Chapter 1

Introduction to Food Science

Allah Rakha, Masood Sadiq Butt and Muhammad Asif Khan*

Abstract
This chapter is a prelude to the book and provides an overview to the readers about
food, its constituents (carbohydrates, protein, lipids, vitamins and minerals), and a
brief classification based on their functions as a core component. The chapter
provides a breif information about food and their behavior towards processing
technology with an overview of food composition, sources and significance of food
to the human health to highlight perspective of fundamentals of food science and
technology.
Keywords: Food, Nutrients, Food Science, Food Technology, Processing, Spoilage

1.1. Food
Food may be defined as “anything eaten or drunk that meets the need for energy,
body building, regulation and protection of the body” (Somati et al. 2007) to
sustain life. Food includes any solid or liquid which on swallowing can supply one
or more of the following:
• Materials from which body can produce movement, heat, or other forms of
energy
• Materials for growth, repair, regeneration and reproduction
• Substances necessary to regulate processes of growth & maintenance.
Thus, food may be considered as a fuel that supplies energy to the body to support
our daily activities and synthesize necessary materials within the body revealing

*
Allah Rakha, Masood Sadiq Butt and Muhammad Asif Khan˧
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
˧
Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Tahir Zahoor and Masood Sadiq Butt
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
20 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

direct effect on human body and its functionality. Consequently, food composition /
constituents are considered as the major determinant of human health and
wellbeing. Food has been classified into numerous groups based on consumption
pattern. The one such classification categorizes them into basic four (cereals,
millets, pulses; milk, milk products and animal foods; vegetables and fruits; oils,
fats, nuts and oilsseeds) basic five (fats and sugars; cereals, grains and products;
fruits and vegetables; pulses and legumes; milk and meat products) and basic seven
(butter or fortified margarine; green and yellow vegetables; bread flour and cereals;
meat, poultary, fish and eggs) as detaild in Fig. 1.1, Fig. 1.2 and Fig. 1.3,
respectively (Srilakshmi 2003).

Fig. 1.1 Basic four food groups

Source: Srilakshmi (2003)
1. Introduction to Food Science 21

Fig. 1.2 Basic five food groups

Source: Srilakshmi (2003)

Fig. 1.3 Basic seven food groups

Source: Srilakshmi (2003)
22 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

1.2. Food Science

Food Science is defined as “the study of the basic chemical, physical, biochemical
and biophysical properties of foods and their constituents, and of changes during
handling, preservation, processing, storage, distribution and preparation for
consumption” (Bender 2006). Food Science is thus an applied science in which
different disciplines are merged and it takes an absorbed concept from different
fields of study such as biochemistry, physics, microbiology, biotechnology and
nutrition based on fundamental principles.
In ancient times when Food Science was not adequately developed, people had a
little knowledge about the food nature and its functionality. Likewise, slight
information was available about the impact of food on human body, concept of
balanced diet, role of specific nutrients in health and diseases, food processing and
preservation, fortification, enrichment, quality, safety and microbiology. However,
with the advancement of research in the field of food science, innovation came in
technology and focus moved towards automation of food plants and processing
lines thereby making it easy to control and standardize processing parameters such
as temperature, humidity, water contents, evenness of size etc. This resulted in
improved efficiency of processing lines and thereby better quality end product.
Furthermore, extraction and fortification techniques were also devloped to alter
food value to cater the needs of vulnerable groups. Simultaneously, various types of
packaging material i.e. rigid and flexible were developed to facilitate food
handling, storage and transportation. Novel non-thermal food processing techniques
had brought revolution in the pace of innovation and development of Food Science
and Technology. Thus, modern consumers became aware about food composition,
quality, safety, wholesomeness and relationship of food to health and disease.

1.3. Food Technology

Food Technology is defined as “the use of information generated by food science,
in the selection, transportation, processing, preservation, packaging, marketing and
distribution of food, its affect on safe, nutritious and wholesome food
consumption”. Alternatively, Food Technology is “the application of science and
technology to the treatment, processing, preservation and till distribution of foods”
(Bender 2006). In practice, food technology deals with the production processes of
various foodstuffs based on of food science at large scale production and
preservation along with development and analysis of food items at industrial scale
that has been pivotal in the reduction of postharvest losses and at the same time
value addition of raw food materials.
1. Introduction to Food Science 23

1.4. Food Scientist and Technologist

Food Scientist is responsible for the implementation of fundamental principles of
foods for processing through the technology base knowledge and is supposed to:
have deep knowledge and understanding of food, its constituents and nature,
functionality and nutritional value, processing and preservation, fortification and
analysis; development of palatable, wholesome and cheap food products; engaged
to produce allergens free foods, novel and functional foods; focus on fortification
technique to improve the nutritional value of the product; emphasize on enrichment
techniques where nutrients are lost during processing. Food scientists are supposed
to ensure safety and quality of foods and to promote international trade by
harmonizing standards between the countries.

