Chapter 2

Antenna Fundamentals

In this part, the fundamental idea of an antenna is talked about and its working
principle is clarified. The parameters which are used to evaluate an antenna are
discussed in this section. These parameters are important to characterize an antenna the
conduct of an antenna and its varieties.

1.1 Antenna Definition

An antenna is a fundamental piece of a communication framework [5]. It is

utilized to transmit and get the electromagnetic wave. According to IEEE, the
definition of the antenna as given by Stutzman and Thiele [6] pursues the idea: "That
piece of transmitting or accepting the framework that is intended to emanate or get
electromagnetic waves". Webster’s Dictionary in [7] gives the definition of an
antenna as “It is usually a metallic device (as a rod or wire) for transmitting or
receiving waves”.

In general, antenna develops a wireless connection between different devices

by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic energy from the space surrounding it.
The antenna is a complementary devices i.e. they need the same form of
characteristics whether or not in sending or in accepting mode.

1.2 Radiation Mechanism of an Antenna

A conductor radiates primarily due to time-varying current or associate

acceleration (or deceleration) of charge. Current is not generated without moving
charge. As a result, no radiation takes place. Radiation will not occur whether or not
charges are moving with uniform speed on a straight wire. Radiation will not occur
even if charges are moving with uniform velocity along a straight wire. However,

1
Radiation is produced in a bent wire if and only if the charge is moving with
uniform speed [5].

Fig.2.1 represents the radiation principle of an antenna. A voltage source is

applied to a transmission line consisting of two conductors. The transmission line is
fed by an ac voltage. As a result, a sinusoidal nature electric field is produced. Due
to this electric field, tangential electric lines of force are created. The maximum
bouncing of lines of force represents the amplitude of the electric field. As a result,
the magnetic field is produced due to this movement of charges [6].

Fig. 2.1: Radiation mechanism of an antenna

Because of the time changing electric and magnetic fields, electromagnetic

waves are made and there is a movement between the conductors. As these waves
approach open space, free space waves are shaped by associating the open closures
of the electric lines. Since the sinusoidal source continuously produces
electromagnetic waves through the transmission line and radiation takes place into
free space by forming a closed loop [5].

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2.3 Near and Far Field Region

The antenna field patterns are changed with distance and are related with
two varieties of energy which are reactive and radiating energy. The region near an
antenna can be classified into three regions which are a far field (Fraunhofer Zone),
radiating near field (Fresnel Zone), and reactive near field, [5]. Fig 2.2 shows field
regions near an antenna.

Fig. 2.2: Field regions around an antenna

The three regions are:

(i) Reactive near field region: The area close to antenna wherever the
reactive field prevails is known as reactive near field region. The reactive
energy oscillates towards and away from the antenna, thus appearing as
reactance. Energy is stored in this region but no energy is dissipated. The
distance between the antenna surface and reactive near field region of the
antenna is represented by the equation

𝐷3
𝑅 < 0.62√ 𝜆 (2.1)

Where,

λ = Wavelength

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 D= largest dimension of the antenna

(ii) Near field region: It is also called the Fresnel region. The area between
the far-field region and the reactive near field region is called near field
region. Reactive field become diminishes and radiation field starts to
dominate in this region. The distance from the antenna influences the
angular distribution of the field in this area. The near field region can be
represented by the following equation:

𝐷3 2𝐷 2
0.62√ 𝜆 < 𝑅 < (2.2)
𝜆

(iii) Far field region: The area close to the antenna where no reactive fields
exist but only the radiation field is present is called far-field region or
Fraunhofer region. Angular field distribution is no longer dependent on the
distance from the antenna and also power density is varied inversely
square of the radial distance. When the distance is changed, the shape of
the radiation pattern is also changed. So a propagating wave appears as a
plane wave. The starting of the far-field region can be represented by the
following equation and extends away from the antenna.

2𝐷 2
𝑅> (2.3)
𝜆

2.4 Antenna Parameters

During designing of an antenna, some important parameters need to be

considered. These parameters are discussed below:

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2.4.1 Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern is the graphical representation of electric field strength

transmitted or received by the antenna. Generally, the radiation pattern is the energy
radiated by an antenna. It is the graphical representations of distributed radiation
energy in a particular direction. Depending upon power density, magnetic field, and
electric field, radiation can be classified as field pattern and power pattern.
a) Field Pattern: Plotting of electric and magnetic field in logarithmic scale is
known as field pattern. Fig. 2.3(a) shows a field pattern.
b) Power Pattern: When power density variation along a constant radius is
presented in a graph, it is called the power pattern. Antenna’s directional
property is represented by power pattern. To plot power pattern in a linear scale,
square of the magnitude of the magnetic or electric field as a function of the
angular space is presented. Fig. 2.3(b) and Fig.2.3(c) show the power pattern of
an antenna.

(a) Field pattern (b) Power pattern (c) Power pattern (dB)

Fig.2.3: Two-dimensional normalized radiation pattern.

2.4.1.1 Radiation Lobes

The variable portion of the radiation has been bounded by the area of
comparatively weak radiation intensity. These regions are defined as the radiation

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pattern lobes or simply radiation lobes [43]. Generally, radiation lobes are classified
as major and minor lobes. Minor lobe again sub-classified into side and back lobes,
Fig.2.4.

Radiation lobe that contains maximum radiation in the specified direction is

defined as the main lobe or the beam of the antenna and others lobes are all together
named as minor lobes. In minor lobes, the radiation is too much small compared to
the major lobe. The back lobe is the radiation lobe which is situated at the angle
almost 180° with respect to the major lobe.

The ratio of the power density of the major lobe to the minor lobe is called the
sidelobe level. It is expressed as,

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒

𝑆𝐿𝐿 = (2.4)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒

Fig 2.4: Radiation lobes of an antenna.

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 Due to side lobes, the antenna directivity has been reduced as power is waste
in side lobes. The desirable limit of sidelobe levels of an antenna is -20dB or less
than this value.

2.4.1.2 Types of Radiation Pattern

According to the direction of the radiation pattern, there are three types of
patterns have been found:

a) Isotropic: It is a hypothetical thought as it is considering a lossless antenna

which radiates equally in all direction, Fig. 2.5(a). Therefore, it considers an
ideal antenna which is not physically available. To explain directivity and
patterns of the practical antenna, it is considered as a reference.
b) Directional: When the radiation pattern of an antenna directs towards a specific
direction, therefore, maximum radiation in a specific region and less in other
regions the antenna is said to be a directional antenna, Fig. 2.5(b).

(a)Isotropic patterns (b) Directional patterns

(c) Omni directional pattern

Fig. 2.5: Different types of radiation pattern.

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c) Omni directional: The radiation pattern or directivity of an antenna when non
directional in azimuth (E) plane (𝜃 = 𝜋⁄2) and directional in elevation (H) plane
(∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡), it is named as Omni directional antenna, Fig. 2.5(c)

2.4.2 Solid Angle

In geometry, a solid angle, Ω is the two-dimensional angle in three-

dimensional space that an object subtends at a point. Solid angle depends on the
following factors:

(i) Geometrical shape & dimensions of the object

(ii) Relative distance between given object & concerned point (i.e. eye of
observer).

(iii) Orientation or configuration of object with respect to concerned point in

the space.

A steradian is the measurement of a solid angle. One steradian is characterized

as the strong point with its vertex at the focal point of a circle of sweep r that is
subtended by a circular surface territory. Fig. 2.6 is equivalent to that of a square
with each side of length r [5].

Fig.2.6: Geometrical arrangement for defining a steradian

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In spherical coordinates, the equation of a solid angle of a sphere can be given as
[5]:
𝑑𝐴
dΩ = = Sinθ dθ dϕ (2.5)
𝑟2

Where θ is the latitude and ϕ is the longitude.

2.4.3 Radiation Power Density

Power radiated per unit surface area (spherical coordinate) from the antenna
surface is defined as the radiation power density. Electromagnetic wave transmits
information from one place to another which is done by the power and energy.
Therefore, for transmitting information electromagnetic wave requires power or
energy. The average radiated power equation of an antenna is given as:

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∯𝑠 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 . 𝑑𝑠 (2.6)

Where,

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 And 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Average radiated power (W),

𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Average power density (W/m2 ),

For symmetric (uniformly distributed surface) radiation (2.6) becomes,

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯𝑠 𝑊0 . 𝑑𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑊0 (2.7)

Where,

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Total radiated power (W),

𝑊0 = Power density due to symmetric radiation (W/m2 ),

𝑟 = Radius of the symmetric surface (m).

Hence the power density for a uniformly distributed surface of sphere 𝑟 is,

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 𝑃
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑊0 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
(W/m2 ) (2.8)

2.4.4 Radiation Intensity

Power radiated per unit solid angle in a specific direction from an antenna is
named as radiation intensity of antenna. It is necessary for the far-field region. The
mathematical expression can be written as,

𝑈 = 𝑟 2 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 (2.9)
Where,

𝑈 = Intensity of radiation (W⁄unit solid angle)

𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Radiation power density (W/m2 )

2.4.5 Beamwidth

Beamwidth is defined as the angular difference in radiation pattern between

two points is called beam width. The place where peak power is radiated is beam

width. It is a very important parameter an antenna as if side lobe increases beam

width decreases and vice versa. Therefore, the beam width needs to be large in scale.

Basically, two types of beam width have been considered, HPBW and FNBW [44,

45].

i) HPBW (Half-Power Beamwidth): It is defined by IEEE as: “In a plane

containing the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle between
the two directions in which the radiation intensity is the one-half value of
the beam”. In other words, the angular separation, in which the
magnitude of the radiation pattern decreases by 50% (or -3dB) from the
peak of the main beam is known as HPBW, Fig. 2.7.

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 ii) FNBW (First-Null Beamwidth): It is the angular span between the first
pattern nulls adjacent to the main lobe (0 dB), Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7: Beam width of an antenna.

