Theriogenology Insight: 9(1): 27-34, April 2019
DOI: 10.30954/2277-3371.01.2019.6
Cystic Ovarian Disease in Dairy Cow
Souvik Dhara*and Mridula Sharma
Department of VGO, C.V.A.SC, GBPUA&T, Uttarakhand-263145, India
ABSTRACT
Cystic ovarian (OC) condition is an important ovarian dysfunction and a major cause of reproductive failure in
dairy cattle. Previously defined as enlarged anovulatory follicle like structures (<2.5 cm) and persisting for 10 or
more days OC in dairy cows are currently defined as cystic ovarian follicular structures of at least 17 mm that persist
for more than 6 days in the absence of corpus luteum (CL). Past evaluations of OC using trans-rectal palpations
have increased, and accurate diagnosis currently employs a combination of trans-rectal palpation, trans-rectal
ultrasonography and plasma progesterone assay. Previously the manual rupture of OC was advised, but during
the past several years single or combination hCG, GnRH, progesterone and prostaglandins have been frequently
practice. Other therapies include clomiphene citrate and trans-vaginal ultrasound guided cystic follicle aspiration.
Among the various therapies the Ov-Synch treatment appears to be the most logical approach, yet the pregnancy
rates with timed inseminations following therapy with the OvSynch treatment are low, as with other hormonal
treatments. It can be concluded that OC can be diagnosed easily yet in spite of many therapeutic options the
establishment of pregnancy in cows with OC requires a longer time.
Keywords: ovarian cyst, CL, follicles, GnRH, ovsynch, ultrasonography
Milk yield per dairy cow has increased Economic impact
considerably due to continuing genetic
There is a increase in calving interval of 22 to
selection and improvement of nutrition and
64 days. Increase the no of culling animals and
herd management. Simultaneously with this
lost of cost nearly 137 dollar per lactation.
selection for production characteristics, dairy
cow fertility has declined significantly. One of the
most common ovarian dysfunctions during the Definition
postpartum period is formation of cyst following
Cystic ovarian follicles develop when one or
ovulation failure. Ovarian Cyst (OC) is a common
more follicles fail to ovulate and subsequently
and economically significant condition of dairy
do not regress but maintain their growth and
cattle affecting fertility. McNutt first to use the
steroidogenesis. They are defined as follicle-
term “cystic” to persistent follicles >20 mm in
like structures, present on one or both ovaries,
diameter (McNutt, 1927). It has been estimated
with a diameter of at least 2.5 cm during a
that the incidence of ovarian cyst range from
minimum of ten days in the absence of luteal
– 5 to 10 % in most herds. In mature cow the
tissue (Kesler and Garverick, 1982; Youngquist,
incidence is almost 39%. In breeding age heifer
1986; Day 1991a; Woolums and Peter, 1994a).
it is nearly 3 to 6% and in calf heifer it is 11%.
Based on the current knowledge and recent
Beef cow have a relatively low incidence of COD
literature OC may be defined as follicles with
than dairy cattle.