1.5. Food Constituents

Food constituents are basically biochemicals which combine to make a specific
food and are mainly derived from plants and animals present in different
proportion, arrangements in food systems and impart their characteristic taste,
texture, structure, color, flavor, energy and nutritional value. Two foods may have
similar proportion of one or more constituents, yet they completely differ in
physico-chemical and organoleptic properties. The basic concept of food
constituents is necessary for better understanding of nature and composition of
food.

1.6. Nutrients and Non-nutrients

“Components of food that are needed by the body in adequate amounts in order to
grow, reproduce and lead a normal healthy life include water, protein, fats,
carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins” (Somati et al. 2007). Food supplies about
forty essential nutrients which are the building blocks of thousands of substances
necessary for growth and body functions. Major nutrients along with food sources
are summarized in Table 1.1.
Certain food components are classified as non-nutrients based on technical
definition i.e., “organic constituents of food having no nutritional function. They
may be toxins or beneficial substances like fibre or compounds that may improve
palatability or carry pharmacological importance”. Colors, acids, phytates, tannins,
phenolics etc. are other example of such food constituents. Energy production due
to alcohol, after its metabolism, is non-nutrient mechanism because it has adverse
effects on the body and is antagonistic to the definition of nutrients. Alcohol
deteriorates the body development and growth, body’s self-repairing ability and
organ’s functionality although it is a dense source of energy (7Kcal/g) which is
almost 1.75 time
24 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

1.6.1. Functions of the Nutrients

Food is a combination of diverse constituents that perform various functions in the
body as per nature of the constituents. Nutrients in foods are classified into four
main categories based on their functions i.e. energy yielding, body building,
regulating body processes and maintaining health. One or more food constituents
are usually involved in each of the functions as energy generation, body growth and
building, body regulatory processes and the ultimate target of health maintenance.
The salient discussion on all the functions is briefly described in the following
lines.
1.6.1.1. Provision of energy
Food is the main source of energy production for the human and animal body that
is generated through the process of regulatory metabolism. The body uses this
energy to carry out activities in brain, and other organs/tissues. Foods with higher
amounts of macronutrients (fats, carbohydrates, proteins and alcohol) are
considered as the important and main sources of energy in the diet and is measured
in terms of calories or kilo calorie (Kcal) i.e. amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kilogram of water through 1°C. One gram of carbohydrates,
proteins fats and alcohol give 3.75, 4 and 9 Kcalories, respectively. Energy yielding
foods include cereals, pulses, nuts, oilseeds, roots, tubers, meat, fish, pure
carbohydrates (sugars and starch) and fats or oils. Inspite of being a good source of
energy, most of the foods also provide micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
Cereals and pulses having considerable amounts of protein are also important
source of vitamins and minerals. Fats of such foods are rich sources of fat soluble
vitamins, whereas pure carbohydrates only provide energy. Generally stating, food
rich in fat and oils are energy dense while those rich in dietary fibre provide least
amount of energy although exhibit dietary benefits. Vegetables, fruits and cereal
bran are rich in dietary fibre.
1.6.1.2. Growth and body building
Protein is the building block of body tissues such as teeth, skin, bone and muscles.
Thus, foods rich in protein are considered important in body building. Proteins
indeed are important for building more than 80% of the dry weight of the muscles,
whereas their deficiency in diet may lead to stunted growth. In young children and
adolescents, protein rich diet attains an important factor for building of muscles and
other body organs resulting in linear growth. Proteins are made up of 20 amino
acids. Each protein has specific sequence of amino acids that determines their
specific function, like collagen protein with strong and flexible helical structure
specifically provides support to body structure. Protein rich foods are classified as:
Milk, egg, meat and fish are rich in proteins of high biological value including all
the essential amino acids in a balanced proportion for the synthesis of body tissues.
Besides: Pulses, oilseeds and nuts are rich in protein but may not contain all the
essential amino acids required by the human body.
AApart from proteins, minerals are also involved in body building, the example of
calcium is a vital and major constituent of bones along with phosphorous whereas,
fluorine is integral component of teeth enamel. Foods rich in minerals such as
1. Introduction to Food Science 25