2.4.6 Directivity

Directivity is the proportion of the radiation power in a provided direction

from the antenna to the averaged radiation intensity in all direction [5]. In other
words, the directivity of a non-isotropic source is equivalent to the proportion of its
radiation power in a provided guidance, over that of an isotropic source. On the off
chance that the direction is not indicated, the direction of greatest radiation intensity
is suggested. As it were, the directivity of a non-isotropic source is equivalent to the
proportion of its radiation power in a provided guidance over that of an isotropic
source. The equation of directivity is:

𝑈 4𝜋𝑈
𝐷= =𝑃 (2.10)
𝑈0 𝑟𝑎𝑑

For maximum directivity becomes,

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = = (2.11)
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

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 Where,

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Total radiated power (W),

𝐷= Directivity (dimensionless),

𝑈 = Radiation intensity(W⁄unit solid angle),

𝐷0 = 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum directivity (dimensionless),

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum radiation intensity(W⁄unit solid angle),

𝑈0 = Radiation intensity due to isotropic source(W⁄unit solid angle)

Directivity has no dimension because it is the ratio of two intensities. Hence, it

is generally expressed in dBi. The directivity of an antenna can be effectively
evaluated from the antenna radiation pattern. Broad main lobe indicates better
directivity.

2.4.7 Gain

Gain is defined as the ratio of the power produced by an antenna in a specific

direction to power generated by an isotropic lossless antenna in a given direction
[46]. It is related closely with the directivity where directivity indicates how much
energy concentrated in one direction. When the efficiency of an antenna is 100%,
then the antenna is called isotropic radiator. The radiation of all antenna will be
more in some direction that in others, therefore gain can be measured as power that
can be found in one direction at the expense of the power lost in the others as
explained by Ula by[47]. So the equation of antenna gain can be expressed as,

𝑈(𝜃,𝜙) 𝑈(𝜃,𝜙)
𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙) = 4𝜋 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 [4𝜋 ] (2.12)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

Where,

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜙) = Radiation intensity,

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 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = Total accepted power,

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Total radiated power

Absolute gain takes into account the reflection losses (𝑒𝑟 ),

𝐺𝑎𝑏𝑠 (𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑒𝑟 𝐺(𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝐷(𝜃, 𝜙) (2.13)

2.4.8 Antenna Aperture

Antenna aperture indicates the amount of power from a given plane wave
received and delivered by the antenna [48]. If an antenna will collect more power
from an incoming electromagnetic wave, the antenna aperture will be larger. The
power available at the receiver antenna is expressed by the equation
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝐴𝑒 (2.14)
Where, Pt = Power available at the antenna
P =Power density of the plane
Ae =Effective area
The relation between the effective aperture and peak antenna gain is expressed
by
𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 = 4𝜋 𝐺 (2.15)

Where,
𝞴=Wavelength of radio waves
G=Antenna gain
So an antenna with high gain indicates a large aperture or effective area.
Effective are or effective aperture can be measured by comparing the antenna with a
known antenna with a given effective aperture, or by using the gain measurement.

2.4.9 Antenna Impedance

Antenna impedance is the ratio of the input voltage to the input. Hence,
antenna impedance is a simple concept. The radiated and non radiated power of an
antenna is indicated as the real and the imaginary part of the antenna respectively.

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When the imaginary part is zero, the antenna is said to be resonant. There is a
frequency dependency of the antenna on impedance [5]. Hence the impedance of the
antenna can be written as:

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝐽𝑋𝑖𝑛 (2.16)

Where,

Zin = Antenna impedance,

Rin = Antenna resistance,

Xin = Reactance of the antenna.

The transmitted signal from an antenna will not be reflected If the impedance
of the antenna is matched to the impedance of the transmission line (ZL=Z0) as given
in Fig. 2.8.

All power will not be delivered to the load if a load of an antenna is not matched
with the transmission line. Some power will be reflected back to the generator. So
there is a loss of power due to the impedance mismatch.

Fig.2.8: Transmission and reflection in a transmission line terminated at a load

The tool for matching the impedance of an antenna system with the
transmission line as a function of frequency is Smith chart. Smith Charts are also
extremely helpful for impedance matching [49].

A basic Smith chart is shown in Fig.2.9. There is a signal reflection with

coefficient Γ in the transmission line due to impedance mismatching. Every point on

14
the Smith diagram at the same time speaks to both an estimation of z and the
comparing estimation of Γ related by [49].

z= 11 +− ΓΓ (2.17)

(a) (b)
Fig.2.9: Smith chart: (a) normalized impedance Smith chart (b) complex reflection
coefficient plotted on the normalized impedance Smith chart [50].

2.4.10 Radiation Resistance

The resistive part has two components which are radiation resistance and loss
resistance. The power radiated from an antenna is associated with radiation
resistance. When this resistance is connected in series, the consumed power will be
the same as the radiated power. It can be said that it is a feed point resistance. This
energy loss is radiated as an electromagnetic wave. Antenna efficiency depends on
radiation resistance [51].

2.4.11 Reflection Coefficient

While feeding input power to the antenna, the characteristic impedance of the
antenna and the input impedance of the antenna should be matched. According to

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maximum power transfer theorem, if the impedance is not matched than some
portion of the input signal will be reflected back. This impedance mismatching term
is represented by the reflection coefficient.

Fig.2.10: Reflection due to impedance mismatch

The amount of the electromagnetic wave which is reflected in the transmission

line by an impedance mismatching is called reflection coefficient. In mathematical
term,

𝑍 −𝑍
𝛤 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑍0 (2.18)
𝑖𝑛 0

Where,

𝛤 = Reflection co-efficient (dimensionless),

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = Input impedance (Ω),

𝑍0 =Output impedance (Ω)

𝛤 = 0 means no electromagnetic wave has been reflected back, hence the

impedances are matching and 𝛤 = 1 means that all the waves have been reflected
back to the transmitter, nothing is radiated.

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2.4.12 Return Loss

Return loss or scattered parameter of an antenna is the amount of power reflected

back to transmitter [52]. It describes the amount of lost power in load. Transmitted
waves are reflected to form standing waves due to impedance mismatching. Thus the
RL is a parameter like the VSWR to show how well the coordinating between the
transmission line and antenna has occurred .The RL is expressed as by [53],

𝑆 = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝛤𝑝| (2.19)

Where,

𝑆 = Scattered parameter (dimensionless),

𝛤 = Power reflection co-efficient (dimensionless)

To get a good performance from an antenna, this parameter must be less than -10dB.
If S=0dB, no power is radiated, all are reflected back to the transmitter. If the
impedance is perfectly matched then the reflection coefficient is zero. So no power
is reflected. On the other side, if Γ = 1 indicates that all input power is reflected. For
functional applications, a VSWR of 2 is adequate, since this compares to an RL of -
9.54 dB.

2.4.13 VSWR

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is a function of the reflection coefficient, which

indicates the power reflected from the antenna. To transfer maximum power,
impedance matching is essential. Maximum power transfer theorem sates that
maximum power transfer is possible if and only if the impedance of the transmitter
and transmission line is matched. On the off chance that the condition is not
fulfilled, at that point a portion of the power might be reflected back and this
prompts the formation of standing waves, which can be indicated by a parameter
called as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR).

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 Fig 2.11: Equivalent circuit of transmitting antenna

The VSWR is given by Makrov [53] as:

1+|𝛤|
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = 1−|𝛤| (2.20)

Where,

𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = Voltage standing wave ration (dimensionless),

𝛤 = Reflection co-efficient (dimensionless)

If VSWR = 1.0 that means no power reflection occurs. VSWR indicates the
mismatching of impedance. In case of the practical design of an antenna, the input
impedance must be either 75 Ω or 50 Ω since most devices are made considering
this phenomenon.

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2.4.14 Antenna Bandwidth

Antenna bandwidth is defined as the difference between the upper cut-off

frequency and lower cut-off frequency. The frequency range where the antenna
properties are within a specific standard is called antenna bandwidth. It means within
this range the performance of the antenna is acceptable one by the designer or user. It
can be said that bandwidth of antenna indicates those range of frequencies where the
antenna properties like radiation pattern, input impedance, beam width, side lobe
label, polarization, gain, radiation efficiency, and beam direction, are within a
sustainable limit.

According to IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas, the definition

of antenna bandwidth is given as “The range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristics, conforms to a
specified standard” [54].

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿 (2.21)

fH=Upper frequency

fL=Lower frequency

The bandwidth of an antenna is normally calculated as the difference of

frequency range in which S11 magnitude is below - 10 dB. At such S11 value, the
reflected wave is much smaller than the incident wave pointing out good matching
of impedance between the feed line and antenna transmitter.

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 Fig.2.12: Bandwidth measurement from reflection coefficient

The bandwidth of a rectangular patch can be defined as follows as it depends

on different parameters of the patch [55].
(𝜀𝑟 − 1)𝑊ℎ
Bandwidth = 3.77 , h <<λ (2.22)
𝜀𝑟2 𝐿 λ

Where εr = Relative permittivity,

W = Patch width,

L =Patch length,

h= Substrate height and

λ =Wavelength

2.4.15 Impedance Bandwidth

The impedance bandwidth is just the ordinary bandwidth of the antenna.

Normally the range of frequencies over which the return loss is acceptable is
impedance bandwidth. The percentage is referring to a quantity more commonly

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called fractional bandwidth (FBW). This is simply the absolute bandwidth divided
by the antenna’s center frequency [6].

𝐵𝑊
Fractional 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑥100% (2.23)
𝑓0

Where f0 = Center frequency

The fractional bandwidth is a better measure for bandwidth when comparing
different antennas because it is independent of scale.

2.4.16 Polarization

During designing of an antenna, Polarization is considered a vital parameter.

Antenna converts RF current to electromagnetic waves. The electric field of the
EMF waves determines the type of polarization or the radio wave orientation [56,
57]. It is a parameter which stays consistent over the antenna fundamental beam yet
may shift in the minor lobes. Since the electric and magnetic field vectors are
constantly identified with Maxwell's condition, it is sufficient to indicate the
polarization of one of them and for the most part, it is determined by the electric
field [58, 59]. Polarization has been classified into linear, circular and elliptical
polarization.

a) Linear Polarization: An antenna is said to be linearly polarized if the

transmitted wave field vector (electric or magnetic) has only one component or
two orthogonal linear components that are in phase or 180° (or multiples of
180° ) out of phase. Therefore, a wave field is linearly polarized at a specific
point in space if the electric-field (or magnetic-field) vector at that point is
always oriented along the same straight line at every instant of time shown in
Fig. 2.13. The conditions for linear polarization are:
i. The field must have one component, or
ii. The field must have two linear orthogonal components which are in
phase or 180◦ out-of-phase (or multiples of 180°).

