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Lecture 2 PDF

1) The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems which innervate the heart. 2) The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and the force of heart contraction through the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine which act on adrenergic receptors. 3) The parasympathetic nervous system decreases heart rate and the strength of heart muscle contraction through the release of acetylcholine which acts on muscarinic receptors in the heart.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
154 views15 pages

Lecture 2 PDF

1) The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems which innervate the heart. 2) The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and the force of heart contraction through the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine which act on adrenergic receptors. 3) The parasympathetic nervous system decreases heart rate and the strength of heart muscle contraction through the release of acetylcholine which acts on muscarinic receptors in the heart.

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Aya Muhannad
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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2 first

Page 1
Receptors/Channels ‫المستقبالت والقنوات‬
1. channels
❖ Types of channels in plasma membranes (each has its own negativity and width):
➢ Sodium potassium pump
Leak channels: passive channels, are always
➢ Potassium sodium leak channels open, allowing the passage of sodium ions (Na )
➢ voltage gated calcium channels and potassium ions (K ) across the membrane to
maintain the resting membrane potential of –70
➢ voltage gated potassium channels millivolts.
➢ voltage gated proton channels Voltage-gated ion channels open and close in
➢ voltage gated sodium channels response to specific changes in themembrane
potential.

Channelopathyis a disease caused by disturbed function of ion channels subunits


or the proteins that regulate them (abnormality in channels)
‫ كل قناة الها عرض وسلبية معينة‬, ‫أنواع القنوات الموجودة بأغشية الخلايا‬
‫ اقرأوهم للفهم الدكتور ما حكاهم‬voltage gated ‫وال‬leak channel ‫البوكس هاد ببينلكم الفرق بين ال‬

2. receptors
❖ We have different types of receptors on the cell membrane “important “
1- Ionotropic receptors(occur in the neuromuscular junctions).
2- Metabotropic receptors (occur in the heart).
3- Catalytic receptors.
4- Nuclear receptors.
5- Transmembrane proteins.

Receptors in the neuromuscular junctions are: Nicotinic, hybrid, ionotropic


receptors, Ligand-gated EXPLAINATION:
o Nicotinic >> because they have the effect of nicotine, that occur in
cigarette, it is the same in neuromuscular junction so it works on the fast
sodium channels on the muscle fiber and mimics the action of
acetylcholine.
o Hybrid >> because it’s electrochemical (electrical : action potential ,
chemical : releasing of acetyl choline
)‫المستقبلات أنواعهم مهمة كتير وكل فصل الدكتور بركز عليهم (ادرسوهم منيح‬
neuromuscular junction ‫موجودين بال‬ionotropic receptors ‫وميزو انو ال‬
There is no place for spasm in the heart, WHY ?
✓ Because there is a high capacity for the reuptake of calcium from transverse tubules
‫حكينا انو مستحيل يصير تشنج في عضلة القلب لأنه في تزويد كافي من الكالسيوم في القلب الي بيجي من‬
. ‫الأنابيب المستعرضة‬

Page 2
Innervation of the heart
‫قبل ما نحكي عن تغذية القلب ر ح نراجع بشكل سريع أقسام الجهاز العصبي‬ •

Nervous
system

central peropheral
nervous nervous
system system

brain spinal cord somatic sensory autonomic


(descending) (ascending) (descending)

o Autonomic nervous system consists of:


1- Sympathetic nervous system(epinephrine & norepinephrine)
Sympathetic stimulation: Increases HR
Increases Force of Heart Contraction
Increases Cardiac Output
‫القلب بزيد‬ ‫وبالتال الناتج‬ ‫ن‬
‫عارفي انو بزيد الهارت ريت وبزيد من قوة انقباض القلب‬ ً
‫مبدئيا كونو‬ , ‫العصب الودي‬ ‫الجهاز‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
2- Parasympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic stimulation: Decreases HR
Decreases Strength of Heart Muscle
‫ بقلل من الهارت ريت وبقلل من قوة انقباض عضلة القلب‬, ‫العصب الالودي‬
‫ي‬ ‫الجهاز‬
- The heart is innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
- Both sympathetic and parasympathetic are two neurons chain: preganglionic
neuron& postganglionic neuron.
. ‫ شوفو الصورة الي تحت أخدناها بالفسيو وهلا رح نتوسع أكتر‬two neuron chain ‫عشان تفهمو شو قصدو ب‬

Page 3
3- Enteric nervous system (intrinsic):
➢ Is one of the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a
mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract.