calcium and iron include milk and dairy products, egg, meat, fish and green leafy
vegetables etc.
Lipids are the constituent of cells and play an important role in body building. Fat
provides insulation to the body and protect vital body organs from damages.
Likewise, fatty acids not only form the working base of the brain but also make up
myelin coating of the neurons. Thus, intake of fat is correlated with lower rate of
depression.
1.6.1.3. Regulation of body processes
Food constitutents play an important role in providing protection and maintaining
the body’s regulatory system. Homeostasis is the ability of an organism or system
to maintain its parameters in normal range of values. Control of body temperature,
pH, blood pressure and glucose concentration are the key examples of body
functions performed by vitamin and minerals.
1.6.1.4. Maintenance of health
Certain foods are thought to provide health benefits beyond the basic nutrition in
reduceing risk of certain health conditions and diseases and are reffered as
functional / nuetraceutical foods. Green leafy vegetables, coloured fruits, soybean,
whole grains and spices are few examples of performing such functions as natural
antioxidants and antimicrobials through phyto-chemicals, a vital component
naturally present in plants. Food having phyto-chemicals may reduce the risk of age
related chronic cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, certain types of cancers and high
blood pressure. They also act as synergistic agents by allowing efficient absorption
of the nutrients. Antioxidants are the chemicals that stops the activity of free
radicals; which otherwise may damage the cells leading to cancer.

1.6.2. Classification of nutrients

Nutrients are basically classified into 6 main classes as carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins, minerals and water. Which are further divided into 4 sub-groups
that include: a) macro and micro nutrients b) essential and non-essential nutrients,
c) energy generating and non-energy generating and d) organic and inorganic
nutrients with a brief description as stated below:
1.6.2.1. Macro and micro nutrients
In this classification, nutrients are divided on the basis of their quantity or amount
required by the body as macronutrients, in large quantities on daily basis in grams.
Macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and water. Mainly,
macronutrients are the structural material (protein, fats and water) and energy (fats,
carbohydrates and protein) for the growth as well as repair of the body.
Micronutrients, on the other hand, are required in smaller quantities by the body on
daily basis in milligrams or micrograms. Though these nutrients are required in less
amounts, their significance can’t be denied. Deficiency of these nutrients may
cause severe adverse effects on human body. Vitamins and minerals are categorized
under micronutrients.
26 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

1.6.2.2. Essential and non-essential nutrients

Nutrients, based on necessity of dietary intake, are classified into essential nutrients
that cannot be synthesized by body in adequate amount and essentially to meet their
requirement through diet. The essential nutrients are associated with a vital body
functions, vitamins, minerals, some of the amino acids that include (proline,
threonine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, histidine, arginine and methionine)
and fatty acids (linoleic acid, alpha linolenic acid).
Conversely, non-essential nutrients are synthesized in satisfactory amount from
essesntial nutrients or other moieties present in body that include some of the
amino acids (alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cystein, cystine, glutamic
acid, glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine etc.), fatty acids (monounsaturated fatty
acids) and cholesterol etc. The significance of non-essential nutrients for the proper
functioning of our body can’t be negated and the dietary deficiencies are non-
existant.
1.6.2.3. Energy yielding and non- energy yielding
Energy generating mechanism through some of the nutrients in the body plays an
important role in growth and development of body. Carbohydrates, proteins and
fats are the main food constitutents for energy yielding is greater than
carbohydrates and protein. On the other hand, vitamins, mineral and water are
termed as non-energy generating nutrients mainly involved in body regulatory
processes and take part in the body building.
1.6.2.4. Organic and inorganic nutrients
Classification of nutrients is based on presence or absence of carbon in their
chemical structure. Nutrients having carbon atom in their structures is reffered as
organic nutrients, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and vitamins are the examples.
Apart from vitamins, the organic nutrients provide energy and hence serve as fuel
for body functioning. Inorganic nutrients do not contain carbon atom in their
structures, water and minerals are classified under this category.