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 In case of a horizontally polarized antenna, the electric field is parallel to
the earth surface. On the other hand, the field is perpendicular to surface for a
vertically polarized antenna. Fig. 2.14 shows horizontal and vertical polarization.

Fig.2.13: Linear polarization.

Fig.2.14: Linear polarization (a) Horizontal (b) Vertical

b) Circular Polarization: If the rotation of the polarization plane is such that it

makes one complete revolution during one cycle of the wave, then this type of
polarization is called circular polarization. Hence, a wave is circularly polarized

22
at a specific point in space if the electric (or magnetic) field vector at that point
traces a circle as a function of time. Circular polarization is shown in Fig 2.15.
The conditions for accomplish a circular polarization are:
i. Same magnitude of field,
ii. Two orthogonal linear components and
iii. Phase difference must be odd multiples of 90°

Fig. 2.15: Circular polarization.

For right-hand-circular polarization (RHCP), the rotation of circular polarization

is clockwise. On the other side, the rotation is counterclockwise left-hand-
circular polarization (LHCP). Fig.2.16 shows the different types of circular
polarization.

(a) (b)

Fig.2.16: Circular polarization (a) RHCP (b) LHCP

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c) Elliptical Polarization: Circular polarization is the polarization of
electromagnetic radiation with the end goal that the tip of the electric field vector
portrays an oval in any settled plane converging, and ordinary to, the bearing of
engendering. At different moments of time, the field vector changes constantly
with time at such a way as to depict an elliptical locus which is shown in Fig.
2.17. If the rotation of the field vector is clockwise, then it is called right-hand
elliptical polarization. On the other hand, if the rotation of the field vector is
anticlockwise, then it is called left-hand elliptical polarization [60]. A wave is
said to be elliptically polarized on the off chance that it has no linear or circular
polarization. For elliptical polarization, the field must meet the following
requirement.
i. Two orthogonal components which must be linear,
ii. Both of them have equal or different magnitude and
iii. (1) If the two segments have unequal value, the time-stage distinction
between the two parts must not be 0° or products of 180°.
(2) If the magnitude of two component is same, phase difference must be
even multiple of 90°.

Figure 2.17: Elliptical polarization.

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2.4.17 Axial Ratio

The proportion of major axis to minor axis is indexed by a term called axial
ratio [5]. Actually, it gives the concept of polarization shapes. Orientation is stated
OA
by Tilt angle (τ). The axial ratio (AR = ) is the ratio between the length of the
OB

major axis (OA) and the minor axis (OB) of the E-field, (OA ≥ OB) .

Fig.2.18: An electric field created by two electric field components

For circular polarization antennas, the far-field is divided into left and right
hand polarized field components (ELHCP, ERHCP). This relation is given by the
following equations [62]:
1
ELHCP = (𝐸𝜃 − 𝑗𝐸𝜑 ) (2.24)
√2

1
ERHCP = (𝐸𝜃 + 𝑗𝐸𝜑 ) (2.25)
√2

|𝐸 |+ |𝐸 |
ARCP = |𝐸𝐿𝐻𝐶𝑃 |− |𝐸𝑅𝐻𝐶𝑃 | 2.9 (2.26)
𝐿𝐻𝐶𝑃 𝑅𝐻𝐶𝑃

Utilizing these conditions, the axial ratio of CP antenna can be determined. It

indicates how well the antenna is circularly polarized. On the off chance that its
magnitude rises to one, the fields are impeccably circularly polarized. For linear
polarization, the value of AR is infinite.

25
 AR is generally estimated in the decibel scale and the perfect esteem is 0 dB
for circularly polarized fields. In any case, in planning, the estimation of AR under 3
dB for any antenna is considered to create a circularly polarized wave.

The axial ratio bandwidth describes a frequency range, in which the antenna
axial ratio is kept below a certain level. For classical unidirectional antennas, a
frequency is considered to be within this bandwidth if the AR at bore sight is below 3
dB.

2.4.18 Front to Back Ratio

It is the ratio between the radiated powers in the front/main radiation lobe to the
radiated power in the reverse direction. This ratio tells us the extent of backward
radiation and is normally expressed in dB. This parameter is vital in conditions
where coverage or interference in the opposite direction should be limited.

Fig.2.19: Major and minor lobe of an antenna

2.4.19 Antenna Efficiency

The efficiency of an antenna measures on how mush losses occur during the
propagation time of a signal. These losses are due to the impedance mismatch or due
to conduction or dielectric losses [5].

26
The antenna efficiency 𝑒0 can be expressed as,

𝑒0 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐𝑑 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 (1 − |𝛤|2 ) (2.27)

Where,

𝑒0 = Total efficiency,

𝑒𝑟 =Reflection efficiency,

𝑒𝑐 = Conduction efficiency,

𝑒𝑑 = Dielectric efficiency,

𝑒𝑐𝑑 = 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑 = antenna radiation efficiency,

𝛤 = Reflection co-efficient (dimensionless)

2.5 Different Types of Antenna

Antennas have various shapes and sizes to suit different types of remote
applications. The shape and type of material used to make antenna control the
qualities of an antenna. Some common antenna is described below [61]:

2.5.1 Wire Antennas

These types of antenna are referred to as linear or curved. Wire antennas are
terribly easy, low-cost and are utilized various applications. There are four types of
Wire antennas which are described below:
(i) Dipole antenna: In case of the dipole antenna, a sinusoidal voltage is
applied between two metal poles. The length of the metal pole must be
quarter wavelengths at working frequency. The easy development process is
an important feature of this antenna.

27
 Fig. 2.20: Dipole antenna

(ii) Monopole antenna: The half of a basic dipole antenna situated over a
grounded plane as appeared in Fig.2.21.

Fig. 2.21: Monopole antenna

28
 The radiation pattern above the ground will be similar as the half wave
dipole antenna, however, the total power transmitted is half of the dipole
and the field gets emanated just in the upper side of the equator area. The
directivity of this antenna turns out to be twofold contrasted with the dipole
antenna. Nowadays the monopole antenna is likewise utilized as the
mounted vehicle as they give the required ground plane to the reception
apparatuses mounted over the surface of the earth.
(iii) Loop antenna: Loop antenna is made by combining comparable qualities
of both monopole and dipole antenna since they are basic and simple to
develop. It is accessible in various structures like circular, round,
rectangular, and so on. The principal qualities of this antenna are free of its
structures. They are broadly utilized in correspondence joins with the
frequency of around 3 GHz. This antenna may likewise be utilized as EMF
tests in different microwave groups.

Fig. 2.22: Loop antenna

29
2.5.2 Traveling Wave Antennas

A guiding structure is used as the main radiating mechanism in traveling wave

antenna in radio and telecommunication. In these types of antenna, traveling wave is
generated in the radio waves and traveled in one direction through the antenna.
(i) Helical antenna: Helical antenna is also known as helix antenna. The basic
structure of this antenna consists of one or more wire which is twisted to
make a helix structure typically promoted by a reflector or a ground plane
or molded reflector and controlled by suitable feeding. The most well-
known design is a single wire backed by grounding and feeding with a
coaxial.

Fig. 2.23: Helix antenna

(ii) Yagi-Uda antenna: The passive component is used in Yagi-Uda antenna.

This sort of antenna is modest and effective. It very well may be developed
with at least one executive component and one reflector components. Yagi
antenna consists of one reflector, executives, mounted for horizontal
polarization in a forward way and a determined dipole dynamic component.

30
 Fig. 2.24: Yagi-Uda antenna

2.5.3 Microwave Antennas

The antenna which is operating at microwave frequencies is called microwave

antenna. This type of antenna has many applications.
(i) Microstrip antenna: Microstrip is like a strip line or planar transmission
line. The structure of microstrip antenna comprises of a copper isolated from
a ground plane by a substrate. Space is needed for the feed line that is
generally placed beneath the ground.

Fig. 2.25: Microstrip patch antenna

31
(ii) Planer inverted antenna: This category of the antenna can be viewed as a
direct Inverted F antenna (IFA) in which transfer speed is expanded by using
a plate. The upside of this antenna is that they can be covered up into the
lodging of the portable when contrasted with various sorts of antenna like a
whip, bar or helical radio wires, and so on. The other preferred standpoint is
that the regressive radiation towards the highest point of the antenna can be
decreased by retaining power that upgrades the proficiency. They provide
high gain in both vertical and level states. This element is most essential for
any sort of antenna utilized in remote communications.

2.5.4 Reflector Antennas

Reflector antenna reflects electromagnetic energy. There are two types of

reflector antenna which are described below:
(i) Corner reflector antenna: The antenna that incorporates somewhere around
one dipole segments set before a corner reflector is known as corner reflector
antenna. The directivity of an antenna can be extended by using reflectors. A leading
sheet is used behind the antenna for coordinating the radiation in the forward.

Fig. 2.26: Corner reflector antenna

32
(ii) Parabolic reflector antenna: The emanating surface of a parabolic reflector
antenna has extensive measurements contrasted with its wavelength. One of
the valuable characteristics of this antenna is the transformation of a diverging
spherical wave front into parallel wave front that creates a restricted light
emission radio wire. The different kinds of feeds that utilization this
explanatory are horn feeds, Cartesian feeds and dipole feed.

Fig. 2.27: Parabolic reflector antenna

2.5.5 Log Periodic Antennas

This type of antenna is additionally known as a log-periodic array. It is a

directional restricted shaft and multi-component antenna that deals with a wide
bandwidth. This antenna is made of a progression of dipoles put along the radio wire
hub at various space interims of time pursued by a logarithmic capacity of
frequency. This antenna is employed in different applications wherever various

33
Information measures are required together with antenna directionality and gain.
There are two types of log periodic antenna which are described below:

(i) Bowtie antenna: A bowtie antenna is otherwise called a butterfly antenna. It

is an Omni directional wideband antenna. As demonstrated by the degree of this
antenna, it has low frequency response and goes about as a high-pass channel. As
the frequency goes beyond what many would consider possible, a long way from
the arrangement frequency, the radiation case of the antenna gets spreads and
twisted.

