SAD & SE

SAD is a Completely theoretical subject, to learn this subject is not easy task. One must have greater concentration and patience to learn and understand
A theory subject. One must follow the below mentioned points to better understand

 One must not try to mug up SAD. This would be injustice to the topic.
 Try to find system in every moment, every word, every transaction, every action, every function, every event etc.
 Every single thing you will see you will find has a system of its own. The nature the Govt., officials , the banking , teaching , learning,
Gaming etc.
If you do not follow the system of the transaction and action then you would stand now where and if you do not follow the system of learning
and remembering then you would not get your desired result in the exam.try to feel the subject. The topic in your day to day life and see the
difference.
Please follow these steps in order to remember this topic for exam:
 Divide the topic into its four parts:
 Preface
 Introduction – Definition
 Body
 Conclusion
Create and quote examples for each topic you learn and mention. You will find genuine examples in each topics.

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 Chapter:-1 System Analysis & Design AND Software Engineering

Definitions:

System:- A system is simply a set of components that interact with each other to accomplish some
purpose or a particular goal
The term system may be defined as set of inter related elements that operate collectively to
accomplish some common purpose or goal.
Example:
Human body is a system, consisting of various parts such as head, hand, heart, ear, legs and
so on.

Subsystem:- A business is also a system. Its components are marketing, manufacturing, sales,
research, shipping,
accounting and personnel – all work together to create a profit that benefits the employees and stock
holders of the firm.
Each of these components is itself a system and it is called subsystem.

The various body parts are related by means of connecting networks of bloods vessels and nerves.
This system has a main goal , which we may call “living”.

Business System:- A business is also a system. Which is having a set of components that interact
with each other to
fulfill the business goals And fulfill the business needs.(profit or loss or equal)

A business is also a system where economic resources such as people, money , material marketing ,
machines etc. are transformed by various organizational process into goods and services.

Information System:- Every business system depends on a more or less abstract entity called an
information system.
This system is the means by which data flow from one person/department to another. Information
system helps all the
system Of business, linking the different component in such a way that they effectively work
towards the same purpose.

The purpose of an information systems are to process input, maintain data and produces
Information, reports
and other output.

I/p
data

payroll
Computer prog.
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 budget

Data Base.

operation

finance Action
report

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEM:

(a)Predetermined Objectives:
All systems have predetermined objectives .if any organizations are working
without predetermined objectives then it is not called a System. The Objectives is the goal of the
system, it is the purpose of the system for which it is functioning. If the purpose of the system is not
achieved then the system will fail. The system is said to be successful and in working condition only
if it, achieves the objectives.

(b)Set of Components:
A system is not standing alone. It is a system because it contains a list of
components inside it. A system is a group of components. If any components is missing then the
system will fail. A system can‟t work unless the components inside it, do not work. Thus a systems
existence is a result of the work of the components of the system.

System Analyst:

System analyst is a person who is responsible to fulfill the needs of organization and provide the
information.
A system analyst‟s primary responsibility is to identify information needs of an organization and
obtain a logical design
of an information system which will meet these needs. Three groups of people are involved in
developing information
systems for organization managers, users of the systems and computer programmers. The efforts of
the system analyst
is to co-ordinates all these group, to effectively develop and operate computer based information
system, some important function of system analyst can be expressed as follow:

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 Defining requirement
Categorized the requirements and determines the priority.
Gathering data, facts and opinions of facts.
Analysis and evaluation
Solving up specifications
Designing system
Evaluating system

Role (Responsibility of System Analyst):-

Information analyst :- In this role the analyst is responsible to find the information and together the
information
to fulfill the requirement of the organization.

System Analysis & Design:- System analysis and design refers to the process of organizing
situation with
the intent of improving it through better procedures & methods.
System developments have two major components:
system analysis
system design

System Analysis & Design & programming: analyst conduct the systems investigation, develop
design specification and program software to implement the design (Programmer analyst)

System design is the process of planning a new business system or one to replace an exiting system.
System analysis is the process of gathering & diagnosing problems & using information to recommends
important to the system.

