UNIT 13 THE STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM AGAINST CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF

DOMINATION

13.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have read about the ecosystem and threats to it, promotion of scientific
temper and the mechanism for India to have a better say in world matters. During the discussion
in the unit, you must have noticed that it has been quite difficult for India to fight against
domination of the developed countries in various issues.

Colonialism has not vanished; it still existsurvives in the sense of acquisition of overseas
territories. It is replacesubstituted by two forms of imperialist domination. The first form was
called, “Social Imperialism”; and it was also known as “Neo-Imperialism”. The second form was
known as “Neo-Colonialism”. These two forms came into existence, in a period when cold war
began to gain momentum between the western countries and the communist countries during the
late 1940s and the 1950s.
The newlyrecent independent countries were caught in the bipolar world where the two major
powers - the USA and the earlier erstwhile USSR, known as the “Super powers” -
competestruggled for their allegiance and support. As a resultTherefore, the rivalry between the
West and the East Blocs began.

In this unit, you will learn about the struggle for freedom against contemporary forms of
domination.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

• Discuss that the imperialism which continued even after Second World War, has
changed its face.
• Recall neo-colonialism is the new name of the game which is now being carried
out through economic, political, military and cultural means.
• Analyse the role of NAM in reducing dependence of ex-colonies on their previous
colonial masters.
• Examine the role of UN in providing leadership to bring about true liberation of the
newly independent developing countries in conventional as well as non-conventional
areas.

13.1 `SOCIAL IMPERIALISM’ OR `NEO-IMPERIALISM’

The West described the policy makers of the earlier USSR’s dominance, and in particular, its
domination of the non-Russian people as `Russian Imperialism’. The Russian leaders were
blamed for dividing the non-communist independent governments in Eastern Europe and the
Caucuses and installing establishing Communist governments.

The Communist governments were identified as totalitarian dictatorships. The overall complete
life of the people including their sentimentsemotions, culturale, language and religious practices
were to be controlled besides their native and historical, political and economic institutions and
ways of life, under communist governance. Moscow’s controlling on the former Eastern European
and Baltic Republics was also criticised also by Mao’s Peoples Republic of China after the Sino-
Soviet split in the mid-1960s.
The split was not only created a political rift between the USSR and the Peoples’ Republic of
China, it also created a wide wedge in the communist movement itself. Moscow’s imposition of its
own brandkind of communism and economic programmes on the developing countries was
criticised by the Chinese Communists as “Social Imperialism”. The Chinese, all over the world
prepared themselves to resist the USSR’s Imperialism and made alliances with the developing
and the formerearlier colonised states. Now, the field of competition was left to three major
powers - the West, the Eastern bloc of the erstwhile USSR and the People’s Republic of China
(PRC). In course of time the policies pursued by the PRC towards its Asian neighbours and
specifically, its `occupation’ or `annexation’ of Tibet. A few portions of North-East India and
Kashmir were also criticised as a Chinese domination or Imperialism.

Self Assessment Questions

Fill in the blanks
1. The…………….. governments were identified as totalitarian dictatorships
2. The Sino Soviet split happened in the ………..

13.2 NEO-COLONIALISM
There are a couple of reasons to explain why the western powers were described as Neo-
colonial. First, due to economic and political pressures the former colonial powers could not
maintain their territories in the aftermathoutcome of the Second World War; they had to find
alternate other means to maintainretain their control over their former territories.

One method of colonialism was seen to have been replaced by a different one and form. Second,
the name was first used widelycommonly by the communist theoreticians to denote any capitalist
country investing in the economies of the underdeveloped countries.

Therefore, this group of political opinion includeincorporated the leader of the Western group, the
USA, as a neo-colonist power, although the USA had no colonies in the sense that its European
allies - France, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal - had and despite, the fact
that the present USA was born of territories that were earlierpreviously under the British, French
and Spanish rules.

Since the USA was the leader of the Western countries, that country it was also called a “Neo-
colonial” country. The term used by the communist parties became common as gradually even
the nationalist and non-communist leaders began using the term to describedepict the western
domination through modern means of exercising influence.

