  r1 = An (3.7328) = 540.54
 240  56   106

ri 
 0.1 
100000
  540.54 
6
185  10 185
Table 2 : To plot output characteriscs
IB = 80 A IB = 100 A IB = 120 A
Sl. Applied voltage
No. VBE (V) IC IC IC
(mA) (mA) (mA)
1 0 0 0 0
2 1 8.5 11.5 15
3 2 8.5 11.5 15
4 3 8.5 11.5 15
5 4 8.5 11.5 15
6 5 8.5 11.5 15
7 6 8.5 11.5 15

Calculation :
From output charactersitcs : 3.2
r0 
2  103
VCE
Output resistance r0  I  3.2 
C log r0  log  
 4  0.8  2  103 
r0  = log(3.2) – log (2 x 10–3)
15  13  103
= log (3.2) – log 2 + 3 log 10
3.2 = 0.5051 – 0.3010 + 3
r0   1600 
15  13  103 = 3.5051 – 0.3010 = 3.2041
5. Result : r0 = A(3.2041) = 1600 
For the given n-p-n transitor in CE configuration
1. Input static characterstics are plotted.
2. For constant VCE = 8V, input resistance ri = 540.54  .
3. For constnat IC = 120 A output resistance ro = 1600  .
83
Q.NO.38 Draw characteristics of common emitter n-p-n (or) p-n-p transistor configuration and find
the value of current gain. (Take 6 observations)
Formula :
1. n-p-n transistor CE configuration input characteristics :
In CE configuration of n-p-n transistor, the graph plotted between IB on y-axis and input VBE on x-
axis is for a given constant value of collector voltage VCE constnat is called input characterstics.
2. n-p-n transitor CE configuration output characteristics :
In CE configuration of n-p-n transitor, keeping the base current IB constant, a graph plotted between
IC on y-axis and output VCE on x-axis is called output characteristics.
I
C
3. At constnat VCE, d.c. current gain Bdc  I  no unit 
B

Scale

Circuit

84
Table :

Applied Voltage VCE = 4V VCE = 6V VCE = 8V

Sl. No. VBE IB IB IB
(V) (  A) (  A) (  A)

Applied Voltage IB = 80  A IB = 100  A IB = 120  A

Sl. No. VCE IC IC IC
(V) (mA) (mA) (mA)

Procedure :
Input charactersitics :
1. Connect the wires as shown in circuit.
2. Keep the voltage VCE as constant at 2v by varying VCC.
3. Vary the input voltage,.VBE in steps of 0.1v from OV measure the current IB through the ammeter.
4. Repeat the experiment as above for different VCE values.
5. Draw input characteristics for tabulated values.
Output characteristics :
6. Varying VBE fix input base current IB = 20 A , vary the output voltage VCE in steps of 1V from OV,
measure current IC with the ammeter.
7. Repeat the experiment as above for various values of IB.
8. Draw output characteristics for tabulatered values.
IC
9. At constant VCE , measure IC and I B calculate d.c. current gain as Pdc  I
B

Precautions :
1. Connections must be done very carefully.
2. Take the readings without parallax error.

85
Table :
Table 1 : To plot input characteristics

VCE = 4V VCE = 6V V CE = 8V
Sl. Applied voltage IB IB IB
No. VBE (V) (  A) (  A) (  A)
1 0.1 0 0 0
2 0.2 0 0 0
3 0.3 0 0 0
4 0.4 0 0 0
5 0.5 0 0 0
6 0.6 35 45 55
7 0.7 205 230 240

Table 2 :
To plot out put characterstics

IB = 80 A I B = 100 A IB = 180  A

Sl. Applied voltage
No. VBE (V) IC IC IC
(mA) (mA) (mA)
1 0 0 0 0
2 1 8.5 11.5 15
3 2 8.5 11.5 15
4 3 8.5 11.5 15
5 4 8.5 11.5 15
6 5 8.5 11.5 15
7 6 8.5 11.5 15

Calculation :
From output charactersitics : 3  103

For constant VCE = 4V 20  106
IC1 = 11.5 mA, IC2 = 8.5 mA log  = log [ 3 x 10–3 ] – log [ 20 x 10–6]
IB1 = 100  A, IB2 = 80  A = log 3 + log 10–3 – log 20 – log 10–6
= log 3 – 3 log 10 – [ log 2 + log 10 ] + 6 log 10
IC C2 I C1 I
d.c. current gain Bdc  I  I  I = 0.4771 – 3 – [ 0.3010 + 1 ] + 5
B B2 B1 = 3 + 0.4771 – 1.3010
= 2.1761

B
3  10 3
 = An (2.1761) = 150
 20 10 6

= 150 (no unit)

Result :
For the given n-p-n transistor in CE configuraiton.
1. Input and output characteristics are plotted.
2. For constant VCE = 4V, the d.c. current gain Bdc = 150 (no unit)

86