a diameter of at least 2 cm that are present
Dhara and Sharma
on one or both ovaries in the absence of any metabolites such as non-esterified fatty acids
active luteal tissue. Macroscopically, cysts can (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) are
be subdivided into follicular and luteal cysts, increased. The IGFsystem plays an important
which are considered to be different forms role in follicle growth and development. Besides
of the same disorder (Opsomer et al. 1997). a direct effect, IGF-1 together with insulin
Determination of progesterone concentrations indirectly stimulates follicular development
in blood plasma, milk or milk fat can help to through upregulation of the LH-receptor on
make a distinction between the two types. granulosa cells. Therefore, low systemic IGF-
Follicular cysts secrete little or no progesterone 1 concentrations early postpartum could
while luteal cysts clearlydo (Garverick, 1997). contribute to anovulation and subsequent
Rectal USG can be differentiate to both of them. development of cystic. Also insulin itself is
Follicular cysts have a thin wall (≤3mm) and known to be a potent stimulator of follicle cell
the follicular fluid is an-echogenic, while luteal steroidogenesis and proliferation in vitro and
cysts have a thicker wall (>3mm), which is in vivo. As a result, reduced circulating insulin
visible as an echogenic rim. concentrations early postpartum may play
a role in cyst formation. Besides low insulin
concentrations, a general state of peripheral
Predisposing factor of COD
insulin resistance is present as well in high
COD are mainly observed in high yielding yielding dairy cows early postpartum. However,
dairy cows during the first months postpartum rather insulin insuffiency not insulin resistance
and milk yield is generally considered a risk has been observed in COD cows. Conclusively,
factor. Moreover, besides the fact that COD IGF-1 and insulin are important stimulators of
are hereditary (see above), a genetic correlation follicle growth, low concentrations of one or both
between cysts and milk production traits was of the hormones may contribute to the formation
established. However, the fact that cows do not of COD. Leptin is a recently “new” hormone,
develop a cyst during every lactation and during produced by adipocytes, and is regarded as
every ovarian cycle indicates that the gene(s) the ultimate factor linking metabolic status to
expression may be promoted by, or gains reproduction. Above a certain threshold level,
functional importance under, certain stressors, leptin acts as a trigger to initiate hypothalamo-
for example high milk yield and the associated pituitary gonadotropin secretion. Besides effects
negative energy balance (NEB) during the on the central nervous system, this hormone
early postpartum period. At this time, energy also seems capable of modulating ovarian
demands to sustain milk yield are higher than function by acting directly on follicular cells.
energy intake thus causing a NEB. This NEB is Both bovine granulosa and theca cells possess
accompanied by several hormonal and metabolic leptin receptors. However, both basal, IGF-
adaptations, affecting ovarian function. Energy 1 and LH-stimulated steroidogenesis and cell
balance may be a more accurate parameter than proliferation as well as insulin-stimulated cell
milk yield to further elucidate the association growth are unaffected by leptin. This indicates
between COD and production. The possible that in a low leptin environment (i.e. poor body
underlying mechanim(s) is (are) also still condition and poor nutrition), ovarian function
unclear, but NEB may affect COD formation at is mainly regulated by gonadotropins and low
both the level of the hypothalamus/pituitary insulin/IGF-1 concentrations. In a moderate to
and the ovary/follicle through associated high leptin environment, as in obesity, leptin
hormonal and metabolic changes (Diskin et will limit ovarian steroidogenesis, stimulated
al. 2003; Lucy, 2003) During NEB, circulating by the high insulin/IGF-1 concentrations, to
concentrations of IGF-1, insulin, glucose and prevent overproduction. Therefore, leptin may
leptin are reduced, while concentrations of play a role incyst development. Cows developing
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Cystic Ovarian Disease in Dairy Cow
cysts have higher serum NEFA concentrations render the hypothalamus unresponsive to the
during the first week(s) post partum than feedback effect of oestradiol which results in
ovulatory cows. Moreover, NEFA are cytotoxic the formation of ovarian cysts. Progesterone
for several cell types, including human at suprabasal concentrations blocks the
granulosa cells. So (prolonged) exposure to high LH-surge, thereby inhibiting ovulation, but
NEFA concentrations during periods of NEB increases the LH pulse frequency. This results
may hamper follicle growth and development, in an anovulatory, persistent follicle with a
disrupting the complex endocrine system and larger diameter and a longer lifespan than
promoting the formation of ovarian cysts. Besides normal, and increased peripheral estradiol
NEFA, increased serum ketone concentrations concentrations. Factors indirectly reducing
also affect ovarian function indicating that these GnRH/LH secretion like stress, intrauterine
metabolites may be mediators of the negative infections and seasonality are also considered
effect of NEB on follicular development. High to increase the risk of cyst formation. In
ketone concentrations increase the risk of cyst cystic cows, the formation of new cysts is
occurrence and consequently are likely to be accompanied by increased LH pulse frequencies
involved in the formation of COD. Either fails and amplitudes. However hypersecretion of LH
to elicit a GnRH and subsequent LH-surge or does not seem to be involved in cyst formation,
the GnRH/LH-surge is delayed. The dominant but it may play a role in cyst persistence. In
follicle, therefore, does not ovulate but, due to conclusion, an aberrant LH-surge is likely the
the ungoing LH pulsatility, continues to grow trigger for the development of ovarian cyst.