The nationalist leader of the Gold Coast (now known as Ghana) Kwame Nkrumah and the first
President of the country which became independent in Africa described Neo-colonialism in 1958,
he described the methods of neo-colonialist domination thus: “... not merely by military means,
but by economic penetration, cultural assimilation, ideological domination, psychological
infiltration, and subversive activities.”

Thus over the former colonies and the developing countries, neo-colonialism is an invisible
system of domination. The basic effect of neo-colonialist imperialism is to imposeenforce
capitalist economic and political systems on the developing countries. Such aThis kind of method
becomes essentialnecessary for preserving and promoting the economic and strategic interests
of the dominating country/countries. The system of neo-colonialism operates through big trading
firms, state agencies, cultural media and educational organisations, in addition to military bases,
military interventions and intelligence agencies.
This form of domination operates works both through formal structures as well as informal links
and psychological propaganda methods.

13.2.1 Economic Means

Economic, political, cultural and military these are four forms of Neo-Colonialism. The economic
form of neo-colonialism is directed to assist the profit-making function of big monopolies: to
ensure to neo-colonial powers the uninterrupted supply of cheap raw materials; to control the
industrial and technological growth of the third world countries; to enable, the neo-colonial powers
to wield political influence over the governments through economic means.

One of tThe main aims of economic neo-colonialism is to retainpreserve essentially the same
economic relationships between imperialism and developing countries as it had existed until
independence.

During the colonial era,time the big business houses or trading companies of the metropolis
invested in mining on plantations in Asia and Africa; and reapgathered high profits by exploiting
the cheap wage labour and national resources.

These Some trading companies, such as the United Africa Company, bought cheap raw materials
produced by local producers and made huge profits by selling them at high rates.

The metropolitan manufacturing firms made substantiallarge profits by selling their goods in the
colonies. After independence these big trading and manufacturing firms did not withdraw.pull out
Instead, they strengthened their economic relations. Since these bodies operatefunctiond in more
than one country, they are called Multinational Corporations (MNCs). Some of these MNCs are
not identifiable with any particular state because their investments come from manyseveral
states. The MNCs have become vehicles of neo-colonial relations. They have almost
completetotal control over the economics of countries. They produce or mine the product, provide
technology and experts, process, transport and market the products. Even where the cash crop is
grown by small holders, as coffee is in Kenya or palm in Nigeria or Cocoa in Ghana, the control of
the market and prices remain with the MNCs. In the process they make lucrativebeneficial profits
and transfer them to their country where the Headquarters’ are located. This way, they
underdevelopunder develop the country of their operation by drainingexhausting the wealth.

The fixation of prices of raw materials exported by the third world countries are so
manipulateinfluenced that they benefit the MNCs or the metropolitan country. This is followed by
repatriation of profits to the formerearlier colonial countries. This leads to an unequal relationship,
and the foreign exchange reserves of raw material exporting countries go down. They face crisis
and approach the international financial organisations, like World Bank, International
Development Bank, Western commercial Banks and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for
funds.

These banks, before granting loans, dictatestate terms and lay down certain conditions, e.g.,
devaluation of the currency, reduction in expenditurespending on social services, or cutting down
government subsidies, and insist adamant on opening of the economy for private foreign
investments. These conditions, influence political, social and economic policies of the recipient
countries. Debt burden continues to increase as the recipient countries are not in a positionable
to pay even service charge and interest. This adds to greater dependence. In most countries of
Africa per-capitaper person’s income has been stagnant or declining since 1970. This adds to
greater dependence.

13.2.2 Political Means

Politically, in the developing countries the neo-colonial forces create internal conditions in the
developing countries, which assist in the retention of political power in the hands of those social
strata which are prepared to collaborate with them to sub-serve their interests.

Operationally, political power can be said to have been retained when the citizens of an
independent political system are not involved in variousdifferent decision-making. The ground
rules, established institutions, the social and political notionsideas are retained with only cosmetic
change as if only the `persons in rule’ have changed and not the spirit and letter of `rule’. The
members of these strata benefit by getting commission, agencies or jobs in the MNCs by such a
collaboration.