1.7. Macronutrients
1.7.1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
(Cn(H2O)n ) also known as hydrates of carbon. They are the major contributer of
energy intake in our daily diet. The caloric contribution of carbohydrates varies
from 40-80% depending upon socio-economic conditions of different contries.
Carbohydrates constitute a major part of foods such as rice, bread, noodles and
other grain based food products. Some important carbohydrates in our foods are
sugars, dextrins, starches, cellulose, hemicellulose, gums and pectin and also
considered as the major source of fiber in our diet. Carbohydrats are used as
sweetner, thickner, stablizers and fat replacers in various food formulations.
Scientific studies show that carbohydrates are 1% of the human body composition
(Cui 2005). Carbohydrates can be classified into 3 main groups on the basis of their
1. Introduction to Food Science 27

degree of polymerization as Simple carbohydrates / Sugars i.e. mono- and

disaccharides; Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides briefly detailed as:
1.7.1.1. Simple carbohydrates/sugars
Simple carbohydrates are made up of one or two sugar molecules and are
consequently named as monosaccharide and disaccharides, respectively. Both
mono- and disaccharides are also termed as sugars that are rapidly digestible and
are quicker source of energy. They are rich in calories and carry less nutritive value
as their excessive intake is considered harmful for human health under certain
conditions. The word monosaccharide is basically derived from mono, meaning
"one", and saccharide, meaning "sugar". They are building blocks of carbohydrates
also named as simple sugars which are sweet in taste containing 3 to 8 carbon
atoms but only six carbon monosaccharides are common. They have a general
formula CnH2nOn. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are the common examples of
monosaccarides. The sweetness level of monosaccharide varies for glucose 0.74,
fructose 1.6-1.9 and for galactose 0.35 when compared to sucrose taken as
reference with sweetness level of 1.0. The chemical structure of fructose, glucose
and galactose is shown below:

Disaccharides indicate “two sugars” or two monosaccrides are combined to make

one molecule of disaccharides through linkage called glycosidic bond. Sucrose,
maltose and lactose are common disaccharides and carry sweetness of 1.0, 0.32 and
0.16 respectively. Below is the example of sucrose formation (table sugar) in which
one glucose and one fructose unit combine to form one molecule of sucrose
through condensation process with the release of one water molecule (Izydorczyk
2005).
28 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

1.7.1.2. Oligosaccharides
The word “oligosaccharide” is derived from greek words, oligos means a few and
sacchar means sugar. Oligosaccharides are the carbohydrates with few (3-10) sugar
units in its composition with common examples as raffinose (trisaccharide
containing galactose, glucose, and fructose) and stachyose (tetrasaccharide
containing glucose, fructose, and two galactose units). They are mildly sweet in
taste and have been used in food industry as fat replacers, bulking agents and to
improve texture of certain foods.
Recently, oligosaccharides have gained more attention due to their health benefits
for being bacterial food in the lower gut system. They are mostly non-digestible by
human digestive system and almost 90% escapes digestion in the small intestine
and reaches the colon where they serve themselves to intestinal bacteria as a
probiotics. Depending on the type of oligosaccharide, different bacterial groups are
stimulated or suppressed. Clinical studies have shown that oligosaccharides favor
the growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon and suppress the harmful bacteria.
1.7.1.3. Polysaccharides
When multiple monosaccharides (≥10) combine through glycosidic linkage, the
resultant compounds are termed as polysaccharides. Starch is one such
polysaccharide consisting of large number of glucose units joined together by
glycosidic linkage. Pure starch is white, tasteless powder and insoluble in cold
water. It is produced by all green plants during photosynthesis and serves as energy
reserve for plants which store energy in the form of starch. Whenever needed,
starch is broken down into simple sugar (glucose) by specific enzymes. The cereal
grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) potato tubers are rich in starch.
Chemically, starch consists of two types of molecules, amylose and amylopectin.
Both are long chains of glucose molecules joined by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
However, amylose is a linear chain, whereas amylopectin contains branches. The
branches make amylopectin less soluble in water than amylose. Based on the plant,
starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight.
Usually, the two types of starch occur together, but starches may contain only
amylose or only amylopectin.
Other polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicelluoses, pectin, gums and
mucilages are non-digestible by the endogenous secretions of human
gastrointestinal tract. Owing to their non-digestibility and potential health benefits,
these polysaccharides are classified into dietary fibre (Izydorczyk 2005).
“Dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants or analogous carbohydrates that are
resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or
partial fermentation in the large intestine. Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides,
oligosaccharides, lignin, and associated plant substances. Dietary fibers promote
beneficial physiological effects including laxation, and/or blood cholesterol
attenuation, and/or blood glucose attenuation” (AACC 2001). Dietary fiber Dietary
fibre denotes carbohydrate polymers (1) with 10 or more monomeric units (2),
which are not hydrolysed by the endogenous enzymes in the small intestine of
humans and belong to the following categories:
1. Introduction to Food Science 29

• Edible carbohydrate polymers naturally occurring in the food consumed.

