Unit Description

1. Diode and its Applications:

Introduction to Semiconductor Diode Theory, DC Analysis and Models of diode, AC Equivalent
Circuits of diode. Diode Types: photodiode, Light-Emitting Diode, Schottky Barrier Diode, Zener
Diode, Temperature Effects, Understanding Manufacturer's Specifications.
Applications: Rectifier Circuits - Half Wave and Full Wave Rectification, Filter circuits, Ripple
Voltage and Diode Current. Zener Diode Circuits - Zener diode as voltage regulator. Clipper
and Clamper Circuits.
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor:
Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor, Transistor Structures, NPN Transistor: Forward-active Mode
Operation, PNP Transistor: Forward-active Mode Operation, Circuit Symbols and Conventions,
Current-Voltage Characteristics, Non ideal Transistor Leakage Currents and Breakdown, DC
Analysis of Transistor Circuits.
Basic Transistor Application: Switch, Amplifier.
Bipolar Transistor Biasing – Bias Stability, Fixed Bias, Collector-to-Base Bias, Voltage Divider
Bias. Understanding Manufacturer’s specifications.
BJT amplifier frequency response. Figure of merit of an amplifier.
3. Field Effect Transistor:
Junction Field-Effect Transistor & MOSFET- symbols, Drain and Transfer characteristics &
study of different parameters. JFET Biaisng Methods (fixed bias, voltage divider bias and self
bias). FET amplifier frequency response. Figure of merit of an amplifier.
4. Output Stages and Power Amplifiers:
Introduction to Power Amplifiers, difference between voltage and power amplifier, ac load line,
characteristic and efficiency of Class A,B, AB, C and Push Pull amplifier.

5. Oscillators:
Positive feedback and basic Principles for Oscillation, Classification of transistor oscillators:
Phase-Shift Oscillator, Wien-bridge Oscillator, Colpitts Oscillator, Hartely Oscillator, Crystal
Oscillator.
2
 UNIT – I : DIODES AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Semiconductor diode theory

Diode types

Diode as a rectifier,

HW, FW rectifiers

Zener diode characteristics

Diode applications

3
 Nucleus -
-
-
+

-
-
-

2. Atoms are electrically neutral: Since the protons and

orbital electrons are equal in number, their equal and
opposite charge will neutralize each other electrically.
Therefore atoms are normally electrically neutral.
 An electron has a negative charge equal to 1.6 X 10 -19
coulomb and a neutron has no charge at all.
 The mass of an electron is 9.1 X 10-31 Kg 4
 Nucleus -
-
-
+

-
-
-

3. Atoms can be converted into ions:

If an atom losses an electron then the number of
protons becomes higher than the number of
electrons. Therefore the atom becomes positively
charged and it is referred to as a positive ion.
5
 Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus

- + -
Electrons
- - -
- - - Valence electrons

 4. Electron orbits or shell:

 Electrons can occupy only certain orbital rings or shells which
are at a fixed distance from the nucleus.
 Each shell can contain only a particular number of electrons.
 In general a shell can contain at the most 2n2 number of
electrons where “n” is the shell number.

6
 Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus

- + -

- Electrons
- -
- Valence electrons
- -

 5. Valence shell and valence electrons:

 The outermost shell is known as the valence shell and the
electrons in it are called as valence electrons.
 These valence electrons determine the electrical
characteristics of each particular atom.
 The valence shell may be completely filled or partially filled of
valence electrons.
7
 The materials such as copper, aluminium etc. are good
conductors of electricity.

 While the materials such as wood , glass, mica etc. are

bad conductors of electricity and are called insulators.

 There is another class of materials, whose conductivity

i.e. ability to carry electricity, lies between that of
conductors and insulators. Such materials are called
semiconductors.

 Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are two well known

semiconductor.