The purposes of creating these strata is to ensuremake sure that the state power does not fall
into the hands of radical nationalists who will vehementlystrongly oppose the exploitation by the
agencies and practices of the neo-colonialist powers. The most pliableworkable sections of the
people are sought after. The wWestern countries who claim to practice liberal democratic
philosophy of government do not hesitate to backsupport dictators, military rulers, monarchs or
unpopular leaders when their own interests have to be protected and expanded. For instance, the
deposed Emperors, Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and the Shah of Iran, Reza Pehlavi and the military
rulers of South Korea were supported.
In case radical leaders took over power, the neo-colonial powers attempted to overthrowdefeat
them, through even murders or coupsaction. The overthrow of Mossadeq of Iran (1953), the
Arbenz government of Guatemala (1954), President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana (1966), Allende
of Chile (1973) and the murders of Patrice Lumumba of Congo [Leopold Ville (1960)] and Maurice
Bishop of Grenada (1983) are a few instances. Efforts had also been made to destabilise weeken
the governments of Mozambique, Angola, Guinea, Nicaragua under Sandinistas and Cuba under
Fidel Castro.

13.2.3 Military Means

The neo colonialist powers use their military tTo maintain their dominance over the third world
countries the neo colonialist powers use their military. Their greatest fear is spread of
communism in their erstwhile colonies. Following World War II, they entered into agreements and
alliances for setting up military bases all over the world, particularlymainly around USSR and
China. Western powers signed military cooperation pacts with the Third world countries and some
of were coerceforced to join the military blocs. Military bases in Asia, Pacific and Caribbean Africa
were the places where military bases were set up . The US Central Command (CENTCOM) alone
uses 2,22,000 military personnel from the Rapid Deployment Force and its area of operations
includecomprise of19 nations bordering South-West Asia, the Persian Gulf and the Horn of Africa.
Due to indirect impact of bases, the military budget of most of the newly liberated countries has
risen to as many as fifty per cent of the total national budget. New military equipment and arms
are sold or dumped in these countries as large armament producermanufacturers have
developed interests in armed conflicts in these regions, as military-industrial-complexes benefit
from the sale of arms.

Very often the military bases have been used to threatenpressurize the sovereignty of the third
world countries and interferehamper in their politics, e.g., Diego Garcia and arming of Pakistan.
There are numerousseveral instances of US, British and French interventions in local affairs of
the third world countries. In 1960 Belgian troops with US backing were sent to Congo (Zaire) to
assistsupport pro-western leaders. In 1978 French and Belgian troops were again sent to Zaire in
US Air Force planes to suppress Katanga uprising. The French intervened in 1985 in Chad,
France’s former African colony.

Even without interventions, military bases have their impact. They provide foundations for political
intervention during normal times. They function as centres of prestige, power and importance of
their owners. They enable the owners to exertapply pressure, establish and enforce their interests
in the surroundingneighbouring regions.

13.2.4 Cultural Means

The ex-colonial powers made imposedcompulsory their own languages as the main language for
conducting administration and education in their colonies. During the final years of colonial rule,
they encouragepromoted the Asians and Africans to purse higher education in the colonial
metropolitan cities by way of giving scholarships. This step was to instillmake them have a feeling
of greatness for the colonising powers’ civilisation and to convince the colonised population about
the goodness of the colonial powers and their, intentions. By Tthis way, a separate group of
natives wereas cultivated who became elites in their respective countries after decolonisation.

In the post independence countries, tThe `new elites’ in the post independence countries, in their
turn, imposed their own cultural preferences and tastes in their country’s educational policies.
IndigenousLocal languages and dialects were neglected as a result of this assimilation into the
colonial country’s culture and language. Many independent countries did not even try to promote
their own languages and cultures as they preferred to retain the languages of their erstwhile
colonial countries. The love for knowing the languages and cultures of the erstwhile colonial
masters came to be associated with preference for purchasing of goods and depending on the
services of the former metropolis. Thus, cultural methods became tools for advancement of
economic and political power of the ex-colonial powers and influence the policy decisions of the
independent countries.

Not only was this method confined to the erstwhile colonial powers, but after the adventbeginning
of the cold war, the USA, the leader of Western Imperialism, also used several means of
culturally imperialistic policies vis-a-vis to the developing world.