• Carbohydrate polymers, which have been obtained from food raw material
by physical, enzymatic or chemical means and which have been shown to
have a physiological benefit to health, as demonstrated by generally
accepted scientific evidence to competent authorities.
• Synthetic carbohydrate polymers that have been shown to have a
physiological benefit to health, as demonstrated by generally accepted
scientific evidence to competent authorities.
Notes:
1) Includes also lignin and other compounds if quantified by AOAC 991.43.
2) Decision on whether to include carbohydrates with a degree of
polymerization from DP 3
The non-digestibilty of dietary fibre is because enzymes responsible for its
breakdown are not present in human gastrointestinal tract. However, majority of
dietary fibre is fermented by the colonic microflora and exert positive health
benefits. Some of the non-digestible carbohydrates selectively stimulate limited
number of bacteria in the colon and promote human health. These are termed as
prebiotics.
i) Sources of carbohydrats
The sugars are widely distributed in different natural and processed foods. Major
dietary sources of sugars include table sugar, brown sugar, honey, soft drinks, fruit
drinks, jams, jellies, candies, fruits etc. Cereals grains, legumes, fruits and starchy
vegetables are the main source of complex carbohydrates in our diet and are
economically accessible by most world’s population. Dietary fibre is abundantly
available in fruits, vegetables, ispaghol husk, legumes, oatmeal etc.
ii) Functions of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates perform the function of providing rich source of reseve energy in the
body, physiological function to the body, provide sweetness to food and reduce the
risk of constipation, cancer, obesity, heart attack, diabetes as as dietary fibre etc.

1.7.2. Proteins
Proteins are large, complex macromolecules consisting primarily of nitrogen,
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, some proteins may also contain sulphur
and phosphorus in their structure. All proteins are made up hundreds to thousands
of smaller units called amino acids. Naturally, there are 20 different types of amino
acids which are needed to form variety of proteins in human body. They are
attached in a sequence to form a specific protein as mentioned earlier. The type and
proportion of amino acid is the major determinant of protein properties. An amino
acid is composed of an amine group (NH2), an acidic carboxylic group (COOH)
and a basic R group (Fig. 1.4). The properties of amino acid are mainly governed
by the nature of R group.
30 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

Fig.1.4 Generic representation of amino acid

About 500 amino acids variants are known and classified based on nuclear
structure; alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) and delta (δ), polarity; pH basis and type
of side chain group; aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, hydroxyl or sulfur, etc. In the form
of proteins, amino acids rank second largest component after water of the human
muscle cells and other tissues. Outside proteins, amino acids play a critical role in
processes such as transport and biosynthesis of neurotransmitters. Nutritionally,
amino acids have been classified previously as essential and non-essential amino
acids (Vaclavik and Christian, 2008).
The amino group of one amino acid is attached with the carboxyl group of other
through peptide bond releasing one molecule of water. The dietary intake of protein
varies in children / adolescents and adults more in case of former and less amount
of proteins in the later per unit weight for growth. Proteins are one of the essentials
for life constituting the major portion of muscles and tissues therefore considered as
the basic part of extracellular and intracellular structures such as cartilage, nails,
muscles, hairs, antibodies, hormones, body fluids, and enzymes.
1.7.2.1. Sources of protein
Proteins for human diet originate from two major sources i.e. animal protein and
plant proteins. Usually, animal proteins are called complete proteins as they contain
all essential amino acids in relatively balanced proportions. Meat, egg, fish and
milk are some of the major dietary sources of animal protein. Contrarily, plant
proteins are considered incomplete proteins because of deficiency in some of the
essential amino acids. To fulfill the protein needs of body, animal proteins must
also be taken alongwith plant based proteins. Legumes, cereals and nuts are the
main sources of plant proteins.
1.7.2.2. Functions of Protein
Proteins play an important role in the development and maintenance of body tissues
and muscles: It provides energy when primary carbohydrate based fuel is depleted,
help in transportation and storage of molecules. Various hormone, enzymes and
antibodies are also proteineous in nature.