- It is the brain of gut, GIT has its own brain that governs the function of it, although it
is affected by sympathetic and parasympathetic of the peripheral nervous system)
- ‫يتكون من مجموعة من الأعصاب على‬, ‫الجهاز العصبي المعوي إحدى أهم تقسيمات الجهاز العصبي الذاتي‬
‫شكل شبكة تتحد من أجل إتمام الوظائف المتعلقة بالجهاز الهضمي‬
‫ على الرغم من تأثره بالجهاز العصبي الودي‬,‫(ثان) للقناة الهضمية‬
ٍ ‫يعتبر الجهاز العصبي المعوي دماغ خاص‬
. ‫واللاودي‬
*‫هاي المعلومة مو مهمة بالقلب لكن الدكتور حكى خليها ببالكم لقدام‬ *

‫( وهلا حنحكي عن‬sympathetic/parasympathetic( ‫رح يختلف نوع المستقبل والناقل العصبي حسب نوع التحفيز‬ *
‫أنواع المستقبلات والنواقل العصبية‬

Types of receptors:
1) Adrenergic receptors: if the neurotransmitter is epinephrine or norepinephrine; they
are released from the medulla of the adrenal gland; thus the name is adrenergic.
❖ The two main types of adrenergic receptors are:
a. Alphaα-receptors: α1, α2
b. Betaβ-receptors: β1, β2
❖ Location:‫الباق معلومات خارجية ما حىك عنها الدكتور‬
‫ ي‬...‫الل تحته خط هون‬
‫اش ي‬‫اهم ي‬
α1: in blood vessels (stimulation of it causes vasoconstriction) + radial and sphincter
muscles of iris (eye), heart, bronchial glands (lungs), liver, gut, skin, sex organs etc.
α2: in brain, pancreatic β cells, fat cells, gut muscles, veins etc.
β1: in the heart (sympathetic stimulation) + salivary glands, juxtaglomerular apparatus of
kidney, posterior pituitary.
β2:lungs+ BV, uterus, liver, eye, gut, urinary bladder, spleen, skeletal muscle, certain veins

‫ والمستقبل الو أربع أنواع‬epinephrine, norepeniphrine ‫ لما يكون الناقل العصبي‬adrenergic ‫منحكي للمستقبل‬
.)2‫و‬1 ‫ وبيتا‬2‫و‬1‫(ألفا‬
. ‫يتم إفراز هذين الناقلين بواسطة الغدة الكظرية‬

2) Cholinergicreceptors: if the neurotransmitter is acetylcholine,they are two types:


a. Muscarinicreceptors:The substance known as muscarine from toxic mushroom is
activating these type of receptors, so named as muscarinic.
- They are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
- Located on the heart (SA node, AV node, atria, ventricle)‫مهم‬
b. Nicotinicreceptors: these types of receptors stimulated by nicotine from cigarettes
which mimics the action of Ach but having more affinity than Ach
- They are ligand gated ion channel.