The methods of cultural imperialism include, opening of cultural centres especially in former
colonies, offering scholarships for students in the developing world to pursue their education
either in the former colonial metropolis or neo-imperialist capitals and teaching of the language
and culture of the erstwhile colonial powers to the citizens of their former colonies. Two
examples are: the French government’s opening branches of Alliance Francaise all over the
world; and the USA’s Centres of American Studies and Civilisation and the alternative scholarship
programmes. These are intended mainly to create an appreciation of their country’s culture,
politics, society and business among the people they operate in.

Self Assessment Questions

Read the following carefully and tick (&) the correct answer.
3. Racism can be considered to be:
a) scientific because it logically gives us an understanding of how man came to
be civilised.
b) a tool of neo-colonialism.
c) an unscientific ideology because it associates physical characteristics with
superior or inferior or inferior human capabilities.
d) both b and c.
4 French and Belgian troops were sent to Zaire in
a. 1968
b. 1868
c. 1978
d. 1878

13.3 REDUCING DEPENDENCE ON FORMER COLONIAL POWERS

Struggle against the forces and powers of contemporary forms of domination and Imperialism has
been found to be tough and complex. The forces ranged against the newly-liberated countries are
formidable indeed. First, the countries need to correct the historical distortions introduced by the
long colonial rule which involved solving the economic imbalances. Second, the countries had to
effectively come out of the web of dependence with which the departing colonial powers
deliberately bound their colonial besides in socio-cultural matters. All these had affected the
domestic and foreign policies of the newly independent countries. If they were to progress and
find an independent place in the new international set up, then they had to devise their own
methods of development programmes. These involved an independent understanding of their
indigenous economies and socio-political set ups without getting influenced by their former
colonial countries or for that matter, by any outside power. This was important if the hard-won
independence were to be consolidated.

The newly-independent countries were fortunately helped in their task of building their new states
by the UN and its specialised Agencies. There were also the Socialist Countries that aided them
in economic development. Further, there were a few newly liberated countries such as India,
Ghana and Nigeria which took aid and assistance from their former colonial country (the UK) or
from the USA, and even from the USSR, but devised their own programmes of development
came forward to extend assistance.

In fact, the importance of cooperation among the newly-liberated countries was increasing being
felt. So, this was given the utmost priority because this method of mutual assistance was
identified as effective in crating not only cooperation among the countries sharing similar
historical situations, but also in bringing about individual developments. The objectives of the
newly-liberated countries then were to: cultivate self-reliance and cooperation with the larger aim
of reducing dependence on the former colonial powers and forces of imperial domination.

Activity 1

List the ways in which the erstwhile colonies have reduced their dependence
on the colonial masters

13.3.1 The Role of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

The NAM grouping together the newly-independent countries and the other developing countries
became an effective forum not only politically, but also in economic, environmental and social
matters. This forum, formed in 1961, started with only four member-countries namely India,
Indonesia, Egypt and Yugoslavia. But by 1997 it had touched membership of more than one
hundred members, all independent countries. This touched membership of more than one
hundred members, all independent countries. This growth in the Movement corresponds with the
increase in its effectiveness in taking up political and economic issues alike.
For the first two decades of its activities, the NAM concentrated its appeals on political maters,
such as anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism, and anti-apartheid effectively playing a part in freeing
colonial territories. Its independent stand on foreign policy matters gave it an equidistant position
from either of the two blocs - the Western and the Eastern. Thus, securing an honoured place in
world affairs, its voice carried a good weight. Having strengthened its own position, the NAM
gradually moved its emphasis from political matters and voiced its concerns on the economic,
trade and environmental issues that were assuming larger importance from the early 1980s. For
instance, the 1995 Cartagena (Colombia) Summit of the NAM condemned the “use of unilateral
coercive measures by some states against the others by taking advantage of their dominant
position in world economy” and “rejected the unilateral imposition of blockades, embargoes, and
asset freezing as instruments of political pressure”. The NAM’s “Appeal of Colombia” went on to
demand a reform of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund and pledged to step up
South-South cooperation.