and becomes a cyst.
Ovarian/Follicular dysfunction
Pathogenesis of COD
A primary dysfunction at the level of the follicle
Ovarian dysfunctions like cysts occur most may disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitaryovarian
often during the early postpartum period. It is axis and cause the formation of COD. First of
generally accepted that cystic follicles develop all, alterations in LH receptor expression and
due to a dysfunction of the hypothalamic- content may cause anovulation of the follicle. No
pituitary-ovarian axis. This dysfunction has significant differences in FSH/LH receptormRNA
a multifactorial etiology, in which genetic, were observed between these young cysts and
phenotypic and environmental factors are dominant follicles, indicating that the increased
involved. LH mRNA expression in estrogen-active cysts
is a consequence rather than a cause of the
cystic state. Another receptor of interest is
Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction
the estradiol receptor β (ER-β). Alterations in
The most widely accepted cause explaining expression of the ER-βmight disrupt the local
the formation of a cyst is that LH release from intra-ovarian paracrine/autocrine system,
the hypothalamus-pituitary is altered: the pre- leading to an altered follicular development and
ovulatory LH-surge is either absent, insufficient steroidogenesis and finally formation of COD.
in magnitude or occurs at the wrong time during Alterations of the endocrine system precede,
dominant follicle maturation, which leads to and perhaps cause, the observed follicular
cyst formation. An altered feedback mechanism alterations in cysts. Recently, Imai et al. (2003)
of estrogens on the hypothalamus-pituitary can suggested that matrixmetalloproteinases
result in an altered GnRH and LH release and (MMPs) could be involved in the formation
cyst formation. A GnRH/LH surge prematurely of cysts: higher proMMP-2 and -9 levels were
occurring during follicle growth, i.e. when no present in the follicular fluid of cysts than in
follicle capable of ovulation is present, can the follicular fluid of normal dominant follicles.
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Dhara and Sharma
MMPs play a role in follicle wall remodelling and size but mainly on the basis of uterine tonicity.
rupture at the time of ovulation but hereto the During transrectal palpation, ovarian cysts are
inactive proMMP form needs to transformed to identified as multiple follicles that are typically
the active MMP form. This activation is triggered larger than normal ovulatory follicles with an
by the LH-surge (Robker et al. 2000). Since, an increased overall ovarian diameter along with a
aberrant LH-surge causes COD formation, the flaccid uterus in the absence of a corpus luteum
higher proMMP-2 and -9 levels in the follicular while cows in proestrus have an erect, turgid
fluid of COF are most likely an indication of the uterus. Although transrectal palpation has long
lack of an LH-surge rather than a cause of COD been the diagnostic approach, follicular cysts
formation. cannot be differentiated from luteal cysts only by
palpation. The accuracy of diagnosing ovarian
cysts and differentiating follicular and luteal
Diagnosis
cysts can be increased by combining transrectal
Diagnostic approaches for OC in cows palpation of the genital tract to determine that
include history and clinical signs, transrectal a corpus luteum is absent and the uterus lacks
palpation, ultrasonography and plasma or milk tone; ultrasonography to confirm that a corpus
progesterone assay. The presence of cystic luteum is absent, to determine the size of follicles
follicles on the ovaries was mainly associated that are present, and to check for luteinization;
with nymphomania and a bull-like appearance and measurement of plasma progesterone
in cows. Some of the physical signs associated concentration to determine the degree of
with OC which include: loss of tone throughout luteinization. The accuracy of diagnosis can
the female genital tract, relaxation or stretching be increased by obtaining information about