Page 4
- Activation of this causes opening of ion channel which causes influx of cation & leads
to depolarization and generate action potential (AP). So they are found in the
preganglionic neurons
. ‫ لما يكون الناقل العصبي أستيل كولين‬cholinergic ‫ منحكي للمستقبل‬-

Notes:
o All sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons are cholinergic.
o All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons are cholinergic.
o Drugs that work on sympathetic stimulation are called Sympathomimetic drugs.
o Drugs that work against (block sympathetic) are called Sympatholytic drugs.
nonselective ‫(وأعطيت‬hypertension) ‫ لمريض عندو ارتفاع في ضغط الدم‬β1‫ لمستقبل‬blocker ‫لو مثلاً بدي أعطي‬
β1 +β2 ‫ رح يعمل بلوك لل‬beta blocker
‫ عشان يخفف معدل ضربات القلب لانو مستقبل بيتا ون مسؤول عن زيادة ضربات القلب " وبما انو‬β1 ‫"البلوك على‬
‫(وبالتالي‬Broncho dilation) ‫المسؤولة عن توسعة القصبات الهوائية‬β2 ‫رح يعمل بلوك على مستقبلات‬nonselective
selective blocker ‫ فلازم استخدم‬, ‫(ويموت المريض‬broncho constriction) ‫رح تتقلص القصبات‬
agonist & antagonist ‫ كمان لازم نعرف الأشياء يلي بشتغلو مع بعض أو عكس بعض‬o
Sympathomimetic antagonist with sympatholytic

Sympathetic receptors and neurotransmitters ‫مهم جدا‬


The preganglionic receptor is nicotinic The preganglionic neurotransmitter is
(cholinergic receptor) acetylcholine
The postganglionic receptors are α1, α2, The postganglionic neurotransmitter is
β1, β2. (adrenergic receptor) epinephrine or norepinephrine

Parasympathetic receptors and neurotransmitter ‫مهم جدا‬


The preganglionic receptors are The preganglionic neurotransmitter is
nicotinic (cholinergic). acetylcholine (cholinergic neuron)
The postganglionic receptors are The postganglionic neurotransmitter is
muscarinic. acetylcholine also. (The same as
preganglionic both are cholinergic).