After the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the emergence of a unipolar and a single dominant
power, (the USA) in its wake, the NAM’s very relevance has been questioned. The movement,
however, has become an effective forum for the developing countries to guard their vital interests
in this changed world scenario. Thus, the NAM has, in recent years, become a major organisation
to focus the world’s attention on nuclear and peace issues, the environmental crusades against
the developed countries’ dumping of nuclear wastes in the environment of the developing
countries and the depletion of the Ozone layer of the world. The 1995 Cartagena Summit had
also condemned the resumption and continuation of nuclear testing by the Nuclear Powers. The
NAM has been constantly encouraging the developing countries to maintain their independent
status in foreign policy matters and has alerted them whenever a damage to this position
becomes visible. Additionally, the NAM’s role has also been to strive to bring about rethinking in
the foreign policies of the developed countries towards the developing countries. It has called for
periodic meetings and consultations between the two groups to ensure appreciation of each
other’s socio-economic positions and situations. The North-South Cooperation Summit, as this
effort has come to be known as, has thus received a strong backing. Furthermore, NAM’s
activities have complemented the United Nation’s efforts in constructing a peaceful and an
equitable world.

Self Assessment Questions

Write true and false against each
5. Countries like India grew unaided after Independence.
6. NAM has lost its relevance after the collapse of the erstwhile soviet bloc.

13.4 ROLE OF UN’S LEADERSHIP AGAINST CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF DOMINATION

The attempts of the United Nations in constructing a new and just international environment are
noteworthy. With the increase in the number of independent countries, the UN’s membership, has
also gone up manifold since the end of the Second World War. The new countries found it
advantageous to rely on the UN and its specialised Agencies and Programmes for their
development rather than depending on the Developed Countries.

The major agencies of the UN that have assisted the developing countries are the UNDP (United
Nations Development Programme), the UNICEF (the United Nations International Children’s
emergency Fund), the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation), the WHO (World Health Organisation), the FAO (Food and Agricultural
Organisation) and the Economic Commissions for Africa of children’s welfare and health while the
UNESCO helps to correct the imbalances between the developed and the developed and the
developing Countries in education, and cultural fields besides aiding the developing countries to
discover their own, often forgotten indigenous cultures, and in promoting technical, educational
and scientific cooperation among the countries.

On the economic front, the UNDP is a major regulator of aid assistance which aims to equitably
distribute the aid among the developing countries. By thus encouraging the vital development of
their economies, the UNDP’s role is fast becoming crucial for the very survival of many
developing countries. The FAO is a specialised agency devoting itself to expand the agricultural
potential and productivity of the developing countries. Its encouragement to the national
governments of the countries to access expensive farm technologies has resulted in the
developing countries to secure a better position in the international commodity markets. The
FAO’s expertise has also led to the individual national governments to increase and diversify their
own agricultural produces.

The Economic Commissions for the individual Continents have become important agencies to
promote development and to initiate new economic activities aimed at increasing employment
and to realise their potentials to compete with the rich, developed countries. An important
contribution of the UN Agencies to the developing countries is that all the agencies have been
working in close coordination with the respective national governments. In so doing, the agencies
have helped the governments to develop their respective societies and economies based on the
individual country’s specific histories and indigenous talents. Thus, borrowing from the
programmes of the developed countries, is sought to be discouraged. This effort has resulted in
the strengthening of the foundations of the developing countries and to consolidate their political
independence. A strong country with solid roots becomes essential to survive in a competitive
international environment.

Activity 2
List the major functions of the main agencies of the UN

As a consequence of the UN’s call for the creation of a New International Economic order at its
Sixth Special session in 1974, the UN has taken the lead in helping to create multilateral
cooperation among the developing countries themselves. This is besides, the UN’s assistance in
channelising assistance from the developed countries. The UN’s coordination role has also
helped in convening several conferences that have had a decisive impact on the survival and
future of the developing countries. Thus under the UN’s auspices, the Summit meeting between
the leaders of the North (the developed countries) took place at Cancun (Mexico) in 1981. Again,
the UN sponsored direct talks between the developed and the developing countries to sort out
problems related to investments, trading and export of commodities, pricing of raw material
exports, import of processed goods, and intellectual property and services. Many rounds of
negotiations have been held during the last three decades, for example, the Tokyo restrictions of
the developed countries on the produce of the developing nations and have argued for resource
transfers to the Less Developed Countries (LDCs)

13.4.1 Encouraging Formation of Regional and Sub regional Associates of the Developing
countries
The objectives sought to be attained are promoting self-reliance among the developing countries,
for facilitating transfer of resources and technology on easy terms and for building up sufficient
economic and commercial strengths to enable these countries to withstand pressures from the
agencies of the developed countries.
The following are a few of the organisations formed:
1. The Group of 77 (G-77)
2 The Group of 15 (G-15)
3 The Southern Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
4 The Southern African Development Community (SADC), formerly known as the Southern
African Development Coordination Committee (SADCC).