Fig. 2.28: Bowtie Antenna

(ii) Log periodic dipole array: It is widely recognized sort of antenna utilized in
remote correspondence innovation which essentially contains different dipole

34
components. The size of this antenna is increased from the front end to the
back end. Fig.2.29 shows a log periodic array antenna.

Fig. 2.29: Log periodic dipole array

35
Chapter 3

Theory of Microstrip Patch Antenna

In this chapter, the definition, structure, and radiation mechanism of Microstrip

Patch antenna will be discussed. Some feed modeling techniques and design
techniques will be discussed. Finally, some merits, demerits, and applications will
be discussed.

3.1 Definition of Microstrip Patch Antenna

Microstrip patch antenna or printed antenna is a type of antenna in which

fabrication is done by using microstrip techniques PCB board. It consists of a metal
layer as a radiation patch, substrate in the middle and a ground layer on the other
side of the metal layer. Transmitter or receiver is connected to the antenna through a
microstrip line. G.A Deschamps first gave the concept of the microstrip antenna in
1953 [7]. In the 1970s, it became practical which are done by several researchers
[63]. Howell and others use low-loss soft substrate materials that were just
becoming available [7, 63]. There is an inverse relationship between frequency and
MPA (microstrip patch antenna) size. Nowadays high frequency devices are very
popular. So this antenna becomes a great interest.

3.2 Structure of Microstrip Patch Antenna

As shown in Fig. 3.1, a microstrip antenna in its simplest configuration is

composed of two conductors placed on both sides of a dielectric substrate. The
source of radiation is the upper conductor known as patch antenna which is mounted
on the substrate. On the other side of the substrate, there is also a conductor named
ground plane which is used as a perfect reflector to bounce back the energy into free

36
space. The size of the transmission line is smaller than the patch. Generally, the patch
is constructed with a thin conductor of copper or gold which is parallel to a ground
plane.

Fig. 3.1: Microstrip Patch (a) Microstrip patch element (b) Cross sectional view,
AA' (c) Cross sectional view, BB'

Generally, the shape of Patch antennas in real life applications is circular or

rectangular. However, different types of shape are possible which is shown in
Fig.3.2. But rectangular, square and circular as regular shapes are the most familiar
because of performance prediction ease of analysis, and fabrication [7].

Fig. 3.2: Different configuration of patch antenna

37
3.3 Radiation Mechanism of Microstrip Patch Antenna

When a voltage is applied to a microstrip antenna, a charge distribution occurs

on between both sides of the patch. Besides this, charge distribution also occurs on
the ground plane surface which is shown in Fig. 3.3. The same charges on the bottom
surface repulse each other to move charge from the bottom to the top surface. Due to
this charge movement, Current densities Jb and Jt are generated. The concentration of
charges in the lower side of the ground and patch is maintained by opposite’s
charges. The ratio of height to width is very low for the practical antenna. So there is
a domination of attractive forces and maximum charge concentration remains under
the patch. The model of the patch is represented by a cavity at the top and bottom
with electric walls. Also, there are four magnetic walls along the edges of the patch.

Fig. 3.3: Charge dispersion and current density generation on microstrip patch

The distribution of the electric field is shown in Fig. 3.4 for the superior TM100
mode of the cavity [7]. The radiation takes place in the four side walls of the cavity.
The equivalent magnetic current density MS and the equivalent electric current
density JS represents the four side slots. Due to the very small height to width ratio,
upper current density Jt will be considered to be negligible and it will be zero. The
equivalent current density JS will be zero due to a small tangential magnetic field
which is ideally close to zero. The equivalent magnetic current density MS along the
surface of the radiating cavity is nonzero in the ground plane.

38
 Fig. 3.4: Electric field distribution for the TM100 mode in the microstrip patch

The radiation produced by the slots isolated by the patch width is almost zero
because of different current distributions on the slots. However, the slots separated
by the length of the patch produce the current densities of the equal magnitude and
phase. Therefore, the similar two slots isolated by the length of the patch are
assumed as radiating slots.

3.4 Feeding Techniques of Microstrip Patch Antenna

Different techniques are used to feed the microstrip antenna. These ways are
often classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. within the
contacting methodology, the RF power is fed on to the divergent patch employing a
connecting component like a microstrip line. In the non-contacting theme,
magnetism field coupling is done to transfer power between the microstrip line and
also the divergent patch. The popular feeding methods used to patch antenna are
[64]:
1. Microstrip line
2. Coaxial probe

39
 3. Aperture coupling
4. Proximity coupling and
5. Coplanar waveguide feed.
1 and 2 are known as contacting feed techniques and 3, 4 is known as non-
contacting feed techniques.

3.4.1 Microstrip Line Feed

In this technique, the excitation is given by the microstrip line because the
feeding is an extension of patch and fabrication can be done simultaneously.
Generally, conducting strip is joined directly to the side of the patch. But the strip
dimension must be smaller than patch dimension. The bridge between the patch and
microstrip line is shown in Fig.3.5.

Fig. 3.5: Microstrip line feeding

This type of feeding is simple to model, easy to produce, and simple to match
by controlling the position of the feed. If the substrate thickness is increased, fake

40
radiation and surface waves are also increased which bound the bandwidth (typically
2-5%). Fig. 3.6 shows the equivalent circuit of microstrip feed with radiating edge.
A lumped equal model for a microstrip antenna can be made from the regular
suspicion of microstrip components as far as opposition R, inductance (L),
capacitance (C) and conductance G. In an antenna, any leading component is
approximated as an arrangement combination of R and L since it displays an
opposition R and inductance L because of the conductivity. The opposition R
represents conductor misfortunes. In microstrip receiving wires, as the top and base
leading layers are isolated by a dielectric material, a parallel mix of capacitance C
and conductance G is accepted in shunt. Clearly some capacitance rises when two
conduits are isolated by a dielectric material and G is considered because of
dielectric misfortune. Once in a while, a touch of inductance is additionally
considered between the top and base layers to account bordering fields and surface
waves. The thought of these considered results gives better exactness in
approximating the lumped identical model.

Fig 3.6: Microstrip feed with equivalent circuit and radiating edge

Microstrip line feeding can be also done by maintaining a gap between patch
and feed. It is called inset feeding. The impedance can be matched by controlling the
position of inset feed without using any extra matching element. This concept gives
the simple way to fabricate and model the antenna. The spurious radiation and
surface waves are increased as the dielectric are increased which limits the antenna
bandwidth. Also, this problem leads to unexpected cross polarized radiation.Fig.3.8

41
shows a gap coupled feeding and its equivalent circuit. A vertical gap between two
microstrip lines is in asymmetrical form with conductors of unequal width on either
side of the gap. The equivalent circuit for gap can be given as a ᴨ circuit which
consist of gap capacitance and plate capacitances.

Fig 3.7: Gap coupled microstrip feed

3.4.2 Co axial Feed Techniques

The most common technique is the coaxial feed technique. In this technique,
coaxial cable is connected directly to the patch through the substrate from the soil
layer. Separate optimization of the patch and feed system is the main benefit of this
feeding with a view to achieving improved efficiency. Microwave power transfer
takes place coupling of power through a probe. Fig. 3.8 shows that the ground plane
is attached to the external conductor and the interior conductor of the connector
spreads through the substrate and is attached to the radiating patch.

42
 Fig 3.8: Probe feeding of Microstrip patch antenna

In this feeding techniques, the main advantages are that, in order to

impedance matching, the feeding can be placed anywhere in the inside of the patch.
For this reason, fabrication is very simple due to this flexibility of feed location.
Spurious radiation can be reduced by using these strategies. But the disadvantage is
that the bandwidth becomes narrow. And there is a difficulty in the model to put
hole drilled in the substrate. With the connector spreading over the ground plane, the
length of the connector is increased. Due to the increase in the length of the probe,
the input impedance contains more inductive, which creates impedance matching
problems. Best impedance matching is required to get the best result as discussed
earlier [64]

3.4.3 Aperture Couple Feed Technique

It is a non-contacting feed technique. The feed line and radiating patch are
being isolated by the common ground structure in this feeding technique. The
feeding line is placed on the bottom of the lower substrate and patch is on the top of
the upper substrate. A slot cut is introduced in the ground plane which is utilized to
enhance parameters. Different types of shapes are possible.

43
 Fig 3.9: Aperture couple feeding of Microstrip patch antenna

Fig. 3.9 shows the configuration of this type of feed technique. The
electromagnetic coupling between ground and microstrip slot in the ground and the
microstrip patch is done by using feeding. Antenna performance can be increased by
selecting two different substrates [65, 66]. Spurious radiation is decreased by
utilizing this feeding. It also increases the antenna bandwidth, reduces cross-
polarization and improves polarization purity. But it has the same complexity of the
aperture feeding which is the multilayer fabrication.
Polarization purity improvement is one of the important features in this
feeding method [55]. The coupling slot location is almost in the middle compared to
patch where the magnetic field of the patch is maximum to improve the magnetic
coupling between the magnetic current near the slot and the magnetic field of the
patch.
In this feeding method, bandwidth can be improved by changing the position
of the slot, its length, shape, width, and stub length. Due to having multiple layers,
fabrication is quite difficult.

44
3.4.4 Proximity Coupled Microstrip Feed

It is a non-contacting and coplanar feeding technique. Two dielectric substrate

layers are used to give this feeding. The antenna is placed on the top of the upper
substrate layer and the microstrip feeding line is located on the top of the lower
substrate as shown in Fig.3.10.

Fig. 3.10: Proximity coupled feed technique

An open end to the feed line is presented below the patch. It is also known as
electromagnetically current coupled. The special feature of this feeding is that
coupling capacitive is developed in nature between the microstrip and the patch. The
circuit that is shown in fig.3.11 gives the configuration of this feed [67]. To tune the
antenna and impedance matching of the antenna, the value of the capacitor is
designed. Higher bandwidth and the reduction of the spurious radiation are the
important advantages of this feeding technique.