8
 Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus

- +14 -

- Electrons
- 2 -
- Valence electrons
- - 8

4
 Silicon Atom
 The first shell contains 2 electrons ( 2n2 = 2 since n=1 first shell)
 The second shell contains 8 electrons ( 2n2 = 8 since n=2 second shell)
 While third shell which is called as valence shell contains 4 electrons

9
 -
- -
- - Outermost orbit
- -
-
- - -
- - Nucleus

- - - +32 - - Valence electrons

-
- - Electrons
- - 2 -
-
- 8 -
-
- -
- 18

-
 Germanium Atom 4
 The first shell contains 2 electrons ( 2n2 = 2 since n=1 first shell)
 The second shell contains 8 electrons ( 2n2 = 8 since n=2 second shell)
 The third shell contains 18 electrons ( 2n2 = 18 since n=3 third shell)
 And the outermost shell contains 4 valence electrons.

10
 Silicon as well as Germanium atoms contains 4 electrons in the valence shell.
 If there are 4 electrons in the outermost orbit the semiconductor material is
called as Tetravalent semiconductor or pure or Intrinsic semiconductor
11
 When in equilibrium, an atom is electrically neutral, as
the number of protons is exactly equal to the number of
electrons.

 But if the electrons from the outermost orbit (valence

electron) is extracted, then the atom does not remain
electrically neutral.

 Since it has lost one electron, it has lost some negative

charge. So the atom becomes positively charged and
called as positive ion.

 On the other hand, addition of an electron to an atom

will convert it into negative ion.

12
 When in equilibrium, an atom is electrically neutral, as
the number of protons is exactly equal to the number of
electrons.
 But if the electrons from the outermost orbit (valence
electron) is extracted, then the atom does not remain
electrically neutral.
 Since it has lost one electron, it has lost some negative
charge. So the atom becomes positively charged and
called as positive ion.
 On the other hand, addition of an electron to an atom
will convert it into negative ion.
 The process of conversion from an electrically neutral
to an ion is called as Ionization.
13
 Energy levels increases as
- we away from the nucleus
Shell 1
Lowest energy -
- - Valence orbit shell
has highest energy level
- - - + - - -

nucleus - -
-

 Each electronic orbit has an energy level associate with it.

 The electrons in the inner orbits are more closely bound to the
nucleus and posses less energy.
 As we move towards the valence shell, the binding force between
nucleus and electrons reduces and the electrons posses higher
energy.
14
 Energy levels increases as
- we away from the nucleus
Shell 1
Lowest energy -
- - Valence orbit shell
has highest energy level
- - - + - -

nucleus - - - Free electron

-

 The valence electrons are very loosely bound with the nucleus .

 If an external energy is given to them, they can easily break away

from the nucleus and become free.

 Such electron which are free from the force of attraction of nucleus
are called as free electrons
15
 Energy levels increases as
- we away from the nucleus
Shell 1
Lowest energy -
- - Valence orbit shell
has highest energy level
- - - + - -

nucleus - - - Free electron

-

 These free electrons posses an energy which is higher than that of

valence electrons.
 The electric current flows due to these free electrons and they are
said to be in the conduction band.
 The energy level of conduction band is higher than that of valence
shell
16
 Energy levels increases as
- we away from the nucleus
1st Band -
- - Valence orbit shell
2nd Band has highest energy level
- - - + - -
Valence band
nucleus - - - Free electron
-

Energy -
conduction
Conduction band
Band
Forbidden energy gap
EG
Valence Band Valence band

2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
17
 Energy

conduction
Conduction band
Band

Valence Band Valence band

2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus

•The electrons in the first shell will require the highest amount of energy
for their extraction. Therefore the first shell is said to have lowest
amount of energy associate with it

On the other hand, the valence electrons require the lowest amount of
energy for their extraction. Hence valence shells are said to have the
highest amount of energy. 18
 Energy

conduction
Conduction band
Band
Forbidden energy gap
EG
Valence Band Valence band

2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
•Conduction Band :
Conduction band has the highest energy associated with it
The electrons in the conduction band are the free electrons i.e. the
electrons which are disconnected from their respective atoms.
Conduction band electrons are actually responsible for the flow of
current . More number of electrons in the conduction band more
will be the current
19
 Energy

conduction
Conduction band
Band
Forbidden energy gap
EG
Valence Band Valence band