The G-77 has been a powerful grouping which meets regularly. The G-15 has come into
operation in the mid-1970s. This is a smaller grouping with representatives from Asia, South-East
Asia and the Pacific, Africa, Central and Southern American regions. Coordination of information
and policies on behalf of the developing world has been undertaken. This smaller grouping has
become a sort of a permanent standing group of the developing countries regarding development
issues. The SAARC group comprises Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, Bangladesh, India and
Pakistan. It has been progressing themselves to set up a South Asian Free Trade Association
(SAFTA), not later than 2005 AD. Barriers to trade within the region are to be eased and
concessions to be increased meanwhile. There are also plans to set up regional Multi-National
Corporations (MNCs) to take on the global MNCs, to take advantage of the region’s large market
and increasing purchasing power of the people. The programme also involves granting of the
Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status to each member-country, and in promoting technology
transfer among themselves. The SADC intends to offset the imbalances and underdevelopment
of the economies of the member-states caused due to centuries of colonialism, racism and
exploitation of their peoples by the colonial powers and settler communities which practised racial
discrimination. The Community has requested the UN and other Non-Governmental agencies to
channelise more funds in development assistance. The SADC comprising Angola, Mozambique,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia and South Africa is
engaged in creating infrastructure for development of the subregion.

13.4.2 Environment
UN has taken quite effective steps in the field of the protection of the environment. This includes
organising the conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the UN Summit on Environment and
Development of the `Earth Summit’, at Rio-de-Janeiro in 1992 and the conference to ban
chemical weapons. The UN’s forum became crucial for the developing countries to resist the
plans and actions of the developed countries to dump toxic pollutants in their respective
countries. The UNCLOS and the Earth Summit virtually protected the sovereignties of the
developing countries from being violated by the activities of the developed countries.

The UNCLOS’s demarcation of the maritime boundaries and preventing of exploitation of deep
sea mineral resources within the maritime territorial and economic zones of the developing
countries was a great achievement, thanks to the UN. The Earth Summit deliberations made the
developed countries yield to the calls of the developing countries to allocate funds from their
budgets for the development and conservation of the environment in the developing countries.
The UN has also facilitated the developing countries to protect and demand nuclear disarmament
and creation of `Zones of Peace’. For instance, the Indian Ocean Rim States (those bordering the
Indian Ocean) have called on the US and UK to disband nuclear facilities from the Diego Garcia
base. Similarly, African countries are determined to keep their continent free of nuclear weapons.

13.4.3 Social Field

In the social field, the UN has actively assisted in the convening of World Conference on Women
and Population. It has helped the developing countries to implement the resolutions of the
International Women’s Decade (1975-85) and has guided the developing countries to focus
attention on problems of gender discrimination, and issues of Peace and Development. The
Fourth World Women’s Conference at Beijing September 1995, held under the UN’s coordinating
role, concentrated on solving the problems of the girl children and demanded empowerment of
women in order to solve poverty and developmental imbalances evident especially in the
developing countries. The UN has pledged assistance to the member states to implement the
`Platform for Action’ adopted at the Beijing meet.

Information
The UN’s call for a New International Information Order (NIIO) is intended to curb the monopoly
of the media by the developed countries and to ensure that the developing countries share
information that is necessary for policy making. The UN has rightly realised that a free,
independent, unbiased and reliable information flow between the developed and the developing
countries and vice-versa is essential for safeguarding the independence of the latter countries.

13.4.4 UN’s Co-Ordination with the Developing Countries

The UN has definitely helped the developing countries to come closer, to share and understand
each other’s problems and to construct avenues for greater cooperation. By giving observer
status to them, the UN has recognised their importance. The purpose of such a coordination is to
ensure unity of purpose to enable the developing countries to progress. Specifically, the UN has
undertaken the following:
Encouraging bilateral cooperation between the developing countries.