Extra Note:

Analyst in various functional Area:

System Development
Data Administration
Telecommunication
End User Computing
Computer Operations

Role of a System Analyst:

Change Agent
Investigation
Architect
Psychologist
Motivator
Intermediately
Salesperson
Politician

SDLC:
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 SDLC is stand for system development life cycle. It is a cyclic process to develop the
system for any organization. It consist the following steps to process:

(1) Preliminary investigation

(2) System analysis
(3) System design
(4) Coding
(5) Testing
(6) Implementation
(7) Maintenance

SDLC is a classical thought of as the set of activities that analysts, designers, and users carry out to develop
and
implement an information system. SDLC consist of the following six activities :

(1) Preliminary investigation :

A request is made by a manager, an employee or a system specialist for information system. From this point the
first system
activity, the preliminary investigation starts. It consists of three parts

Request clarification: The users or the persons who wants the information system, their request
is not clear,
Therefore before any system investigation can be consider, the project request must be examined
to determine
Precisely what the originator wants.

Feasibility study: When ever any user request is clarified, then it is very much important to
determine whether
the system request is feasible or not. There are three aspects in the feasibility study i.e.

Technical feasibility: Can the work for the project be doe with current equipment, existing
software technology
and available person?

Economic feasibility: Are there sufficient benefits in creating the system to make the cost
acceptable?

Operational feasibility: will the system be used if it is developed and implemented?

The feasibility study is carried out by a small group of people who are familiar with information
system techniques
as well as the routine and detail activities of the organization.

Request approval: All requested projects are not desirable or feasible. However, those projects
that are both

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 Feasible and desirable should be put into a schedule. If the systems developers are free then the
development
Process will be immediately started otherwise, the proposal will be put into the priority queue
depending
Upon the important.

(2) System Analysis (Determination of system requirements):

The detailed understanding of all important facts of the business area under investigation is the key point or
heart of the system analysis.
The analyst must study the business process, so that the questions related to study, can be answered. For these
the system analyst has
to work with variety of persons to gather details about the business process.

As the details are gathered, the analysts study the requirement data to identify features the new system should
have.

(3) System Design:

The design of information system produces the details that state how a system will meet the requirements
identified during
Systems analysis. Some times this stage is called logical design. In controls to the process of development
program software,
Which is referred to as physical design.

System analyst begins the design process by identifying reports and other outputs, usually designer sketch it to
appear when the
system is complete. This may be done on paper.

The system design also describes the data to be input, calculated or stored. Individual data items and calculation
procedure are
written in detail.

The detailed design information is passed on to the programmers with complete and clearly outlined
software specifications.
As programming starts, designers are available to answer questions, clarify fuzzy areas & handle problems
that
Confront the programmers when using the design specifications.

(4) Coding (Development of software):

Software developers may install purchased software or they may write new, custom designed programs. The
choice depends on the
Cost of each option, the time available to write software and the availability of programmers.
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 Programmers are also responsible for documenting the program, providing an explanation of how
and why certain
procedures are coded in specific ways.

(5) System testing:

In testing, the system is used experimentally to ensure that the software does not fail. I.e. that it will run
according to its specifications
and in the way users expect. Special test data are inputted for processing, and the result examined. A limited
number of users may be
allowed to use the system so analyst can see whether they try to use it in unforeseen ways.

In many organizations testing is performed by persons other than those who wrote the original programs to
ensure more
complete and unbiased testing and more reliable software.

(6) Implementation & evaluation:

Implementation is the process of having systems personnel check out and put new equipment into use, train
users, install he new
applications and construct any files of data needed to use it.

Evaluation of the system is perform to identify its strengths and weakness. The evaluation process
can be
categorized in following three way :

(i) Operational evaluation: In this, it will determine how system is functioning; it also includes
ease of use,
response time, suitability of information formats, overall reliability and level of utilization.