45
 Fig.3.11: Proximity coupled Microstrip feed equivalent circuit

Rather than the immediate contact techniques, which are dominatingly

inductive, the vicinity coupled fix's coupling system is capacitive in nature. The
electromagnetic coupling among fix and feed line is represented by capacitors; also,
this region yields the most elevated capacitance because of the solid coupling that
exists in between. The parallel RC circuit in this model speaks to the prevailing
bordering field that exists at the edge of the microstrip fix. As the wording goes so
as to enhance the bandwidth the open stopping point may be ended in a substrate
and the enhancement is done by using different parameters. As in the past feed
strategy the bandwidth enhancement and the radiation advancement should be
possible by selecting the substrate and the open end of the microstrip and the lower
substrate is to be thin, the bigger data transfer capacity is accomplished by putting
the transmitting patch dual layer. Matching depends on the length and the width
ratio which can be utilized in matching.

3.4.5 Coplanar Waveguide Feed

In this type of feeding technique, two ground planes are placed on both sides
of the center conductor. A conductor strip is placed at the middle. Generally, all
these lie in the same plane. This feeding technique is based on open circuiting the

46
CPW in a rectangular slot. The patch antenna is excited by using the ensuing
fringing fields. Though effective, these techniques need massive slots within the
ground plane and are comparatively troublesome to quantify. The special feature of
this feeding technique is that the complete line resides within the ground plane of the
antenna.

The characteristic electrical phenomenon of a planar waveguide is not affected

by the thickness and depends on width (W) and space (S). The minimum
characteristic of the electrical phenomenon of twenty ohm is often achieved by most
strip width (W) and minimum slot space (S). It usually ranges from 200 to 250 Ohm
[68, 69]. The main advantages of this type of feeding technique are low dispersion,
broadband performance, and easy realization due to etching on the side. But the
thick substrate is required and fabrication cost is very high in these techniques [70].

Fig 3.12: Coplanar waveguide feeding of patch antenna

47
3.5 Patch Antenna Material

In the wide selection of antenna models there are totally different structures of
Microstrip antennas. There are four basic elements of an antenna [66]:

Basic elements are:

- The patch

- Dielectric Substrate

- Ground Plane

- Feed Line

Fig. 3.13: Side view of microstrip rectangular patch antenna

The common operation is that the RF supplies the power to the patch. The
nonconductor material is often called substrate [71] there are options that are to be
thought about within the choice of the substrate like nonconductor constant value of
the fabric [6], nonconductor loss tangent, the surface adhesion properties for the
conductor coatings, and therefore the simple fabrication [72]. We have got a good
variety of materials for the substrate choice that are in use for the coplanar and
conformal antenna configurations. The dielectric constant for the materials varies
from 1.17 to ≈ 25 [73].

48
Table 3.1: Electrical properties of commonly used substrate material for microstrip
patch antenna

Material Dielectric Constant

Unreinforce PTFE, Cuflon 2.1

Reinforced PTFE, RT 2.2

Duroid 5880

Rogger-4350 3.48

Nylon Fabric 3.6

FR-4 4.4

Duroid 6110 10.7

3.6 Methods of Analysis of Microstrip Patch Antenna

To analyze microstrip patch antenna different models are considered. Most

common models which include integral equation or moment method are [7]:

(i) Transmission line model

(ii) Cavity model

(iii) Full wave model

One of the simple models is the transmission line model and it offers sensible
physical insight however it's less correct. The cavity model is correct and provides
sensible physical insight however is complex in nature. The complete wave models
are extraordinarily correct, adaptable and can view as single parts, stacked parts,
finite and infinite arrays, whimsical formed elements and coupling.

49
3.6 .1 Transmission Line Model

In this model, a microstrip is represented by two slots of breadth (W) and

height (h), isolated by a line of length L which is shown in Fig.3.14.The microstrip
is actually a non-homogeneous line of two dielectrics, usually the substrate and air.

Fig. 3.14: Microstrip line

Fig 3.15 shows the electric field line in a microstrip antenna. The electric
field lines within the antenna largely move within the substrate and even a small
amount out of the substrate into the air. Because of this, the transmission lines are
not ready to support the pure transversal electrical magnetic (TEM) mode of
transmission. As a result, the lines within the substrate and contours within the air
have totally different phase velocities [74].

Fig. 3.15: Electric field line of patch antenna

50
 The calculation of effective dielectric constant is essential in order to have the
fringing in the line and a notice of wave propagation. The estimation of effective
dielectric is marginally not as much as that of dielectric constant as should be
obvious that the bordering fields are not limited just in the substrate but rather some
are out noticeable all around.
The expression for ɛreff is expressed by Balanis [75] as:

1
∈𝑟 +1 ∈𝑟 −1 ℎ 𝑤
∈𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + [1 + 12 𝑤]−2 , ℎ > 1 (3.1)
2 2

Where,
ɛr = Substrate relative dielectric constant
ɛeff = Effective dielectric constant
W = Patch width
h = Height of dielectric substrate
Fig.3.16 depicts a microstrip patch antenna with width W, length L, and
height h. The parameters are shown on the co-ordinate axis such as height on the Z
axis, length on the X direction and width on the Y direction.

Fig 3.16: Microstrip patch antenna

51
 To analyze the antenna it is to be working within the basic mode i.e. TM10
and for this purpose, the patch length ought to be but λ/2 wherever λ – the
wavelength within the nonconductor medium and will be up to λ0/ √ (εreff) wherever
λ0 indicates wavelength in free space. In TM10 mode the electric field changes by
one λ/2 cycle towards patch length and no variation is observed on the patch width
[76]. Fig.3.17 shown below a microstrip antenna is represented by two slots of
breadth (W) and height (h) isolated by a line of length L and open circuited at each
the ends. On the breadth of the patch, the voltage is its highest value and current is
minimum because of the open ends. The fields at the sides can be resolved into
normal and tangential parts with reference to the ground plane.

The field lines, some reside within the substrate and a few are unfold into the
air, the traditional elements are towards the breadth and opposite in direction, i.e.
they're not in the section because the patch is λ/2 long. So that they are off as they
are opposite in direction. The tangential elements are in the section that makes the
ensuing fields to mix for a most divergent field to the surface of the structure.

Fig.3.17: Top view and side view of the MPA

The fringing fields on the breadth of the structure are considered as radiating
slots and therefore the patch of the antenna electrically seen to be a small amount
larger than usual style. Therefore the dimensions are modified and extended a small

52
amount for a higher performance i.e. it's been extended by ΔL which is calculated by
the following equation [77]:

𝑤
(∈𝑒𝑓𝑓 +0.3)( +0.264)
ℎ
∆𝐿 = 0.412 𝑤 𝑥ℎ (3.2)
(∈𝑒𝑓𝑓 −0.258)( +0.8)
ℎ

So the calculation of the effective length can be done by [78]:

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿 + 2∆𝐿 (3.3)
Moreover, the equation of the effective length for a particular resonant frequency is
given as [78]:
𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝑓 (3.4)
𝑟 √∈𝑒𝑓𝑓

For any Tmn mode, the resonance frequency for a rectangular microstip patch
antenna is given by James and Hall [79] as

𝐶 𝑚2 𝑛2
𝑓𝑟 = 2 [( 𝐿2 ) + (𝑊 2 )]2 (3.5)
√∈𝑒𝑓𝑓

Where, m and n indicate modes along the length and width respectively.
For efficient radiation the patch width can be found as [79] :
𝐶
𝑊= ∈ +1
(3.6)
2𝑓𝑟 √ 𝑟
2

3.6.2 Cavity Model

The cavity model is smart at usage, spectacular, strong and straightforward

even once having disadvantages such as cognitive content of the sector inequality on
the patch divergent side. In order to solve this problem, another model named cavity
model can be most well liked the foremost to research the microstrip antenna. The
inner region of the dielectric substrate in this model is shaped as a cavity bounded

53
by electrical walls on the bottom and highest. Some ideas are developed about thin
substrate given below [80]:
(i) Due to the thin substrate, low fluctuation in the z axis is observed in
inside area fields.
(ii) The field is solely z directed, and also the flux has solely the transversal
parts Hx and Hy within the finite area by metalizing the ground plane
and patch. This perception accommodates the division of electric fields at
the lowest and the highest.

Fig.3.18: Distribution of charge and generation of current density on the microstrip

patch

When power is given to the patch, distribution of charge is created in both

sides of the patch. But the lower side of the ground structure has opposite charges.
Here the former mechanism is used. To control the distribution of charge, two
mechanisms are available which are attractive mechanism and the repulsive
mechanism [81]. The first method is used between the opposite charges on the
ground plane and the bottom side of the patch in order to maintain the concentration
of charge intact at the underside of the patch. To move some charge from top to
bottom, the repulsive method is used between the similar charges on the lower
surface of the patch. Due to this movement of charges, currents start flowing at both
patch surfaces. The assumption of the cavity model is that the ratio between heights
of the substrate to the patch width is numerically very small. Maximum charge

54
concentration and current move to the lower part of the surface of the patch due to
the domination of an attractive mechanism. Less current moves to the top surface. If
the ratio is decreased, the current will be almost zero in the top surface. The creation
of the tangential magnetic field to the outside of the patch would not be permitted in
this situation. So the four walls might be shapely as an excellent magnetic
conductor. This suggests that the distribution of the field under the patch would not
be interrupted. Due to the presence of a finite ratio between breadths to height, the
tangential magnetic fields will have some value. However, they were terribly tiny
and the aspect walls might be close to absolutely magnetic conducting [82].

So as to get a radiation and loss component, a loss resistance and radiation

resistance must be presented. So the antenna is represented by loss cavity and the
loss is found as effective loss tangent 𝛿eff.
1
Where 𝛿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄 (3.7)
𝑇

QT = Quality factor of total antenna [55],

1 1 1 1
=𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 (3.8)
𝑄𝑇 𝑑 𝑐 𝑟

Qd = Quality factor of the dielectric [55],

𝜔𝑟𝑊𝑟 1
𝑄𝑑 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿 (3.9)
𝑃𝑑

Tan δ =Loss tangent of the dielectric

Wr =Total energy stored in the patch at the resonant frequency.