1.7.3. Lipids
“Lipids are heterogeneous group of substances, associated with living systems
which have the common property of insolubility in water but solubility in nonpolar
solvents such as hydrocarbons or alcohols” (Vieira 2013).
Fats and oils are the main members of lipids group while other constituents are
waxes, phospholipids, sterols, and sphingolipids. Fat and oils are the raw materials
for liquid oils, shortenings and margarines. These are also responsible for taste,
1. Introduction to Food Science 31

aroma and texture of the food, provide nourishment and feeling of satiety.
Characteristically, the primary difference between fats and oils is due to their
physical state i.e. fats are solid at room temperature and consist of saturated fatty
acids, while oils are liquid at room temperature and consist of unsaturated fatty
acids (Table 1.2).
Chemically, fats and oils are the esters of fatty acid with glycerol. During the
esterification, an alcoholic group of glycerol reacts with the carboxylic group of
fatty acid that results in the formation of ester linkage with generation of a water
molecule.
R-OH + R1-COOH −−→ R-OOCR1
Alcohol acid Ester
Since, glycerol is trihydric alcohol, thus it can form up to three ester linkages with
fatty acids. When one fatty acid combines with a glycerol molecule, the resultant
compound is monoglyceride and if two fatty acids combine with one glycerol
molecule it becomes diglyceride likewise three fatty acids when make esterification
with one glycerol, it forms triglyceride of which most of the fats and oils comprise.
The properties of fats and oils chiefly depend on the type and proportion of fatty
acids in triglyceride (O’Brien 2009). Fatty acids are the basic constituents of fats
and oils and are open chain carboxylic acids also known as aliphatic compunds.
Naturally, the fatty acids present in fats and oils have an even number of carbon
atoms ranging from 4-28 either saturated or unsaturated owing to presence of
double bond or absence of hydrogen at some places in carbon chains. Nutritionally
important classification of fatty acids categorizes them into cis or trans, omega, and
esstential or non-essential. Trans fat is considered harmful for health and according
to USDA recommendation its daily intake (g) is set at zero. The term esstential
fatty acids refer to those which cannot be synthesized in human body and must be
taken through diet for instance linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. However, it
does not imply that other fatty acids are not important for human body.

Table 1.2 Major differences between fats and oils

Fats Oils
Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
Don’t have C-C double bond Have C-C double bonds
Mostly animal based except fish and Mostly plant based except coconut,
some of the plants such as coconut, palm and tropical plants oils. Fish oil is
palm oil Unsaturated oil.
Not good for health due to more Good for health due to less cholesterol
cholesterol
Source: Awan (2011), Potter and Hotchkiss (1995)

1.7.3.1. Sources of Fats and Oils

Majority of fats and oils for human consumption are obtained from plant sources
such as oilseed crops, olives etc. However, animal fat in the form of butter, lard or
tallow is also widely used.
32 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

1.7.3.2. Functions of Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are indispensable for human body. Almost all the fat ingested through
food is absorbed into the human body as only about 3.3% lipids are found in the
faeces. Fats and oils lies in their high Source: Srilakshmi (2003)
energy density among other energy yielding nutrients, since they furnish 2¼ times
more calories compared to the equal amount of carbohydrates and proteins and are
carrier of fat soluble substances including vitamin A, D, E and K. The fats provide
essential fatty acids, act as energy storage reservoir in animals, protect the organs
by covering with a sheeth. Furthermore, fats and oils provide taste and texture to
the food, act as a carrier of flavoring substance and provide soft and creamy
consistency to the foodstuff. Fat intake is also deeply associated with the health and
wellbeing of human.

1.8. Micronutrients
1.8.1. Minerals
Minerals are the inorganic substances present in ash when a food is incinerated. In
the human body, minerals are present in both rigid and soft body tissues and
essentially needed through diet but in relatively minute quantities. The main
functions of minerals in the body include building and regulation of body
processes.