(ii) Organizational impact: Identification and measurement of benefits to the organization in

such area as
financial concerns (cost, revenue and profit), operational efficiency and competitive impact.

(iii) User manager assessment: Evaluation of the attitudes of senior and user managers within
the organization,
as well as end users.

(iv) Development performance: It measure overall development time and effort, conformance
to budgets and
standards, and other project management criteria, includes assessment of development
methods and tools.

(7) Maintenance:-

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 Maintenance follows a CBIS. As users develop faith in a CBIS, their demands on the system will grow. The
system design
should be flexible enough to accommodate future requests; refinements, modifications and changes to suit
users‟ requirements.
Well documented logical and physical designs of a CBIS will facility its maintenance considerably.

FACT FINDING TECHNIQUES

What is fact finding Techniques?

The specific methods analysts use for collecting data about requirement are called fact-finding
techniques. It includes:
(1) Interview
(2) Questionnaire
(3) Record Review
(4) Observation

(1) Interview:-
The analyst use interviews to collect information from individuals or from groups. The respondents
are generally current
users of the existing system or managers.
The interview can either be structured or unstructured type.
Structured Interview
Ensures uniform wording of questions for all respondents.
Results in shorter interviews
Easy to administer and evaluate.
Limited interviewer training is needed.
Cost of preparation is high.
Respondent may not accept high level of structure and mechanical posing of question.
Unstructured Interview
Interviewer has greater flexibility in wording questions to suit respondent.
May produce information about the areas that were overlooked or not thought
to be important.

Takes extra time to collect essential facts.

Analysis and interpretation of results may be lengthy.

The success of an interview depends on the skill of the interviewer and on his or her preparation for the
interview.

(2) Questionnaire

The use of Questionnaire allows analyst to collect information about various aspects of a system
from large
number of a system from a large number of persons. The use of standardized question formats can
yield more reliable
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 data than other fact-finding techniques.

Questionnaires should also be tested and if necessary, modified before being printed and distributed.
The analyst should ensure that the respondents‟ background and experiences qualify them to answer the
question.

(3) Record Review

Analysts examine the information that has been recorded about the system and users.
Record inspection can be performed at the beginning of the study, as an introduction, or later in the study, as
a basis for comparing actual operations with what the records indicate should be happening.
It includes written policy manuals, regulations and standard operating procedures
used by most organizations as a guide for managers and employees.

(4) Observation
Through observation, analyst can obtain firsthand information about how activities
are carried. This method is useful when analyst need to actually observe how documents are handled, how
process are carried out and whether specified steps are actually followed. Experience observer knows what
to look for and how to assess the significance of what they observe.

Tools for documenting procedure and decisions

A tool is any device, object or operations used to accomplish a specific task. System analyst rely on such
type of tools. There tools help analyst in so many different ways (i.e. To collect data, present data, explain
processes etc.) To explain the procedures or documenting the procedures there are three tools :

Decision tree
Decision table

When analyst starts the study of any information system, the first question is about, what are possibilities?
or what can happen? Means he/she is asking about the condition to take any appropriate action. In real
situation the problem is not same, hence the conditions vary for different problems and different situations,
so some time it is referred as decision variable.

When all possible conditions are known, the analyst next determines what to do when certain condition
occurs. Actions are alternatives, the steps, activities or procedures that an individual may decide to take
when confronted with a set of conditions. The actions will be simple or it may be complex in different
situation.

Decision tree :

A single matter can be explained in so many different ways, for example, a company might give discount
amount on three different values for the condition on size of order (i.e. over 10,000 – 4 %, in between 5000
to 10000 – 3 % and below 5000 - 2 %) and the payment occurs within 10 days or not. The same process can
be explained in following different ways.