ωr = Angular resonant frequency.

Pd =Dielectric loss.

Conductor quality factor,

𝜔𝑟𝑊𝑟 ℎ
𝑄𝑐 = =∆ (3.10)
𝑃𝑐

Pc = Losses in conductor,

Δ = Skin depth of the conductor.

55
 h = Substrate height

Radiation quality factor,

𝜔𝑟𝑊𝑟
𝑄𝑟 = (3.11)
𝑃𝑟

Where, Pr = Radiated energy from the patch.

Finally using all equations, effective loss tangent can be calculated [55] as:

∆ 𝑃𝑟
𝛿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿 + ℎ + 𝜔 (3.12)
𝑟 𝑊𝑟

3.6.3 Full Wave Model

The methodology of the moment is one of the strategies which offer the
complete wave analysis for the microstrip patch antenna. In these techniques, fields
in nonconductor slab and surface current are used as volume polarization currents
which are shown by Newman and Nursingd Tulyathan [83]. Due to these unknown
currents and mistreatment the tactic of moments, field integral equations are
obtained. To get the result, this integral equation is transformed into a different
matrix equation. that can be solved by different numerical techniques of pure
mathematics. A short summary of the instant methodology is given below which
was represented by Harrington. The equation that is to be solved by using the
method of the moment is [84]:

𝐹(𝑔) = ℎ (3.13)
Where
g =Unknown function
F =Linear operator, and
h = Excitation or source function.
The expansion of g as a linear combination of N term is expressed by the
following equation:

56
 𝑔 = ∑𝑁𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑔1 + 𝑎2 𝑔2 + … … + 𝑎𝑁 𝑔𝑁 (3.14)
Where,
gn= Basis or expansion function which is known.
an= Constant which is unknown.
So the equation 3.13 can be written as:
∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝐹(𝑔𝑛 ) = ℎ (3.15)

The functions gn must be chosen in such a way, that the value of h can be
calculated. The value of an cannot be directly calculated because of the limitation of
the number of the equation for N unknowns. Weighted residuals process can be used
to find the value of these constants. Some trial solutions are developed with some
variable parameters in these techniques. A difference between the true values and
trial solutions is calculated to form residuals. To fit the trial functions, the
parameters are taken based on the reduction of the residuals. To find the current, any
methods which are discussed earlier can be imposed to solve the equations. These
current is further utilized to find other parameters like scattered magnetic and
electric field [83, 84].

3.7 Calculation of Microstrip Patch Antenna Dimension

Before the design and simulation of a microstrip patch antenna, antenna

dimensions must be calculated.

3.7.1 Calculation of the Length of Patch

At first, the resonant frequency and substrate are selected. To avoid cross
polarization, it is essential to consider fringing fields all over the edges of the
antenna. Considering this, the patch length is calculated by using the following
equation to avoid the cross-polarization. The antenna parameters are calculated by
using the following equations [75]:
Effective refractive index:

57
 1
∈𝑟 +1 ∈ −1 ℎ 𝑤
∈𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2
+ 𝑟2 [1 + 12 𝑤]−2 , ℎ > 1 (3.16)

Length of the patch:

𝑤
∆𝐿 (∈𝑒𝑓𝑓 +0.3)( ℎ +0.264)
ℎ
= 0.412 𝑤 (3.17)
(∈𝑒𝑓𝑓 −0.258)( +0.8)
ℎ

𝐶
𝐿 = 2𝑓 − 2∆𝐿 (3.18)
𝑟 √∈𝑒𝑓𝑓

Where,
c= light velocity,
ɛeff = Effective value of dielectric constant,
fr=Resonance frequency,
ɛr = Substrate dielectric constant,
h = dielectric substrate height,
W = Patch width,
L=Length of the patch,

3.7.2 Calculation of the Patch Width

The patch width can be found by utilization the following expression [75]:
𝐶
𝑊= ∈ +1
(3.19)
2𝑓𝑟 √ 𝑟
2

3.7.3 Calculation of Ground Plane Dimension

Infinite ground planes are applied in the transmission line model. But for
practical issues, it is essential to have a finite ground structure. In [85], it is
discussed that finite and infinite ground structure will give the same result if patch
dimension is lower than the ground structure dimension. So the size of the ground
plane must be the sum of patch size and six times the thickness of the substrate [75].
Hence, the size of the ground plane dimensions is calculated as below:

58
 𝐿𝑔 = 6ℎ + 𝐿 (3.20)

𝑊𝑔 = 6ℎ + 𝑊 (3.21)

3.8 Advantages of Microstrip Patch Antenna

Uses of these types of antenna have been increased in almost every section of
wireless communication because of their structure, low cost to manufacture. In the
mobile phone, medical telemetry, pagers, satellite communication, and many other
fields use microstrip antennas. The main advantages of microstrip antennas are as
follows [7, 78, 86, 87]:

(i) It works on microwave frequencies wherever customary antenna does not

seem to be accomplishable to be planned.

(ii) The size of the microstrip patch antenna is very small.

(iii) It can be etched easily on any PCB and will also provide easy access for
troubleshooting during design and development. This is due to the fact
that the microstrip pattern is visible and accessible from the top. Hence
they are easy to fabricate and comfortable on curved parts of the device.
Hence it is easy to integrate them with MICs or MMICs.

(iv) As the patch antennas are fed on the line to symmetry, it minimizes
excitation of different unsought modes.

(v) The microstrip patches of varied shapes e.g. rectangular, square,

triangular etc. are simply etched.

(vi) Lower cost is required in patch antenna fabrication and subsequently,

they can be mass produced.

(vii) Multiple frequency bands can be generated by using this type of antenna

(viii) Dual polarization is possible in microstrip patch antenna.

59
 (ix) It has a low weight, so it can be easily handled.

(x) They are strong once mounted on rigid surfaces of the devices.

.
.
3.9 Disadvantages of Microstrip Patch Antenna

Following are the disadvantages of Microstrip antenna [87]:

(i) Spurious emission occurs in the microstrip antenna.

(ii) Efficiency is very low due to different losses like conductor losses and
dielectric losses.
(iii) Lower gain
(iv) Cross polarization is higher in radiation.
(v) Power maintaining capability is very low(approximately 100W).
(vi) Impedance bandwidth is lower inherently.
(vii) Sometimes radiation takes place in feeding point and other junction
points.

3.10 Applications of Microstrip Patch Antenna

Due to different types of special characteristics like simple, cost effectiveness,

easy fabrication process, and lightweight, Microstrip patch antennas are becoming
very popular in recent years [3, 78, and 80].
Different applications of patch antenna are given below –

(i) Satellite, mobile communication and space application

(ii) GPS applications
(iii) Radar communication
(iv) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
(v) Telemedicine Application
(vi) Control and Command System
(vii) Remote detecting and ecological instrumentation

60
(viii) Intruder alarm
(ix) Radio altimeter and integrated antenna
(x) Rectenna application

61
Chapter 4

Microstrip Antenna in Biomedical Application

4.1 Introduction

Biomedical engineering nowadays holds a distinguished place as a way of up

diagnosing and treatment. Nowadays glucose observation, remote health monitoring,
deep brain simulations, cancer treatment, hyperthermia, digestive monitoring,
detection of the tumor, and insulin pumps are some examples of the medical
applications which will benefit the body implantable unit and the remote observation
system. Body implantable devices are widely researched for humans within the
applications like health observation or wirelessly transferring diagnostic data from a
device ingrained within the flesh for human care and safety like a pacemaker. To
generate a communication system between the external devices and the implanted
device, antennas may be ingrained into human bodies or will simply be placed over
the body (skin-fat-muscle). Remote observation systems make possible the diseases
designation and help the hospital reception by decreasing the hospitalization amount
[88].

4.2 Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)

A wireless body area network (WBAN), conjointly noted as a body sensor

network (BSN) is a wireless network of wearable computing devices [89]. This
device is surface-mounted on the body or implanted in the body. These devices can
be carried in numerous locations such as cloth pockets, by hand or in varied
baggage. Larger sized smart devices (tab and pad), attended devices, still play a very
important role in terms of acting as a knowledge hub, information entranceway and
providing a programmed to look at and manage BAN applications, in-situ [90]. In
order to get longer range, Wireless personal Area Network (WPAN) is utilized as
gateways. It is likely prospective to attach the devices on the body to the web

62
through entranceway devices. So the medical professionals will be able to get
patient information on-line exploitation the web which is not dependent on the
location of the patient. The development in integrated circuits with low power,
wireless communication, and physiological sensors has enabled a replacement
generation of wireless sensing element networks, currently used for functions like
crops, infrastructure, monitoring traffic, and health. Variety of intelligent
physiological sensors may be integrated into a wearable wireless body area network,
which may be utilized for early detection of medical conditions or computer-assisted
rehabilitation [89]. This area depends on the practicability of implanting very little
biosensors within the anatomy that are comfortable which do not impair traditional
activities. The implanted sensors within the human body can collect numerous
physiological changes so as to observe the patient's health condition regardless of
their location. The data are transmitted wirelessly to associate in the nursing external
process unit. All data in real time can be instantly transmitted to the doctors by this
device throughout the globe. During an emergency condition, the patients are
directly informed by the physicians through the computer system by giving a
message or alarm. At present, energy resources which have the capacity to power
the sensors and the amount of knowledge supplied are limiting. Whereas the
technology remains in its earlier stage it is being widely researched and once
adopted, is predicted to be a breakthrough invention in health care, resulting in ideas
like telemedicine and m-health turning into real [90]. A Wireless Body Area Sensor
Network (WBASN) is either wearable or implantable wherever the previous
involves all the devices settled outside the perimeter of the human body whereas the
latter should embrace a minimum of one in-body or constituted device. The
WBASN idea and its integration with alternative higher-level environments are
illustrated in Fig. 4.1 [91]. The different WBASNs ought to even be capable of
interchanging data with one another (e.g., broadcast, listen etc.) in addition like
external networks such as the internet and (LAN) etc. The hierarchy of the networks
is shown in Fig. 4.2 wherever data rate and power consumption increase with every
process level [91].