Page 5
❖ Drugs are available for blocking adrenergic and cholinergic receptors.
❖ For example, beta blockersare used in the treatment of angina, hypertension,
arrhythmias and heart failure
❖ Many of these adrenergic and cholinergic blockers are relatively selectivefor a specific
receptor subtype (as needed). WHY?
✓ Nonselective beta blockers will block: β1 and β2receptors and this not always needed.
✓ If I would give a hypertension patient a beta blocker to block β1-receptor (which is
located in the heart and responsible for the heart rate) so as to decrease the heart
rate (needed)
✓ BUT if the that blocker was nonselective it will also block β2 receptor (located in the
lungs and responsible for the Broncho-dilation) and will cause Broncho-constriction
and lead to death (not needed)
‫ كان‬blocker ‫ لازم نكون عارفين ازا هاد ال‬,‫ لمستقبل معين لتحقيق هدف طبي ما‬blocker ‫✓ لما نعطي‬
selective/nonselective
‫ى‬ ‫ى‬
‫تأثي‬
‫وبالتال منع ر‬
‫ي‬ ‫ وبوقف شغلها ي‬1 ‫✓ مرض الضغط بتعالجوا بدوا بشتغل عل مستقبالت البيتا‬
block ‫يعن بعمللها‬
‫ واحنا هيك حلينا مشكلة ضغط الدم‬.. ‫وبالتال بقل معدل ىضبات القلب‬
‫ي‬ ‫ عل القلب‬sympathetic‫ال‬
‫ى‬
‫ ي‬nonselective ‫ اذا كان الدوا‬,‫✓ لكن‬
‫ لكل مستقبالت البيتا بغض النظر عن نوعها او مكانها فممكن هاد الدوا‬block ‫يعن بعمل‬
‫ وهيك‬bronco-constriction ‫بالرئتي ويعمل تقلص بالقصبات الهوائية‬‫ى‬ ‫الل موجودة‬
‫ر‬ ‫ ي‬2 ‫يعمل بلوك عل مستقبالت البيتا‬
‫ لحن يشتغل ع الجزء ي‬selective ‫ فالمفروض نستعمل دوا يكون‬.. ‫فتحنا ع حالنا مشكلة جديدة‬
‫الل بدنا اياه (حسب‬
‫الحاجة) ونتجنب حدوث امراض تانية‬
Sympathetic stimulation [fight or flight]
o Neurotransmitters: Epinephrine, norepinephrine
o Adrenergic activity
o Origin: spinal cord from thoracic 1 to lumbar 2 (T1-L2)‫مهم‬
o The affected part of the heart: ventricles mainly
o Effects on heart: Increase contractility, conductivity,
rhythmicity, cardiac output and heart rate.HOW?
✓ It is a stressful situation (fight or flight)> so I need more cardiac output to meet the
metabolic demand
✓ sympathetic stimulation affects the medulla of the adrenal gland, stimulating it to
release epinephrine and norepinephrine and in turn they do the following: ‫مهم‬
1. Central )coronary( vasodilatation.
2. Peripheral vasoconstriction (constriction of the veins mainly (venoconstriction);
because they are the blood reservoir due to their high distensibility).
✓ when constricting veins, the venous return to the right side of the heart increases
(increasing venous return [fillingpressure]) thus increasing the cardiac output.
epinephrine + ‫العصن الودي يؤثر عل نخاع الغدة الكظرية ويحفزها عل افراز‬ ‫ي‬ ‫✓ عندما يتحفز الجهاز‬
:‫يأت‬
‫ والذي يقوم بدوره بما ي‬norepinephrine
‫ تتوسع الشا ر ى‬.1
)‫يي القلبية(التاجية‬
‫ى‬ ‫ى‬
‫باق الجسم وباألخص األوردة ألنها تعتي مخزن الدم يق الجسم بسبب خاصية‬ ‫ تتضيق األوعية الدموية يق ي‬.2
‫ى‬
**‫ رح ينشح لقدام‬.. ‫العصن الواحد بكون حسب المستقبل‬
‫ي‬ ‫تأثي الناقل‬
‫التمدد العالية فيها** االختالف يق ر‬
‫ى‬
‫وبالتال يزداد ضخ الدم يق الجسم‬
‫ي‬ ‫ يزداد العائد الوريدي ال الجانب األيمن من القلب‬,‫✓ عندما تتضيق األوردة‬
‫ بقل بالطبقات‬,‫✓ لما يكون شخص خايف بكون وجهه شاحب ألنو الدم كله بنسحب وبروح للدماغ والقلب والعضالت‬
fight and flight‫الجلديةعشان يقدر الجسم يتجاوب مع حالة ال‬
To speed up the heart rate:
➢ deliver the sympathetic hormone, epinephrine, and/or
➢ release more sympathetic neurotransmitter (norepinephrine), and/or
➢ Reduce release of parasympathetic neurotransmitter (acetylcholine).

Sympathetic signals (norepinephrine and epinephrine) cause a stronger and more rapid
contraction and a more rapid relaxation.

Page 3
Sympathetic stimulation of alpha-
adrenergic receptors
causesvasoconstriction to
decrease blood flow to that
location. (central effect)
 Sympathetic stimulation of
beta-adrenergic receptors leads
tovasodilation to cause an
increase in blood flow to that
location. (peripheral effect)
‫التحفيز الودي لمستقبالت ألفا األدرينالية‬ 
‫يسبب تضيق األوعية لتقليل تدفق الدم إلى هذا‬
.‫الموقع‬
.‫ التحفيز الودي لمستقبالت بيتا األدرينالية يؤدي إلى توسع األوعية إلحداث زيادة في تدفق الدم إلى هذا الموقع‬
‫ بس هاد مش‬.. ‫ تقريبا نفس الوظيفة بس واحد بأثر ع القلب اكتر من التاني‬norepinephrine‫ وال‬epinephrine‫ ال‬
‫ ركزوا على شو بعملوا وكيف بأثروا ع االوعية بالقلب واالوعية بباقي الجسم‬,‫موضوعنا يعني ما تتخربطوا من المخطط‬