Greater than 10,000. greater than or equal to 5000 but less than or equal to 10,000 and below 5000.
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 Not less than 10,000, not more than 10,000 but at least 5000 and not 5000 or more.

Having different ways of saying the same thing can create difficulties in communications during system
study.

Decision tree is one of the method for describing decisions, while avoiding difficulties in communications.

A Decision tree is diagram that presents conditions and actins sequentially and thus shows which conditions
to consider first, which second and so on. It is also a method of showing the relationship of each condition
and its permissible actions. The diagram resembles branches on a tree.

Action
Cond.
Condition
Action
Action

Cond.
Action
Root

Action
Cond.
Cond
Action

Cond.

action
Decision tree
The root of the tree, on the left of the diagram, is the storing point of the decision sequence. The particular
branch to be followed depends on the conditions that exists and the decision to be made. Progression from
left to right in any branch will give the sequence of decision. One decision point will lead to the another
decision point. The nodes of the three thus represents conditions and indicates that a determination must be
made about which condition exists before the next path can be chosen. The right side of the tree list the
actions to be taken, depending upon the sequence of condition that is followed.

Developing decision tree is very much beneficial i.e. The need to describe conditions and actions forces
analyst to formally identify the actual decision that must be made. It also force analyst to consider the
sequence of condition.

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 Over 10000 4%

Within 10 days 5000 to 10000 3%

Below 5000 2%

After 10 days Full payment

Decision trees may not always be the best tools for decision analysis. A decision tree for a complex system
with many sequence of steps and combination of conditions will be unwieldy. A large number of branches
with many paths through them will could rather than aid analysis. When these problem arise, decision table
should be considered.

Decision table

A decision table is a matrix of rows and columns, rather than a tree, that shows conditions and actions.
Decision rules, included in a decision table, state what procedure to follow when certain conditions exists.

The decision table is made up of four sections : Condition statements, condition entry, action statements,
actions entries. The condition statement identifies relevant conditions. Condition entries tell which value, if
any applies for a particular condition. Action statements list the set of all steps that can be taken when a
certain condition occurs. Action entries shows what specific actions in the set to take when selected
conditions or combinations of conditions ate true. Sometimes notes are added below the table of indicate
when to use the table or to distinguish it from other decision tables.

Condition Decision rules

Condition statements Condition entry

Action statements Action entry

The columns on the right side of the table, linking conditions and actions; form decision rules, which state
the conditions that must be satisfied for a particular set of actions to be taken.

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 Condition Decision rules

C1 : Patient has health insurance Y Y N N

C2 : Patient has social health ins. Y N Y N

A1 : Pay only visit charge X

A2 : Pay nothing X X
A3 : full payment X

Table T – 1

The above decision table describes action taking in payment to a doctor. There are two types of insurance
Health insurance (Condition – I)
Social health insurance (Condition – II)
If the patient has only health insurance he/she has to pay visit charge, if patient has only social or both type
of insurance, he/she has to pay nothing. If the patient does not have any insurance, he/she has to pay full
payment.

The above matter is stated in decision table. There are two conditions statements and corresponding four
condition entries, with three actions statements and corresponding action entries.

The payment discount (Discuss in decision tree) can also be described using decision table as follow :

XX X X XXXX X X
Within 10 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N N
days
> 10,000 YY Y Y NNNNYYYYNNN N
5000 to Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N
10000
Below 5000 YN Y N YNYNYNYNYNY N
4 % Discount
3 % discount
2% discount
Full payment

Table T – 2

In the above table „X‟ indicates the contradiction entries, so it must be removed from the table, hence the
table will be as follow :

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 Condition Decision rules
Within 10 Y YYNNN
days
> 10,000 Y NNYNN
5000 to N YNNYN
10000
Below 5000 N NYNNY
4 % Discount X
3 % discount X
2% discount X
Full payment XXX

Building decision table : To develop decision table analyst should use the following steps :

Identifies the conditions in the decision. Each condition selected should have the potential to either occur or
nor occur, partial occurrences is not possible.
Determine the actions.
Study the combinations of conditions that are possible. For N conditions there are 2n combinations.
Fill in the table with decision rules.
Mark the action entries with X to signal action to take, leave a cell blank for no action applies.
Examine the table for redundant rules or for contradictions within rules.