2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
• Forbidden Gap :
As shown in figure the forbidden gap is the energy gap that
separates the conduction and valence band.
No electrons can normally exist in the forbidden gap. For any given
type of material the forbidden gap may be large, small or even
nonexistent.
The materials are classified as conductors, insulators and
semiconductors based on the relative width of the forbidden gap. 20
 If the valence band electrons can jump across the
forbidden gap and enter into the conduction band then
they will become free electrons and be available for
conduction.

 The valence electrons can jump if we provide

additional energy to them . This additional energy can
be supplied by increasing the temperature or focusing
light on the material etc.

 This is the reason why conductivity of certain materials

increase with increase in temperature.

21
 Conductors
 Conductors are materials which allows the current to flow very
easily. This is due to the large number of free electrons present in
the conductors.
 From the energy band diagram of conductors shown in figure, for
metals like copper, aluminium etc. there is no “forbidden gap”
present between the valence and conduction band.
 Therefore even at room temperature, a large number of free
electrons are present and available for conduction.

Conduction
Band
Conduction band
Bands
overlap
Valence band
Valence
Band
22
 Insulators
 The energy band diagram of an insulator is shown in figure
 The forbidden gap between the conduction band valence band is
extremely wide.
 Normally the valence electrons cannot jump that far and enter into
the conduction band. Therefore conduction those not takes place
and these materials are known as insulators

Conduction
Band Conduction band

Large
forbidden EG = 6 eV
gap

Valence
Valence band Band
23
 Semiconductors
 Semiconductor have the conduction properties which are in
between those of conductors and insulators.
 We can say that semiconductors are neither conductors nor
insulators. Forbidden gap is very narrow as compared to that of
the insulator.
 The forbidden gap for Silicon EG = 1.1 eV
 For Germanium EG = 0.72 eV

Conduction Conduction band

Band

small
forbidden EG = 1 eV
gap

Valence
Valence band Band
24
 The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell
while those in silicon are in the third shell, i.e. closer to the
nucleus.
 This means that the germanium valence electrons are at
higher energy levels than those in Silicon.
 Hence germanium valence electrons will need smaller
amount of additional energy to escape from the atom.
 Due to this, the germanium produces more number electron
hole pairs than silicon.
 Hence the leakage current is more in germanium than that of
silicon.
 This property make germanium more unstable at high
temperatures, therefore silicon is more widely used material
than germanium.

25
 The semiconductors are classified into two categories as:

 Intrinsic semiconductors and

 Extrinsic semiconductors.

26
 Intrinsic means pure, so intrinsic semiconductors are the
semiconductors in their purest possible form.

 The presence of impurity (i.e. atoms of other material) is as

low as 1 part in 100 million parts of the semiconductor
atoms.

 The intrinsic semiconductors are insulators or very very

poor conductors, at room temperature.

 Silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductor

27
 Extrinsic means impure, so we can obtain the extrinsic
semiconductors from intrinsic ones by adding impurities to
them.
 Impurity is nothing but some other material. The process of
adding impurities is called as “ doping”
 Due to doping, the conductivity of the semiconductor
increases.
 Extrinsic semiconductor are of two types:
 n- type semiconductor
 p- type semiconductor
 The type of extrinsic semiconductor (n or p) depends on the
type of impurity ( or dopant ) being used

28
 We know that in a silicon or germanium atom there are four
valence electrons
 In an intrinsic Si or Ge crystal these four valence electrons are
bound to four adjacent atoms

Si Si Si

Covalent Bond

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

29
 Theintrinsic semiconductor behaves like
perfect insulator at the absolute zero
temperature.

 Butthe behavior changes with increase in

temperature. At around the room temperature,
electrons becomes available for conduction
and current can flow.

30
FIGURE Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Electrons in the conduction band
are free.

 The intrinsic semiconductor behaves like

perfect insulator at the absolute zero
temperature.