 Diversity among signals that


influence
contraction/relaxationin vascular
circular smooth muscle implies a
diversity ofreceptors and
transduction mechanisms.
‫التنوع بين اإلشارات التي تؤثر على‬ 
‫ االسترخاء في العضالت الملساء‬/ ‫االنكماش‬
‫الدائرية الوعائية ينطوي على مجموعة متنوعة من‬
.‫المستقبالت وآليات التحول‬
‫ هو عبارة‬bradykinin‫ركزوا على ال‬ 
‫ رح يمر معنا لقدام عنه‬local vasodilator ‫عن‬

 Effect on the cardiac output(CO) curve


of different degrees of sympathetic or
parasympathetic stimulation.
 Sympathetic increases the CO
 Parasympathetic decreases the CO
‫التأثير على منحنى المخرجات القلبية بدرجات‬ 
‫مختلفة من التحفيز الودي أو الالودي‬
‫الودي يزيد الناتج القلبي‬ 
‫الالودي يقلل الناتج الودي‬ 

Page 4
Parasympathetic stimulation [rest and digest] ‫ى‬
‫المعن‬ ‫ممكن يعي عنه بأكي من مصطلح وكلهم نفس‬

o Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine ➢ Parasympathetic stimulation


o Vagal, cholinergic activity ➢ Vagal stimulation
o Origin: craniosacral“brain & spinal cord”: ➢ Cholinergic activity
• Parasympathetic cranial nerves: [ 3,7,9,10]
• Parasympathetic sacral nerves:[2,3,4 (S2, S3, S4)]
• The tenth cranial nerve affects the heart (vagus) ‫مهم‬
o The affected part of the heart: atrium only(S.A node & A.V node) no effect on ventricles
o Effects on heart: decrease heart rate only.
✓ strong parasympathetic stimulation might lead to cardiac arrest (stop)
✓ in the carotid area, there is a plexus of parasympathetic nerves, if this
area is stimulated (by pressing) for a while, the heart might stop or
standstill(cardiac arrest or ventricular escape)
‫العصن الالودي بس العاش منهم مختص للقلب‬ ‫رى‬
‫مسؤولي عن الجهاز‬ 10 ‫ و‬9 ‫و‬7 ‫و‬3 ‫✓ بشكل عام األعصاب‬
‫ى‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ى‬
‫وبالتال الوفاة‬ ‫القلب‬ ‫توقف‬ ‫ق‬ ‫سبب‬‫ت‬‫ت‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫بالتدليك‬ ‫الرقبة‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ودية‬ ‫رى‬
‫تحفيالتجمعات العصبيةالال‬ ‫✓ عند‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬

The neurotransmitter that is responsible for the parasympathetic stimulation is


acetylcholine, this neurotransmitter causes:
- contraction of muscles in the neuromuscular junction
- whereas it causes flaccidity(relaxation) in the heart. How does that happen?
- Answer: depending on receptors
‫كولي بعمل انقباض للعضلة ى يق الوصلة العصبية العضلية ولكن ى يق القلب بعمل اسيخاء‬
‫االستيل ر ى‬ -
‫رى‬
!! ‫مختلفي‬ ‫رى‬ ‫ى‬ ‫رى‬ ‫رى‬
‫مكاني‬ ‫متعاكستي يق‬ ‫وظيفتي‬ ‫العصن عمل‬
‫ي‬ ‫نفس الناقل‬ -
‫السبب ى يق االختالف هو نوع المستقبل‬ -

 Receptor: protein or lipoprotein that binds specifically to ligand


 Ligand (stimuli) could be a hormone, odors, electrical stimuli, etc.
‫رى‬
‫ محفز‬,‫ روائح‬,‫بروتي يرتبط بطريقة متخصصة مع المحفز والذي يمكن ان يكون هرمون‬ ‫ المستقبل هو عبارة عن‬
.‫ الخ‬,‫كهربات‬
‫ي‬