After constructing a table, analyst verify it for correctness and completeness to ensure that the table includes
all the conditions. Along with the decision rules that relate them to the actions. Analyst should also examine
the table for redundancy and contradictions.

Eliminating redundancy : Decision table can become too large and unwieldy if allowed to grow in an
uncontrolled fashion. Removing redundant entries can help manage table size. Redundancy occurs when
both of the following are true

Two decision rules are identical except for one condition row.
The action for the two rules is identical.

In Table T – 1 the decision rules 1 and 3. for both action entry is same. Here action entry is not dependent
on condition –1 entry, hence these two rules are redundant and can combined into one rule. The condition
row where they differ can be replaced by a – as shown in the following table :

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 Condition Decision rules

C1 : Patient has health insurance - Y N

C2 : Patient has social health ins. Y N N

A1 : Pay only visit charge X

A2 : Pay nothing X
A3 : full payment X

Removing contradictions: Decision rules contradict each other when tw0 or more rules have the same set of
conditions and the actions are different.

Contradictions mean either that the analyst‟s information is incorrect or that there is an error in the
construction of the table. In table T-2 many contradictory rules are shown with „X‟ on the top.

The usefulness of decision table processors is in saving programming time and checking for errors.

DATA FLOW ANALYSIS TOOL

What is data flow analysis?

While developing a system, analyst wants to know the answer to four specific questions :

What processes make up a system?

What data are used in each process?
What data are stored?
What data enters and leaves the system?

Data drives the business activities. Systems analyst recognizes the central role of business data in
organization. Data flow analysis study the use of data in each activity (i.e. process, stores, retrieved, used,
changed & output).

Data Flow Diagram (DFD) graphically shows the relation between processes and data. Data dictionary,
which formally describes the system data and where they are used.

Data flow diagram (DFD)

A graphical tool used to describe and analyze the movement of data through a system including the
processes, stores of data and delays in the system. DFD are the central tool and the basis from which other
components are developed. The transformation of data from input to output, through process, may be
described logically and independently of the physical components are called logical DFD. In contrast,
physical DFD show the actual implementation and the movement of data between people, departments and
workstations.

Logical DFD can be completed using only four simple notations. The symbols are developed by two
different organizations (i.e. Yourdon and Gane & Sarson). The symbols are as follow

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 Data Flow : It shows the direction of data flow, from an origin to a destination in the form of document,
letter, telephone call.

Yourdon Gane & Sarson

Processes : People, procedures or device that use or produce data.

Yourdon Gane & Sarson

Source & Destination : External sources or destination of data, which may be people, programs,
organizations or other entities interact with the system bur are outside its boundary. The term source or sink
are interchangeably used with origin & destination.

Yourdon Gane & Sarson

Data store : Here data are stored or referenced by a process in the system.

Yourdon Gane & Sarson

Each component in a DFD is labeled with a descriptive name. Process name are identified with a number.
The umber assigned to a specific process does not represent the sequence of process. It is strictly for
identification and will take on added value when we study the components that, make up a specific process.

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 D.F. -1 P1 D.F. -4
Source Destination

D.F. -2 D.F. -5

P2 D.F. -3 Data Store

Several data flow can be going on simultaneously. In above DFD d. flow – 1 & d; flow – 2 may occur I
parallel.

As the name suggest, DFD concentrate on the data moving through the system, not on device or equipment.
Analyst explain why the data are being input or output and what processing s done. It is just as important to
determine when data enter the application area and when they leave. Sometimes data are stored for later use
or retrieved from previous storage. DFD also show this.