Table 1.1 Major food sources of different macro and micro-nutrients

Food Sources Major Nutrients
Meat (beef, chicken, fish), eggs, milk and cheese, nuts (peanuts, Proteins
almonds, pistachio, walnuts), pulses, beans
Cereals, grains, pulses, potatoes, sweet potatoes, rice, bananas, Carbohydrates
dates, honey, molasses, and dried fruit
Fatty meat of cattle, egg yolk, butter, ghee, cream, sesame, Fats & oils
olives, peanuts, soybeans, nuts
Liver oil, cod liver oil, butter, egg, carrots, spinach, tomato, peas Vitamin A
Fish liver oil, eggs, butter, liver, cheese Vitamin D
Oil seeds, vegetable oils, wheat, eggs, milk Vitamin E
Green vegetables, olive and soya bean oil, beef liver, green peas Vitamin K
Meat, potatoes, peas, beans, nuts and milk Vitamin B-1
Rice bran, yeast, seeds, egg yolk, meat, liver and kidney Vitamin B-6
Animal tissues, fermented vegetables, yeast Vitamin B-12
Grape fruits, guava, mango, spinach, tomato, green pepper Vitamin C
Liver, kidney, green vegetables and yeast Folic acid
Milk and its products, leafy vegetables, legumes Calcium
Cereals, nuts, pulses Magnesium
Table salt Sodium
Beef, wheat germ, pulses Sulphur
Liver, kidney, egg yolk, dark-green leafy vegetables, dried Iron
1. Introduction to Food Science 33

fruits, whole grains

Sea fish, fish oil, iodized salt Iodine
Kidney, liver and oyster Zinc
Whole grain cereals, legumes, lentils, black beans, fruits, Fiber
vegetables
Source: Awan (2011), Potter and Hotchkiss (1995, Srilakshmi (2003)

Ca is the main constituent of bones, while other minerals such as Cl is essential

constituent of gastric juice, whereas others also act as enzyme activators. Minerals
are classified as macro minerals (calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine,
potassium, magnesium and sulphur) and micro minerals (iron, iodine and zinc).
Whereas, trace substances include cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum,
selenium and fluorine. Some minerals and their source is summarized in Table 1.1.

1.8.2. Vitamins
Vitamins are complex organic constituent of the foods classified into fat soluble
and water soluble vitamins. Though, required in minute quantities, vitamins are
integral for normal growth and maintenance of body. Vitamins cannot be
synthesized by the mammalian cells, therefore, must be provided through diet.
Water soluble vitamins are the much diversified class and play an important role in
the transfer of energy, protein metabolism as well as in formation of red blood
cells. The vitamins belonging to the B-group involve thiamine (vitamin B1),
riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin B3), pantothenic acid (vitamin B5),
pyridoxine (vitamin B6), folic acid (vitamin B9), cyanocobalamine (vitamin B12),
biotin (vitamin H) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Fat soluble vitamins include
vitamin A, D, E and K and are made available to the body through fat containing
substances. Deficiency of any of these vitamins may lead to serious health
consequences (Hui 2006). Major vitamins and their sources is summarized in
Table 1.I.

1.9. Nutrients in Human Body

Human body is composed of nutrients in variable proportions including water
followed by proteins, lipids and minerals respectively and carbohydrate in smaller
amount. The percentage may vary depending upon sex, age, activity, climate and
origin.

1.10. Nutrition
“The process by which living organisms take in and use food for the maintenance
of life, growth, the functioning of organs and tissues and the production of energy”
(Bender 2006). Thus, nutrition deals with the interaction of nutrients with the body
of an organism in relation to growth, maintenance, reproduction, health and
disease. Nutrition involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport and
assimilation of food as well as excretion of wastes from the body.
34 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

1.11. Food Processing

“Any and all processes to which food is subjected after harvesting, for the purposes
of improving its appearance, texture, palatability, nutritive value, keeping
properties and ease of preparation, and for eliminating micro-organisms, toxins and
other undesirable constituents” (Bender 2006). Food processing is in fact the
transformation of raw ingredients into a marketable food items with good
consumer’s acceptability by either physical or chemical process. It involves value
addition in the food groups to provide versitality as per consumer’s need. In
general, food processing operation may include cleanliness, preparatory operations,
temperature treatments, preservation techniques to extend shelf life and techniques
of marketing as per specificity of foods. Food processing and preservation are
usually built around manipulation of food moisture, pH, temperature, air,
radiations, additives to add the value and shelf life to secure the safety of foods.
Food preservation deals with the protection of food from spoilage organism,
enzymes, oxidation and making sustainable quality of food till its consumption.
Thus, the basic goal of food preservation is the extension of shelf life of food to
facilitate its storage and distribution to far off places. Various technologies have
been geared to process the food to make it availabale for a longer time, distant
places and as per consumer’s specificity.