Page 5
❖ There are several types of receptors:
i. Ionotropic receptors: exist in neuromuscular junction
ii. Metabotropic receptors
iii. Catalytic receptors
iv. Nuclear receptors
v. Transmembrane protein (new type)
vi. G-protein coupled receptor ‫نحىك عنه‬
‫ي‬ ‫يل رح‬
‫اهم نوع وهو ي‬

G protein coupled receptors


 One of the most important receptors in the body. This receptor works in heart
 Consists of: receptor + 3 subunits (α, β, γ)
 Mechanism: alpha binds with guanine diphosphate (GDP) then transformed to guanine
triphosphate (GTP) when binding to ligand receptor, then alpha subunit will be released,
we have several types of alpha subunit:
1) Alpha stimulatory : works on enzyme adenine cyclise
that converts ATP to CAMP (second messenger) that
works on protein kinase A and cause central
vasodilation
2) Alpha inhibitory : no more activation of alpha subunits,
no more effect on adenine cyclise, no more conversion
of ATP to CAMP , no more effect on protein kinase A .
 Acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction interacts with ionotropic receptors and
open the fast sodium channels, while in the heart it works on the G protein coupled
receptor (Alpha and beta-gamma subunits)

 Function of beta gamma subunits:


increase the permeability for potassium efflux“moves from inside to outside the
cell” which causes hyperpolarization leading to flaccidity (relaxation)

Effects of Potassium and Calcium Ions on Heart Function


 Effect of PotassiumIons

1) Excess Potassium causes heart to dilate and HR to slow


2) Potassium decreases the resting membrane potential and result in weak heart
contraction

‫وبالتال يقلل‬
‫ي‬ ‫تعمل زيادة أيونات البوتاسيوم عل توسعة القلب وتقليل معدل ىضبات القلب باإلافة إل أنه يقلل من جهد الغشاء‬
‫ويخفف من قوة انقباض عضلة القلب‬

Page 6
 Effect of Calcium ions

1) Increases the force of contractility


2) Calcium deficiency causes cardiac flaccidity

‫فه تزيد من قوة انقباض القلب ونقصه يؤدي إل اسيخاءه‬


‫ ي‬, ‫تعمل أيونات الكالسيوم بصورة معاكسة أليونات البوتاسيوم‬

important cardiac definitions


 Cardiac output (CO):the amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle each minute.
 Heart rate (HR): number of heart beats in one minute
 Stroke volume (SV): amount of blood pumped from left ventricle in one heart beat
‫ى ى‬
‫البطيني يق الدقيقة الواحدة‬
‫ر‬ ‫ هو حجم الدم المضخوخ من كال‬:CO ‫القلن‬
‫ي‬ ‫النتاج أو الناتج‬ 
‫ عدد دقات القلب ى يق الدقيقة الواحدة‬: HR‫معدل ىضبات القلب‬ 
‫ حجم الدم المضخوخ ى يق الدقة الواحدة‬:SV )‫حجم النفضة(النبضة‬ 
 Cardiac output = Heart rate (HR) X stroke volume (SV)
 Cardiac output influenced by:
a) Stroke volume (SV)= EDV-ESV= 135ml – 65ml = 70 ml on average
✓ End diastolic volume(EDV): the volume of blood that is filling each ventricle
during ventricular relaxation (diastole) = 135 ml
✓ End systolic volume(ESV):the volume of blood that is remaining in each
ventricle after ventricular contraction (systole) = 65 ml
ً ‫رى‬
, EDV‫ه ال‬‫ مل دم هاي الكمية ي‬100 ‫لو مثال كان عنا‬,‫ال فيهم بالنبضة الوحدة‬
‫البطيني ما بضخوا كل الدم ي‬ ✓
ESV ‫والل بنسميه‬
‫ مل بالقلب بعد االنقباض ي‬40 ‫وهيك بضل عنا‬,SV ‫الل بنسميه‬ ‫مل منهم رح ينضخ فقط ي‬60
b) Heart rate (HR): 70-80 bpm >> 75 bpm on average

 At rest (parasympathetic stimulation):


HR: 75 beat per minute
SV: 75ml of blood.
 Cardiac output = 75 beat/min X 75 ml = 5.6Liters of blood each min.