63
 Fig.4.1: WBAN concept [91]

Fig.4.2: The hierarchy of the networks and resources [91]

64
A WBAN system will offer two advantages:
i) The mobility of patient because of the utilization of transportable
monitoring devices
ii) Monitoring facilities which are location independent.

There is some protocol to establish wireless information transmission in an

exceedingly WBAN network. There are some networking protocol, network
layering, and MAC addressing for laptop networking in WBAN [89].
Nowadays, a variety of body-centric communication systems is made for
important applications, like the military, hearth fighters, astronauts, and health care.
Several applications fields even overlap, like identification, security, and finance
[92]. Another idea investigates the integration of sensors to associate operation
device and a physiological signal or sense of human action. The physiological
signal involves very important signs like a vital sign, temperature, pulse, heart
activity etc [93].

4.3 Classification of WBAN Channels

The ideas of a BAN cover connected necessities and a spread of

communications desires. These channels are categorized as:

(i) Off-body communication

(ii) On-body communication
(iii) In-body communication

65
 Fig4.3: In, On, Off body networks [94].

4.3.1 Off-body Communication

As a widely known example, mobile phones will be given connected studies

embody investigations of propagation even round the body. Obviously, radiation
patterns of antennas for off-body communications need to orient the most lobe
removed from the body whereas at the same time providing all around coverage.
In this type of communication channel, trans-receiver is placed off the body and
also the base stations or broadcast stations are situated far away from the body. This
kind is especially used for analyzing the performance of body-worn antennas on

66
many propagation situations (urban, rural, etc.) thus for observation from distance.
To communicate with external devices, it is used. Obviously, radiation patterns of
antennas for off-body communications need to orient the most lobe off from the
body whereas at the same time providing all around coverage [14, 95, 96].

4.3.2 On-body

In On-body communication, an antenna is used to transfer data to both off-

body and in-body antenna. The on-body devices utilize the human body surface as a
path for electromagnetic waves or the transmission medium. Wearable or on-body
antenna has a great advantage in medical telemetry. It provides a high level of
adaptability and comfort to the user as it is only operating on the surface of the
body. Hence, do not require any surgical process like in-body which is painful.
People of all ages can use these types of antennas. It is very compact in size, cost
effective, unobstructed by the movement of the user when the antenna is sewn or
stitched on to the clothes. Off-body antenna sometimes cannot receive data due to
the distance problem but on-body do not have such problem [4].

4.3.3 In-body Communication

In case of in-body communication, the antenna is placed inside the human

body due to form a communication link with the external devices for short range
biotelemetry applications [14, 96]. The technologies will permit mobile robots and
the development of intelligent microscopic implantable sensors. The early disease
diagnosis is enabled by continuous monitoring of physiological parameters using the
mentioned technology [36]. The resonant frequencies of implantable antennas can
be significantly shifted due to the permittivity variations of the human body [97].

67
4.4 Frequency Band for WBAN

For non-particulate radiation connected problems, there are some dedicated

frequencies through that communication ought to be done [89]. Table 4.1 shows the
IEEE802.15.6 WBAN frequency band.

Table 4.1: Frequency band for WBAN [98]

Name Frequency Application

HBC 5-50MHz On-body, Off-body
MICS 402-405 MHz In-body, Off-body
WMTS 600 MHz On-body, Off-body
ISM 900 MHz On-body, Off-body
ISM (Zig Bee) 2.4 -2.45GHz On-body, Off-body
UWB 3.6-10.6 GHz On-body, Off-body

Body Centric Wireless Communication (BCWC) have many intriguing

applications on particular zones, for example, observing the human body amid the
activity, human services, crisis, wellbeing tasks and military [14]. These different
applications utilize a gathering of frequency activity groups institutionalized by
IEEE.802.15.6 (BAN) for correspondences frameworks in the region of the human
body. These recurrence ranges are from many several MHz to GHz what's more, are
portrayed in Table 4.1.

4.5 Feature Supported by WBAN

IEEE 802.15.6 covers WBAN basics. The standard of IEEE 802.15.6 was
enforced to develop the model of communications for low power devices which can
be planted on or within figure for numerous applications like consumer physical

68
science, medical, entertainment etc. The network created by IEEE 802.15.6
compliant devices is thought as WBAN (Wireless Body Area Network).

The standard defines MAC and PHY layers. There are 3 completely different
physical layers supported via HBC (Human Body Communication), Narrowband
and UWB (Ultra Wide Band). With a view to making the reliable link between
receiver and transmitter error correction functionalities and modulation is taken care
of by PHY layer. Information to be sent is converted adaptable with the air interface
by PHY as per varied frequency needs. WBAN devices access is controlled by
MAC. E-Health or remote healthcare applications use the standard based solution
widely. To provide a higher level of security over an air interface, the standard
defines 3 levels of security which are:

(i) Authentication only

(ii) Unsecured communication
(iii) Both authentication and encryption

Features supported by WBAN are mentioned in table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Feature supported by WBAN [99]

Specifications WBAN Support(IEEE802.15.6)

Range Less than about .01 to 2 m
Frequency bands 400MHz,800MHz,900MHz,2.4GHz
Power consumption About 1 to 10mW
PHY layers NB,UWB,HBC
Data rate Upto 2Mbps

69
4.6 WBAN Applications

As like different wireless networks, the additional capability of WBAN is to

transmit information, video, voice, image etc. through the communication path [14].
Due to this reason, many numbers of effective and innovative applications has been
introduced by WBAN. These applications can be divided into two classes.
They are:
(i) Medical application and
(ii) Non-medical application

4.6.1 Medical Applications

WBAN has enhanced a wide range of possibility in the medical area. The
efficiency of doctor-patient activities such as timely health notification, status,
remote patient monitoring is improved by WBAN technology anytime at anywhere.
Some medical applications are given as follows:
(i) Remote healthcare monitoring: WBAN sensor is now used in remote
healthcare monitoring. Sensors are placed inside the human body which has
the capability to send body organ situations like heart rate, body
temperature, ECG& EEG signal, blood pressure, Patient by using movement
sensor etc [100-102]. The data is controlled by the control unit from the
remote place.
(ii) Assistive living: WBAN has another energizing application in therapeutic
and helps benefit alluded to as supported living. Wearable medical sensors
might be utilized gathering to quantify physiological information from the
patient's body and store or transmit them into explicit focus server or control
unit in an extremely ordinary interim. It encourages the patient to remain
gather and get ceaseless help as opposed to remaining at a healing facility.
Just if there should arise an occurrence of any crisis sensors instilled on the

70
 collection of patient gathering will raise caution of basic notice to the nearby
focus.
(iii) Telemedicine: Telemedicine is another captivating application in the field
of WBAN. It gives medicinal services benefits over a separation with the
assistance of data and correspondence innovation. WBAN innovation can be
coordinated in the segment of telemedicine like online video meeting with
specialists, transmission of therapeutic reports also, pictures, remote
restorative conclusion and so on [103]. This innovation helps the patient to
get treatment at separation where specialists can give e-treatment by
checking the patient's condition from anyplace [104].

4.6.2 Non-medical Applications

(i) Sports: WBAN empowers equipment can be wearable. It is

exceptionally compelling to screen the physiological exercises of the
wearer like pulse, temperature, breathing rate, pulse, movement, and
stance of any competitor in games. Route, clock, separation can be
likewise estimated by utilizing WBAN sensors [105].
(ii) Military: The use of WBANs in the military application is various. In a
war zone, WBANs can be utilized to convey among fighters and send
their exercises like assaulting, running, withdrawing, and burrowing to
the base officer. WBAN sensors are additionally useful to screen
wellbeing condition, area, and temperature what's more, hydration
dimension of troopers in the war zone. Those sensors such as GPS,
camera, checking sensors, RF can be embedded with the military
uniform. So in any military activity WBAN can give more exactness,
survivability, and network [105].
(iii) Lifestyle and entertainment: WBAN can likewise assume a
fundamental job in our day by day life. It empowers some essential
administrations like route bolster while strolling, driving, investigating
another city and so forth [105]. Newborn child checking, remote

71
 wearable music framework, making video calls utilizing huge screen TV,
playback of sound and recordings from versatile gadgets to TV or Audio
framework are a few instances of WBAN application.[100].

4.7 Electromagnetic Characteristics of Body Tissues

The human body is designated by high estimations of electrical parameters,

for example, conductivity and permittivity due to high estimations of salt and water
substance in the body tissues [106-110]. Numerous references exist at microwave
frequencies for different tissue parameters. A Model planned by Cole-Cole [111]
can be utilized to discover the permittivity of various sorts of tissues at different
frequencies.

∆𝜀𝑚 𝜎
𝜀(𝜔) = 𝜀𝛼 + ∑4𝑚=1 1+(𝑗𝜔𝜏 (1−𝛼𝑚 )
+ 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑗 (4.1)
𝑚) 0 𝑍

Where,
ε∞ = Permittivity of material at optical frequencies (THz),
ε0 = Free space permittivity,
σj = Ionic conductivity,
τm= Relaxation Time constant
εm= Magnitude of dispersion and
αm= the parameter that allows for the broadening of the dispersion

Different parameters for the scope of tissue of the human body types expected
to discover ε at any frequency were detailed in [112].