Developing Data Flow Diagram : System analyst must first study the current system, that is, the actual
activities and processes that occur. In the terminology of structured analysis, this is a study of the physical
system.

The physical system is translated into a logical description that focus on data and processes. It emphasize
data and processes in order to focus on actual activities that occur and the resources needed to perform
them, rather than on who performs the work.

Data flow diagrams are of two type :

Physical data flow diagram : It is an implementation dependent view of the current system, showing what
task are carried out and how they are carried out and how they performed. Its characteristics includes (name
of people, form and document names or numbers, names of dept, master & transaction file, equipment &
device used, locations, name of procedures etc.)

Logical data flow diagram : It is an implementation independent view of a system, focusing on the flow of
the data between processes without any concern of specific devices, storage location or people in the
system.

Drawing context diagram : The first steps in requirement analysis is to learn about the general
characteristics of the business process under investigation. The data flow diagram describes account payable
processing at a very general or top level.

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 Account Payable
balance
invoice
Account
vendor
Payable
check vendor data

This diagram shows that vendors submit invoice and receives checks from organization. This accounts
payable process requires accounts payable and vendor data. In the figure each arrow represent the data flow,
is labeled to show what data are being used. Balance data are retrieved from the accounts payable data store
and vendor address is retrieved from the vendor data store.

This diagram often called context diagram. It contains a single process, but it plays a very important role in
studying the current system. This diagram also defines the boundary. Some time it is also called the first
level data flow diagram.

The above diagram describes that, the vendor data are an input to the accounts payable process, balance is
capture from account pay and the check is returned to vendor. When data move from a data store or source
to a process, the arrow points towards the process to reflect the input. On the other hand, when the process
produces data that are sent to a data store, another process, or destination, the arrow points away from the
process, reflecting the output.

Developing the second level diagram :

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 Purchase order vendor account accounts payable

Purchase order detail account balance payable balance

Invoice Revised Write

V endor invoice approval balance
acc.
1.0 2.0 due check
3.0
acc.
check balance
payable invoice amount

V endor

The description of the accounts payable system in context diagram requires more detail. The Fig – II
represent 2nd level diagram. In this, three process are explained i.e. invoice approval, revise balance due
and write vendor check.

In invoice approval, the invoice using the purchase order store and all invoices are approved or rejected. The
approved invoices are stored in an invoice data store.

In revised balance due, the payable invoice (i.e. the out come of the invoice approval) is scrutinized with
vendors account, and vendors accounts will be updated and the balance will be stored and accounts due will
be return for the next process.

In write vendor check, the account due amount is checked using account payable and then check will be
prepared.

The check is sent to the vendor.

While drawing second level diagram the following point should keep in mind :

All data flow that appeared on the previous diagram explaining the processes are included in the lower level
diagram.
New data flows and data stores are added if they are used.
No entries should contradict the description of the higher level DFD.

General rules for drawing logical DFD

Any data flow leaving a process must be based on data that are input to the process.
All data flow are named, the name reflects the data flowing between processes, data stores, sources, or
sinks.

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 Consider only those data which are needed in process.

Data dictionary:-

When the volume of data is very large, it is very much difficult for analyst to manage the data definitions. If
the information system is very big, then more than one person are working on the same data, at that time,
any data defined by any person, can be used by the other person, hence they need the definition or
description of the data.

Data dictionaries are an integral component of structured analysis; it provides additional information about
the system.

A data dictionary is a catalog – a repository – of the elements in a system. As the name suggest, these
elements center around data and the way they are structured to meet user requirements and organization
needs. It contains a list of all the elements composing the data flowing through a system. The major
elements are data flows, data stores and processes. The data dictionary stores details and descriptions of
these elements. If data dictionary is developed properly, then any data related questions – answer can be
extracted from data dictionary.

It is developed during data flow analysis and assists the analysts. The stored details are used during system
design.