of the sacrosciatic and sacroiliac ligaments the reproductive history of the animal, vaginal
giving the raised tail head (sterility hump) examination and progesterone determination. A
appearance, behavioral changes (buller cow) luteal cyst as being characterized by enlarged
which are characteristic of nymphomania (i.e., ovaries with one or more cysts with thicker walls
excessive mounting, standing, and bawling than those of follicular cysts because of a lining
with noticeably deeper tone) and erratic milk of luteal tissue. Ultrasonography is effective in
production. Anoestrus is most common, detecting follicular and luteal cysts with high
especially during the postpartum period. accuracy. Two approaches can be considered
Irregular estrus intervals and development of in the diagnosis of OC. First, detection of
masculine physical traits are other signs which multiple follicles approximately 18 to 20 mm
may be present especially later during lactation. in diameter and second, ovarian follicular
It has also been determined that follicular waves during a period of 7 to 10 days in the
cysts are anovulatory structures so, as long as absence of ovulation, absence of corpora lutea,
they persist, cows will remain infertile. When and a lack of uterine tonicity. Luteal cysts are
follicular cysts persist for prolonged periods in associated with relatively high concentrations
dairy cows, endometrial glands hypertrophy of progesterone in the peripheral circulation
and pathologies in the uterus called mucometra while follicular cysts are associated with
with normal estrous cycle lengths. When relatively low concentrations of progesterone. A
compared to follicular cysts, luteinized cysts are plasma P4 concentration greater than 1 ng/ml
more likely to persist over long periods of time as the minimum P4 concentration for a cyst to
and can lead to nymphomania in some animals. be considered luteal. Thus accurate diagnosis
The most likely time of diagnosis is 30-60 day of the type of OC requires a combination of
after parturition in high-yielding dairy cows. diagnostic approaches such as transrectal
Ovarian cysts and normal preovulatory follicles palpation, transrectal ultrasonography and
are differentiated on the basis of number and plasma progesterone profiles.
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Cystic Ovarian Disease in Dairy Cow
TREATMENT PROTOCOLS Progesterone and progesterone implants
Treatment with progesterone may disrupt the
Spontaneous recovery endocrine environment needed to maintain
The spontaneous recovery percentage of ovarian follicular cysts and thus lead to their
early cysts is 60-65%. Steinbauer (1985) regression. Acute treatment as well as chronic
recommended treatment only after day 50 treatment (9-14 days) with progesterone caused
post partum, because of possible spontaneous a rapid reduction in the size of persistent follicles
regression of the cyst. and restored cyclic ovarian activity. Treatment
with CIDR proved effective in restoring ovulation
Manual rupture and reestablishing normal cyclicity in cows with
cysts persistent for a long period. Progesterone
In the past, manual rupture of OC had been and Estradiol Benzoate treatment administered
suggested (Roberts, 1971) however, recently it using a PRID have a high rate of therapeutic
did not recommend manual rupture of cysts effectiveness in cows with OC.
because it may result in trauma and hemorrhage
causing adhesions and contributing to fertility
GnRH+ PGF2α combination
reduction.
Comparatively, ovarian cysts are less responsive
to treatment with GnRH alone. GnRH plus
GnRHalone Cloprostenol (CLP) 14 days later is effective
The distinction between follicular cyst and in resolving cysts with significantly higher
luteal cyst is not important in practice, because percentages of ovulation rates, returns to estrus,
the response of both types of cysts to GnRH and pregnancy rates, and a much lower level
treatment is similar and usually results in of cystic persistence. However, currently GnRH
luteinization of the cysts followed by estrous followed by PG 7-10 days later is a routinely
within 4 weeks of treatment. used therapy for OC.