 But the behavior changes with increase in

temperature. At around the room temperature,
electrons becomes available for conduction
and current can flow.

31
 At increase in temperature many valence electrons will
absorb the thermal energy, breaks the covalent bonds and
go into the conduction band
 Thus they becomes free for conduction. When an electron
break a covalent bond and becomes free, a vacancy is
created in the broken covalent bond.

Free electron

Si Si Si Si

hole

32
 The free electrons in the conduction band, when come
across the hole will jump into the hole.
 This process is called as the recombination process

Free electron

Si Si Si Si

hole

33
34
 Electron Current
 As we apply voltage across a piece of intrinsic
semiconductor material, the thermally generated free
electrons in the conduction band are attracted towards the
positive end

 The current is constitute due to the movement of free

electrons is called as electron current as shown in figure

Si Si Si

UNIT - I Diodes and Circuits

35
 Hole Current

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

36
 Hole Current

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Hole movement electron movement

37
 Total current
 The flow of an electric current is due to the movement of
electrons in the conduction band and movement of holes in
the valence band.
 Total current = electron current + hole current

Si Si Si

UNIT - I Diodes and Circuits

38
 As the temperature rises, more number of electrons will
absorb the thermal energy to break the covalent bonds and
contributes to the number of free carriers.

 The increase in the number of electrons and holes will

increase the conductivity of the semiconductor and results
in the lower resistance level.

 Thus the resistance of the semiconductor decreases with

increase in temperature. Therefore they are said to have a
“ negative temperature coefficient” of resistivity.

39
 The current flow from positive to negative is referred to as
conventional current.
 Under the influence of the external dc source or battery the free
electrons in the semiconductor slab which are negatively charged get
attracted towards the positive terminal and holes being positively
charged will be attracted towards the negative terminal of the
external battery.

Conventional current

Electron flow

h - e
h - e
h - e
Semiconductor slab
External DC source

40
Doping Process
 In the process of doping, impurities are added to the
pure Silicon or Germanium.
 The impurities are the material used to dope the
intrinsic semiconductor materials. These materials can
be of two types:

 1. Donor impurity 2. Acceptor impurity

41
 The material which is being used as impurity in the
process of doping is called as “dopant”.
 When the dopant is Pentavalent atom i.e. the atom
containing five valence electrons then it is called as the
“ donor impurity” and the doping is called as “ donor
doping”
 Donor doping is used to manufacture n-type extrinsic
semiconductor.
 When the dopant is trivalent atom i.e. the atom
consisting of only three valence electrons, then it is
called as the “ acceptor impurity” and the doping is
called “acceptor doping”.
 Acceptor doping is used to manufacture p-type
extrinsic semiconductor.
42
 The n–type semiconductor is formed by adding small
amount of Pentavalent impurity to the pure Si or Ge
material which act as base material.

 The Pentavalent atom is the one which has five valence

electrons.

 The examples of Pentavalent materials are :

 Antimony (Sb)(51),
 Arsenic (As) (33) and
 Phosphorous (P)(15).

43
 When a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added to the
intrinsic semiconductor, four valence electrons of Arsenic
atom form four covalent bonds with four valence electrons
of the neighboring silicon atom

Si Si Si
Fifth valence electron
Of Arsenic
(Extra Free electron)
Si As Si

Covalent Bond

Si Si Si

44
 A large number of free electrons are present along with a small number of
thermally generated holes in an n-type semiconductor.
 So the conduction largely takes place due to the free electrons. Therefore
the free electrons are called “ majority carrier” and holes are known as “
minority carrier”.
 When an external DC voltage is applied to the n-type semiconductor
material, the free electrons move towards the positive terminal of the source
and hole move towards the negative end
Conventional current
Electron flow

e
e - e - e - e -
- e e h
- -
h e - e -
e
- N-type material e
-
- e - e
45
 The P–type semiconductor is formed by adding small
amount of trivalent impurity to the pure Si or Ge
material which act as base material.