Importance of Data dictionary:

To manage the detail in large system: Large system have huge volumes of data flowing through them in
the form of documents, reports and even conversations. The analyst should remember all the definition for
letter use, the best organized and most effective analyst use automated data dictionary designed specifically
for systems analysis and design.

To communicate a common meaning for all system elements: Data dictionary assists in ensuring
common meanings for system elements and activities. It records additional details about the data flow in a
system so that all persons involved can quickly look up the description of data flows, data stores, or
processes.

To document the features of the system: It includes the parts or components and characteristics that
distinguish each. Sometimes we also need to know under what circumstances each process is performed and
how often the circumstance occurs. Once a feature have been articulated and recorded, all participants in the
project will have a common source for information about the system.

To facilitate analysis of the details in order to evaluate characteristics and determination when system
changes should be made : It is used to determine whether new features are needed in a system or whether
changes of any type are in order.

Locate errors and omissions : It is also used to locate errors in the system descriptions. Conflicting data
flow descriptions, processes that neither receive input nor generate output, data store that are never updated
etc. indicate incomplete or incorrect analysis. Automatic data dictionary system have feature that will detect
these difficulties to present in report.

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 What does a data dictionary record? The dictionary contains two types of descriptions for the data flowing
through the system (i.e. data elements, data structure)

The most fundamental data level is the data element. It consists of data name, data descriptions, aliases,
length, data values etc. Data elements are building blocks for all other data in the system.

Data structure is a set of data items that are related to one another and that collectively describe components
of the system.

In addition, the data dictionary also gives information about data element/data structure, process list, cross-
reference checking, and error detection.

Data dictionary are an essential aspect of data flow analysis and requirement determination. They should be
used in conjunction. They should be used in conjunction with logic and process definitions.

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

Definition of Software Engineering:

Software Engineering is the establishment and use of sound engineering principles in order to obtain
economically software that is reliable and works efficiently on real machine.
Software Engineering is the application of systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to
the development, operation and maintenance of software; that is the application of
engineering to software.

It consist the following phases.

(1) Control Flow design
(2) Data Structure Oriented design
(3) Data Flow Oriented design
(4) Object oriented design

(1) Control Flow:-

As the size and complexity of programs increased programmers found that it is not only difficult to
write cost-effective and correct programs but also to understand and maintain programs written by other
programmers. To overcome from these problem programmers have started the design of the programs
control structure.

(2) Data Structure:-

As computer became more powerful with the advent of integrated circuits, they were used to solve
more complex problems. The control flow-based program development techniques were not sufficient to
handle these problem and more effective program development techniques were needed
While developing a program it is more important to consider the design of the data structure of the
program than to the design of its control structure.
Design techniques based on this principle are called data structure oriented design techniques.
The program code structure should correspond to the data structure. The data structure oriented
design avoids any error related data.

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 (3) Data Flow Oriented design:-

As the requirement of more complex, integrated and sophisticated software arises the new concept of
data flow-oriented techniques were proposed.
In this concept the major data items handled by a system must be first identified and then the processing
required on these data items to be produce the required outputs should be determined.
The data flow techniques identify the different processing statements in system and the data that
flow between the different processing stations.
This is useful in creating data flow model of entire system, which covers all the processing and data flow in
any system i.e. in below figure represents the data flow representation of a car assembly unit where each
processing station consumes certain input items and produces certain output.
A major advantage of the data flow technology is its simplicity. Once the data flow model is
formalized the data flow-oriented design techniques transform the developed data flow model to system
design.

(4) Object oriented design:-

With the further advancements in the field of software design, the data flow oriented
technique or design is reached to a concept of object-oriented design.
An object oriented techniques is a design approach where the natural objects such as
employees, payroll, register etc. occurring in a problem are first identified and then the
relationship among the objects such as composition, reference and inheritance are
determined.
Each object essentially acts as data hiding or data abstraction entity. Object oriented designed
approach is targeting the convenience of users than developer.

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