❖ As the cardiac output increases, the stroke


volume and heart rate must increase too
❖ Factors influencing stroke volume SV:
1. Contractility: The force of contraction of the
heart muscle [the more forceful the
contraction, the more blood it ejects]

Page 7
2. Preload:the degree of stretching of the cardiac myocytes at the end of ventricular
filling >> before the contraction

✓ Preload is related to EDV. WHY? Because the increase in EDV will cause more
stretching in cardiac muscle fibers, this will increase the preload
✓ The higher EDV, the higher preload >> higher stroke volume
‫ هو عبارة عن مقدار تمدد الخاليا العضلية بالقلب خالل عملية‬, EDV ‫ الو عالقة بال‬preload ‫✓ هال مصطلح ال‬
EDV ‫(يعن كلما تمددت عضلة القلب أكي كل ما وسعت دم أكي ) عشان هيك حكينا انو مرتبط بال‬ ‫ى‬ ‫التعبئة الدموية‬
‫ي‬
‫يل تعن‬
‫النو انا ما بقدر اعرف أو اقيس قديش العضلة تمددت ولكن بقدر اعرف حجم الدم ي‬
‫زاد ) وكمان ى‬preload ( ‫ معناها صار تمدد أكي‬EDV ‫✓ كل ما يزيد ال‬
SV‫ وبزيد ال‬,‫بييد قوة االنقباض‬

3. Afterload: Is the resistance that the ventricles must overcome to eject blood
has two major compounds:
1) Vascular pressure: ‫الضغط ى يق األوعية‬
o Pressure in the left ventricle must be greater than the systemic pressure for the
aortic valve to open
o Pressure in the right ventricle (PRV) must overcome pressure in the pulmonary
artery (PP) to open the pulmonaryvalve
‫البطي األيش الزم يكون أكي من الضغط ى يق األورطة عشان يفتح الصمام‬
‫رى‬ ‫يعن الضغط ى يق‬
‫ي‬
‫ى‬ o
‫ى‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ى‬
‫البطي األيمن الزم يكون أكي من الضغط يق الشيان الرئوي عشان يفتح الصمام‬
‫ر‬ ‫ والضغط يق‬o

 Overthinking:
✓ If the pressure inside the arteries (like aorta) increased, we need more pressure
build up inside the ventricles to overcome it >> we need more afterload
✓ So we need more time to build up the pressure inside the ventricles to overcome it
>> the time of stroke volume will be decreased >>decreased SV
✓ in hypertension, higher vascular pressure makes it more difficult for the valves to
open resulting in a reduced amount of ejected blood.
✓ Ejection fraction = SV / EDV
‫يبن ضغط اكي عشان‬ ‫رى ى‬ ‫ايي ( مثال الشيان االبهر) ازداد ى‬
‫اذا الضغط داخل الش ر ى‬ ✓
‫البطي ي‬ ‫بصي بدنا‬
‫) ر‬90 ‫ ل‬80 ‫(يعن من‬ ‫ي‬
‫ رح يزيد‬afterload‫يعن انه ال‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ى‬
‫الل زاد وهذا ي‬‫يات ي‬‫يتغلب عل الضغط الش ي‬
<< ‫يات‬‫ى‬ ‫رى‬ ‫ى‬ ✓
‫البطي عشان يتغلب عل الصمامات او الضغط الش ي‬ ‫نبن الضغط داخل‬ ‫بصي بدنا وقت اكي لحن ي‬ ‫وبالتال ر‬
‫ي‬
)SV‫ رح يقل ال‬afterload‫يعن دايما اذا زاد ال‬ ‫ى‬
‫ ( ي‬SV ‫مما يؤدي ال تقليل وقت وحجم‬
‫وبالتال‬ ‫ بزيد الضغط ق األوعية الدموية ى‬,‫بصي ىق حالة ارتفاع ضغط الدم‬
‫وبييد صعوبة فتح الصمامات‬
‫ى‬

‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫الل ر ي‬
‫وهاد ي‬
SV‫يعن بقل ال‬ ‫ى‬
‫بقل ضخ الدم ي‬
‫ بتقل النسبة‬SV‫ اذا بقل ال‬EDV<<‫ عل ال‬SV‫ وهو عبارة عن نبسة ال‬ejection fraction ‫اش اسمه‬ ‫ى‬ ✓
‫يق عنا ي‬

Page 8
2) Valve damages (such as stenosis)
o Any damage in the valve will cause to a higher resistance >>lower cardiac output
ً ‫ى‬
‫االش‬
‫ي‬ ‫يخل المقاومة أكي (القلب الزم يشتغل أكي عشان يضخ دم) وهاد‬
‫ي‬ ‫ أي خلل يق الصمامات (تضيق مثال) رح‬o
‫القلن‬
‫ي‬ ‫بقلل من الناتج‬

Sympathetic & parasympathetic stimulation Effect


‫ن‬
‫مهمي وحييحوكم‬ ‫انتبهو هدول العالقات افهموهم فهم واربطو بينهم كتي‬

 Increased SympatheticStimulation )‫اش بزيد‬


‫مهم (كل ي‬
▪ Increased sympathetic stimulation (due to fright, anger, etc.) increases the heart rate.
▪ It also increases stroke volume by increasing contractility, which results in more
complete ejection of blood from the heart (lower ESV).

 Increased Parasympathetic Stimulation )‫اش بقل‬‫مهم(كل ي‬


▪ Parasympathetic activity increases after a crisis has passed. This reduces heart
rateand stroke volume from their high levels, bringing cardiac output back to normal.

 Increased Venous Return


▪ Cardiac muscle fibers are stretched by increased blood volume returning to the heart
(increased venous return and EDV).
▪ Increased stretch results in greater force of contraction, which increases stroke
volume.

Page 9
 Slow Heart Rate (bradycardia)
▪ Slow heart rate allows for more time for ventricular filling, increasing EDV and
therefore stroke volume.

 Extremely Fast Heart Rate(tachycardia)


▪ Extremely rapid heart rate results in low venous return and therefore decreased
stroke volume.

 Exercise
▪ Exercise activates the sympathetic nervous system, increasing heart rate,
contractility, and stroke volume.
▪ Both the higher heart rate and squeezing action of skeletal muscles on veins increase
venous return, contributing to increased stroke volume.

 Sudden Drop in Blood Pressure (hypotension)


▪ A sudden drop in blood pressure results in low venous return and therefore
decreased stroke volume.
▪ However, heart rate increased due to sympathetic activity, and normal cardiac
output is maintained.

 Rising Blood Pressure(hypertension)


▪ Rising blood pressure reduces sympathetic activity, decreasing heart rate.
▪ High blood pressure also increases arterial pressure which ventricles must overcome
before semilunar valves open, increasing ESV and decreasing stroke volume.
▪ Reduced cardiac output helps bring blood pressure down to normal levels.

 Sudden Drop in Blood Volume(hypovolemia)


▪ A sudden drop in blood volume (eg. due to severe blood loss) results in low venous
return and therefore decreased stroke volume. Sympathetic activity increases heart
rate, maintaining cardiac output.

 Excess Calcium(Hypercalcemia)
▪ Excess calcium can increase stroke volume by enhancing contractility.

Page 10
Very IMPORTANT questions:

Q1- Nicotinic receptors are:


1-Excited by acetylcholine released from both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers.
2- Are considered as alpha adrenergic receptors
3- Are found in the heart muscle
4- Bind with acetylcholine released from parasympathetic postganglionic fibers
ANS : 1

Q2- One of the following is considered to be hybrid receptor\channels:


1- Ionotropic receptors
2- Metabotropic receptors
3- Catalytic receptors
4- Nuclear receptors
ANS: 1

Page 11

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