 The trivalent atom is the one which has three valence

electrons.

 The examples of trivalent materials are :

 Boron(B)(5),
 Gallium(Ga)(31) and
 Indium(In)(49).

46
  When a trivalent impurity such as Gallium is added to the
intrinsic semiconductor, three valence electrons of gallium
atom form three covalent bonds with three valence electrons
of the neighboring silicon atom

Si Si Si
Hole created due to
Incomplete bond

Si Ga Si

Covalent Bond Broken Covalent Bond

Si Si Si

47
 Conventional current

Electron flow

e - + +
+ +
e - + +h
+ h + +
P-type material
+ +

48
 P-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor
are joined together with the help of special fabrication
technique to form a p-n junction
 Terminals are brought out for the external connection
with p-type semiconductor. The p-side is called as
anode and the n-side is called as cathode.
junction

- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
The p-n junction forms the basic semiconductor device called diode

49
 At the junction, one side has a high concentration of
holes and other side has high concentration of
electrons.
 Due to this a concentration gradient is created across
the junction, and a process of charge transfer takes
place as shown in figure.
junction

Anode cathode

P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor

50
 Note that no external voltage is applied between the
terminals of the p-n junction, hence the p-n junction is
said to be unbiased.
 The free electrons from “n” side will diffuse into the p
side and recombine with the holes present there.
junction

- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor

51
 Note that no external voltage is applied between the
terminals of the p-n junction, hence the p-n junction is
said to be unbiased.
 The free electrons from “n” side will diffuse into the p
side and recombine with the holes present there.

junction

- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor

52
 Each electron diffusing into the “p” side will leave
behind a positive immobile ion on the n-side.
 When electron combine with a hole on the p-side, an
atom which accepts this electron, losses its electrically
neutral status and become a negative immobile ion as
shown in figure

junction

- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor

53
 Each electron diffusing into the “p” side will leave
behind a positive immobile ion on the n-side.
 When electron combine with a hole on the p-side, an
atom which accepts this electron, losses its electrically
neutral status and become a negative immobile ion as
shown in figure
Negative immobile ions junction Positive immobile ions

- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor

54
 Due to this recombination process, a large number of
positive ions accumulate near the junction on the n-
side and a large number of negative immobile ions will
accumulate on the p-side near the junction

Negative immobile ions Positive immobile ions

junction

- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
Depletion
region

55
 The negatively charged ions on the p-side will start
repelling the electrons which attempts to diffuse into
the p-side and after some time the diffusion will stop
completely.
 At this point the junction is said to have attained an
equilibrium.
Negative immobile ions Positive immobile ions
junction

- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
Depletion
region

56
 Practically the width of depletion region is very small
of the order of 0.5 to 1 micron where 1 micron is equal
to 1X10-6 meter.
 Thus the depletion region is very thin as compared to
the width of p and n region.

Negative immobile ions Positive immobile ions

junction

- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
Depletion
region

57
 Due to the presence of immobile positive and negative ions on
opposite sides of the junction, an electric field is created across
the junction. This electric field is known as the “barrier
potential”.
 The polarities of barrier potential are decided by the type of
immobile ions present on the two sides of the junction.

- + Barrier potential or
Junction potential
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
Depletion
58
region
 Barrier potential is measured in volts. The barrier potential for
silicon is about 0.6 Volt whereas its value for the Germanium is
0.2 Volt.

- + Barrier potential or
Junction potential
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor semiconductor
Depletion
59
region
 The penetration of the depletion region into p or n-side
depends on the doping levels of those sides
 If both these sides are equally doped then the
depletion region penetrates equally on both the sides
as shown in figure:
Both sides are equally doped
J

P N

Equal penetration
On both side

60
Both sides are equally doped P-side is lightly doped n-side is lightly doped
J J
J

P N P N P N

Equal penetration More penetration More penetration

On both side On p-side On n-side

Thus the depletion region always penetrates more on the side which is lightly doped
as compared to the other

61