Ovsynch protocol
hCG
Some recent protocols for synchronization of
Since the 1970s hCG and GnRH analogues
ovulation, commonly referred as Ovsynch,
have been used to treat ovarian cysts, and both
followed twice artificial insemination (AI)
appear to be equally effective with regards to
performed 16- 20 h after the 2nd GnRH injection,
treatment response and fertility but the next
yields pregnancy rates of about 25% in cows
estrus would occur 5-21 days after treatment.
suffering from OC.
PGF2α Clomiphene citrate
Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) has been used for It is an antiestrogen and may exert direct action
the treatment of luteinized cyst because of its on the pituitary gland to augment estrogen-
luteolytic activity, and estrous symptoms can induced LH release so a dose of 300 mg of
be observed within 2 or 3 days of treatment. clomiphene citrate administered to cows after a
It is the most effective treatment for luteinized 1% copper sulphate drench has been suggested
cysts. 75% of the cows were in estrus within for the treatment of OCs.
7 days after treatment and pregnancy rates at
first estrus were 66%. Recommended luteolytic Needle aspiration
doses of PGF2α as the ideal treatment for luteal
cyst, with estrus being evident within 3-5 days. Single transvaginal-guided needle aspiration
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Dhara and Sharma
of ovarian follicular cysts is an easy and good Amer, H. and Badr, A. 2007. Hormonal profiles
method for the treatment of follicular cysts. associated with treatment of cystic ovarian disease
Moreover, it is a safe and good alternative with GnRH and PGF2α with and without CIDR in
dairy cows. Int. J. Vet. Med., 2: 51-56.
method against the manual, active rupturing of
cysts during trans-rectal palpation but there is Anderson, L. and Day, M. 1994. Acute progesterone
a tendency of the cyst to reform. administration regresses persistent dominant
follicles and improves fertility of cattle in which
estrus was synchronized with melengestrol
Homeopathic drugs acetate. J. Anim. Sci., 72: 2955-2961.
Amer, H. and Badr, A. 2007. Hormonal profiles
Homeopathic remedies like homeopathic Apis associated with treatment of cystic ovarian disease
(for the right side OC) or homeopathic Lachesis with GnRH and PGF2α with and without CIDR in
(for theleft side OC) twice daily for 5 days, dairy cows. Int. J. Vet. Med., 2: 51-56.
with either one being immediately followed by Anderson, L. and Day, M. 1994. Acute progesterone
homeopathic Natrummur; twice daily for three administration regresses persistent dominant
days are effective treatments for OC (Karreman, follicles and improves fertility of cattle in which
2007). Apismellifica is a common homeopathic estrus was synchronized with melengestrol
medicine made from the female honeybee, while acetate. J. Anim. Sci., 72: 2955-2961.
Lachesis is prepared from the fresh venom Annalisa, R., Debora, C., Maddalena, M., Giuseppe,
of the South American bushmaster snake M., Massimo, S. and Luigi, S.R. 2011. Epidural vs
and Natrummur is made simply from sodium intramuscular administration of lecirelin, a GnRH
chloride, or table salt. analogue, for the resolution of follicular cysts in
dairy cows. Anim. Reprod. Sci., 126: 19-22.
Arbeiter, K., Aslan, S. and Schwarzenberger, F. 1990.
CONCLUSION Untersuchungenüber die Ovarzystebeim Rind
On the basis of above review it can be concluded oeEntstehung, Therapieerfolge, Fruchtbarkeit.
Dtsch. Tierärtl. Wschr., 97: 380-382.
that ovarian cyst is a major ovarian dysfunction
and an important cause of infertility of the farm Ax, R.L., Bellin, M.E., Scheinder, D.K. and Haase
Hardie, J.A. 1986. Reproductive performance
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about this important problem. Youngquist, R.S. 1986. Cystic follicular degeneration
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