4.8 Modeling of Human Body

To ideally structure an antenna that is intended to work in the region of the

human body, the connection between the human tissues and the electromagnetic
(EM) waves must be precisely analyzed. As recently referenced, the radio wire
radiation and matching can be extremely influenced, execution that relies upon the

72
recurrence run and the spatial orientation of the transmitter to the receiver [113].
Numerical models of the condition that encompasses the antenna can be mimicked,
in spite of the fact that they translate a perfect circumstance where a few
obstructions are not represented, (for example, mechanical ones) [114]. In this
manner, the most ideal approach to assessing the conduct of an antenna in the
human body which is to depend on a real human client [115]. Be that as it may, the
antenna must comply with specific imperatives, one of them being the SAR in the
human body. This parameter estimates the power consumed by the human body
(when exposed to electromagnetic waves) per mass of tissue, and cannot outperform
stipulated esteem. Subsequently, and as the SAR esteem must be characterized in a
simulation software environment before the antenna is submitted to practical tests,
the numerical and physical human body models, designated phantoms, began being
utilized for an increasingly significant reproduction and examination of the conduct
of the antenna. Else, it would not be moral to expose human lives to such
conceivable hurtful situation, in which the antenna may surpass the greatest SAR
esteem and subject the human body to a hazardous measure of radiation ingestion.

4.9 Phantoms

A phantom serves to mimic human tissue. Therefore, it ought to comprise

careful data of the human body (or of simply specific areas, just like the head or
associate in the nursing higher arm). From a practical anatomic form, to the material
options of the many human tissues, the phantom presents itself as associate in the
nursing economical tool to characterize BCWC.
Different types of the phantom are categorized as:
(i) Physical phantoms
(ii) Numerical phantoms

73
4.9.1 Physical Phantom

Physical phantoms are made using fluid, gel or solid, and are expected to
produce the controlled estimations in research center conditions. They can be
characterized by the premise of the tissue varieties. They can be represented by
tissue having an occasional permittivity and loss with low-water content, like fates
and bones. Actually, they can be represented by tissue with high-water content, for
example, the cerebrum, muscles, and skin that have a higher loss and a higher
permittivity. Physical phantom can be categorized as fluid, semisolid (gel) and solid
phantoms.

4.9.1.1 Solid Phantom

A solid phantom consists of materials which are equipped for saving their
significant shape. Most formulas for solid phantoms are made out of blends, for
example, clay and graphite powder [116], silicone elastic blended with carbon fiber
[117], a conductive plastic containing carbon dark [118]. These phantoms are suited
for estimating SAR on the outside of the human body which is finished by the
technique for thermograph [119]. They are likewise most phantoms for the
investigation of the proliferation around, just as inside the body since they precisely
speak to the human body’s inhomogeneous structure. These phantoms have
astounding dielectric and mechanical properties that do not corrupt about quite a
while, yet they require uncommon and costly hardware to manufacture them along
with uncommon methodology underway, (for example, weight and high
temperature). The human head is reproduced by dry phantom appeared in Fig. 4.4.

74
 Fig.4.4: Human-head dry phantom [1]

4.9.1.2 Semisolid Phantom

In this type of phantom, self-forming coagulants are utilized to supplant the

external fluid shell of the phantoms. One of the prevalent gel phantoms was
produced by Guy[70], that is made out of the sodium chloride, water, polyethylene
powder, and TX-150 (polyamide pitch). Ito et al. [73] have built up oneself
forming phantom dependent on Guy's formula including agar and sodium
dehydroacetate, utilized as additive and coagulant to Guy's formula. These kinds of
apparitions are reasonable just to reenact high-water content tissues, for example,
muscle and mind, however, can change the electrical trademark in a wide range of
frequency [1]. After some time, the material is corrupted due to parasites
development and loss of water is the main problem [73-75]. A semisolid phantom
based on agar is appeared in Fig.4.5.

75
 Fig.4.5: Realistic human torso phantom called TYX-151 [14].

4.9.1.3 Liquid Phantoms

Fluid Phantoms are made out of a compartment loaded up with the fluid
having similar electrical qualities as the human body tissue, for the characterized
frequency extent. The liquid is closed during a skinny shell, sometimes
manufactured from material covered with low relative permittivity and physical
phenomenon [14]. Most formulas for the fluid contain diacetin, sugar or diethylene
glycol butyl ether (DGBE) in various extents to regulate the permittivity of the
arrangement. Besides this, salt (NaCl) is utilized to modify the conductivity of the
arrangement [120]. Such phantom does not indicate human body precisely since
their inward shape is supplanted with a homogeneous medium. Also, they do not
permit estimation of SAR near the outside of the body. Be that as it may, these

76
phantoms have the benefit of being the least demanding to create. They are
valuable for test investigation of off-body and on-body situations where the
antennas are situated outside the body border and there is insignificant field
appropriation inside the body because of the high medium constriction e.g., at
microwave frequencies. Such phantoms are not appropriate for the trial
investigation of in-body situations i.e., for inserts. Fluid phantoms were designed
by Ogawa et al [121]. What’s more, [122] have appeared in Fig. 4.6.

(a) (b)

Fig.4.6: Liquid phantoms [121,122] in (a) talk position and (b) viewer position [14].

4.9.2 Numerical Phantom

Numerical phantoms involve implanted numerical codes to examine the impact

of various parameters in the human body for example SAR and Scattering (S-)
parameters in the human body. Numerical phantoms are utilized for hypothetical
examination and computational reenactments utilizing techniques, for example, the
method of moments (MoM) and Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) and They
can additionally be delegated theoretical and voxel phantoms based on the
dimension of their detail and multifaceted nature.

77
4.9.2.1 Theoretical Phantom

These numerical phantoms have an extremely straightforward shape, so as to

diminish the simulation time [14]. Round phantom is as often as possible used to
recreate the human head [123] while tube-shaped apparitions are utilized for upper
arm simulation [124]. The human apparitions could be demonstrated anatomically
as multi-layer (heterogeneous) or as a solitary layer (homogeneous) mentioned in
Fig.4.7. The homogeneous models are made out of single dielectric material and
heterogeneous models involved diverse human body tissues like skin, fat, muscle,
bone and others [125].

(a) (b)
Fig.4.7: Theoretical Phantoms. (a) Homogenous muscle-equivalent model.
(b) Four-layer human arm model.
4.9.2.2 Voxel Phantom

It is unpredictable and practical than the hypothetical ones revealed

previously. The data given by the medicinal imaging innovation permits the making
of the progressively exact model of the human body. These models are made out of
a few components (voxels), which contain dielectric parameters of the reenacted
tissue of the human body (permittivity, conductivity, and so on.) are shown in
Fig.4.8. Itemized models require expansive computational assets and are accessible
in business reenactment programming, for example, ANSYS HFSS, CST
Microwave Studio, IE3D, FEKO - EM Simulation Software etc.

78
 Fig 4.8: Human voxel model (Torso)

4.10 Health Effects of RF Radiation

RF radiation can make the warming of tissues that leads to an expansion in

body temperature. This is known as the thermal impact. In spite of the fact that the
body has its compelling ways of controlling its temperature but if the RF exposures
are excessively high, the body may never again be capable to adapt. There are many
Organizations that identify the potential health effects of RF radiation, including:
(i) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
(ii) Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

79
(iii) International Agency for Research on Cancer or World Health Organization
/ (IARC/WHO)
(iv) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

All organizations observe that non thermal impacts have not been completely
investigated. They have (exclusively or all things considered) recognized potential
warm and non thermal impacts including [125]:

(i) Thermal effects: Sterility, blindness, heating of tissue-eyes and testes are
particularly vulnerable, electrical shocks ,burns
(ii) Non-thermal effects including immune system, alterations of body circadian
rhythms, electrical and chemical signals nature communicated through the
cell membrane
(iii) The potential for other disorders
(iv) Interferences with medical devices like a pacemaker
(v) Possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B)

While there is vulnerability about the long haul health impacts of RF, there is
agreement around the warm impacts. Thermal impacts happen when the body can't
manage the warmth development caused by the RF radiation rapidly enough. This
development is subject to the recurrence and force of the RF radiation fields just as
the period of time the laborer is uncovered and how close the individual in question
is working from the source. Side effects of overexposures incorporate however are
not restricted to:
(i) Labored breathing
(ii) Headache
(iii) Pain
(iv) Perspiring immediate sensation of intense heating of the parts of the body
exposed
(v) Paresthesia a tingling or numbness, skin crawling, or itching
(vi) Skin erythema a reddening of the skin due to inflammation
(vii) Diarrhea

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(viii) Malaise or an overall sense of feeling mentally or physically unwell
(ix) Numbness

Notwithstanding these side effects, laborers who come in direct contact with
a radio wire may endure seriously consumes since dynamic RF radio wires are
stimulated (or hot). The subsequent consumes can be profound what's more, might
be more awful than they show up.

4.11 SAR (Specific Absorption Rate)

The quantity of radiation that is absorbed by the human body is called the
specific absorption rate. Actually, it is computed by averaging over a sample volume
or over the whole body (generally 1 g or 10 g tissue). The proportion of the measure
of RF vitality which is consumed by the human body’s tissue is called SAR. It
demonstrates the normal rate at which vitality is consumed for each kilogram of
tissue (watts per kg). This estimation is utilized to decide if a cell phone agrees to
the health rules. Induced field (in V/m) which affects the tissue must be known in
order to calculate SAR. SAR can be calculated by using the equation:

𝜎𝐸 2
𝑆𝐴𝑅 = (4.2)
𝜌𝑚

Where,
E = The induced field RMS value(in V/m),
ρ =Mass density of the tissue (kg/m3).
σ = Tissue conductivity (in S/m) and
In the case of short exposure times, this does not cause significant convective
or conductive heat contribution to tissue temperature rises. So SAR can also be
calculated as:

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Here,
C= the tissue capacity of heat (in J/kg/K)
∆t= Short time exposure (in seconds) and
∆T= Temperature rise (in K) .

As explained in [5], during the initial or transient temperature response curve,

the relation between temperature rise and SAR is linear. Since a few years back, a
few experts have built up points of confinement for presentation to radio frequency
vitality. These breaking points build up the allowed dimensions of RF vitality for the
population. There are two diverse principle experts who have set up two distinct
limits that are not specifically equivalent. For mobile devices, maximum sustainable
SAR is 1.6 W/kg. Under the FCC rules, the economical estimation of SAR is 0.90
W/Kg and 1.25 W/Kg for head and body individually, while testing Body-worn SAR,
there ought to be kept up a partition separation of 1.0 cm far from the body [16].
Because the way that these points of confinement are determined by averaging the
diverse of the measurement of the tissue which is not specifically comparable.

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