1.12. Food Spoilage

Food spoilage is defined as “deterioration in the quality of food, making it
unpleasant or unsafe to eat, happening naturally over time or caused by microbial
contamination or poor storage” (Bateman et al. 2006). The food spoilage agents are
chiefly concerned to autolysis, spoilage microorganisms, pests and physical
phenomenon. The autolysis categorized into enzymatic and non-
enzymatic/chemically induced autolysis; spoilage microorganisms can either be
beacteria, yeast or moulds; the pests of food spoilage are rodents, insects, birds and
parasites. Whereas, the spoilage of food caused by water activity, temperature and
mechanical effects during harvesting, storage or transportation is attributed to
physical phenomenon. Food spoilage results in loss of nutritional value, adverse
changes in organoleptic properties of food and certain unwholesome effects due to
production of toxins, biogenic amines etc. The food preservation principles are
crafted around these four spoilage agents.

1.13. Recent Trends in Food Science and Technology

Twenty first century has witnessed a great swing in consumer’s demand and
expectations from food industry in terms of safe, nutritious and healthy foods in its
natural form. A shift in food processing technologies from “conventional to
advanced” is inevitable to meet the ever-changing consumer needs. Conventional
heat processing can disturb the functionality and flavor of many foods in addition
to loss of nutritional value. Consequently, non-thermal processing techniques are
gaining popularity in food industry as an alternative to thermal processing due to
1. Introduction to Food Science 35

their presumed safety and minimal effect on sensory as well as nutritional

properties of foods. The techniques are finding promising applications in food
preservation as they eliminate and destroy bacteria to produce high quality,
minimally processed, additive free and microbiologically safe food. High pressure
processing is one such advanced non-thermal technology with a potential to
achieve food safety standards parallel to those of heat pasteurization. Applying
high-pressure processing can inactivate pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms
and enzymes, as well as modify structures with little or no effects on the nutritional
and sensory quality of foods.
Similarly, freeze drying, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, ultrasonic
processing, microwave assisted processing, active & intelligent packaging,
advanced emulsion technologies and extrusion processing are some techniques
aimed at producing safe and nutritionally superior food products. Development of
ready-to-eat, partially dehydrated intermediate moisture foods through cost
effective and non-thermal processing has also been in limelight. Osmotic
dehydration and hurdle technology is also finding its application in food
preservation. Core principles for the technology includes use of high and low
temperature, reduced water activity, increased acidity, reduced redox potential and
use of bio-preservatives to create hurdle in the growth of microorganisms.
So, the recent advances in food processing and preservation technologies are
mainly focusing on developing more safe and nutritious foods than the one
produced conventionally. The major reasons for this change include consumer
awareness, resultant demands and more scientific evidences on health and diet
interrelationship. This advancement in Food Science has also led the scientific
focus towards recent concepts of functional and nutraceutical foods. Now efforts
have been geared to explore the bioactivity of food and its constituents. Functional
foods have brought in the new spectrum of healthy foods. Regulatory bodies have
approved multiple health claims pertaining to such foods. Technically, functional
foods are the ones which provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Thus, if a
food has been altered in a way that it demonstrates positive health benefits, it can
be regarded as functional food. Contrarily, the word nutraceutical is derived from
the words nutrient and pharmaceuticals.

1.14. Significance of Food Science and Technolgy

The significance of Food Science & Technology lies in the fact that it must cater
the food needs of ever increasing population. The technology is also playing a
pivotal role in the growth of global economy. The modern production and
processing techniques have been helpful to stabilize the fluctuating price of
perishable food commodities. Food Science professionals are striving to ensure
supply of safe, wholesome and nutritious food to all parts of the globe through out
the year. Developments in this profession have resulted in a significant decrease in
postharvest losses of foods. With the increasing demand of processed food, rapid
industrial growth in food sector has been witnessed over the previous two decade.
Food processing industry is now the largest industry in the USA and second largest
in Pakistan. The rapid industrial growth Pakistan has led to increasing demand of
36 A. Rakha, M.S. Butt and M.A. Khan

Food Science professionals. They are employed in food industry, service sector,
regulatory bodies, quarantine cells, research organizations etc. to furnish the rising
demand of Food Scientists and Technologists, the profession has blossomed in
major universities across Pakistan. National Institute of Food Science &
Technology at University of Agriculture, Faisalabad is the leading and pioneer
institute of Pakistan. Recently, greater focus has also been put on the research in
this discipline in developing economies including Pakistan.

1.15. Conclusion
Food is the basic an amalgamation of various nutrients and performs numerous
functions in the body. Food intake is closely linked with the health and wellbeing
of human. With the development in processing and preservation technologies, food
products have diversified with longer shelf life and better nutritional value.

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