Promoting good neighbourliness is one of the UN’s main objectives. It has encouraged the
countries, particularly the Developing ones, to enter into bilateral cooperation agreement within
the spirit of greater South-South Cooperation.
The following are some recent instances of successful bilateral agreements between the
neighbouring developing countries:
1. Indo-Bangladesh Ganga Water Sharing agreement December 1996,
2. Indo-Nepal Agreement on Construction of Bridges and Highways (to solve the
Mahakali and Tanakpur barrage problems and to share the Western Himalayan River
Waters) - 1986
3. Trade and Transit Agreement between India and Nepal - 1995.

Bilateral agreements among the developing countries have increased and have become a regular
feature nor only in South Asia, more importantly in Africa and the Caribbean ever since the UN
encouraged South-South cooperation.

A few developing countries that have been ruled by the same colonial power and which have
exchanged people during the colonial period have sought to maintain historical and cultural links
with each other. Bilateral agreements between groups of countries in the post-colonial period
include matters such as culture, education, science and technical cooperation besides trade. A
few instances which fall in this category are the agreements which India concluded with Mauritius
(February 1997), Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and South Africa during 1995 and 1996; and the
agreements which the former Portuguese African colonies of Angola, Mozambique, Guine-
Bissau, Cape Verde and Sao Tome have with each other. Bilateral cooperation also takes place
when the newly liberated country wishes to enter into agreements with countries that had helped
them during their liberation struggle. This is due to the token of gratitude of the newly-liberated
country to its benefactor countries.

The agreements so concluded become token of lasting friendship. Examples under this category
are the agreements signed by Namibia with Angola and India; those concluded between
Bangladesh and India; those concluded between Bangladesh and India after the former’s
liberation in 1971; and agreements between Angola and Cuba and those between Mozambique
and Zimbabwe after the Zimbabwean independence in 1980.

Self Assessment Questions

Fill in the blanks
7. The Earth summit was held in ………………………………….
8. The Fourth World Conference for Women was held at ……… in ……..

13.5 POSITION OF THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN TODAY’S WORLD

On the whole, the developing countries are becoming increasingly stronger. After the
establishment of the NAM and the different regional and sub-regional Associations, their weight
and voice count the most. The Big Powers and the former colonial powers have also realised the
power of the developing and the ex-colonised countries. However, there are opinion groups within
the developed countries that question the role of the UN in helping the developing countries.

The US administration, ever since Ronald Reagan’s Presidency, has been defaulting on annual
payment of dues to the UN and reducing the amount of assistance to the developing countries.
The USA has made it a condition that full payment of all its accumulated dues is conditional on
the UN agreeing to meet its demands of curtailment of staff and grants. Further, the US wishes to
save money for undertaking domestic programmes.

The developing countries thus face daunting challenges. They have been fighting against the
move of the developed countries to create trade barriers in international commerce and to
undervalue their exports. They have joined together in calling for expansion of the permanent
membership of the UN Security Council and are fighting against the present monopoly of the
Council’s Five Permanent members - the USA, UK, France, Russia and Peoples’ Republic of
China- in the UN’s decision making.

They have been taking adequate steps to put the ideals of South-South cooperation into practical
action. The developing countries have also been mobilising liberal opinion in the west to their
cause of building a just, equitable and peaceful new world order.

An Appraisal
Although the struggle against colonialism has been resoundingly successful, the fight against the
effects of colonialism appears arduous and challenging. Thus, for instance, inspite of dismantling
of the Apartheid system in South Africa and Namibia, there have been difficulties in the political
integration of the long alienated communities. Likewise, there are difficulties in the redistribution
of these two countries’ wealth among the people. The new government of President Nelson
Mandela’s African Congress and its allies also face problems about solving the intra-societal
imbalances and tensions caused due to historical reasons. Having Africa’s most democratic
institutions, both the South Africa and Namibia, are in the midst of tensions associated with the
building of new states.

In brief, it is becoming evident that the developing countries are preparing themselves to protect
their own group interests by strengthening their mutual bonds, and by forming new result-oriented
groupings. Plans to form Regional Multi-National Corporations that will be region-friendly to
challenge the global MNCs testify to the resolve of this group of countries. Serious efforts are
underway to resolve bilateral and multilateral problems among themselves give enough indication
that the developing countries are readying themselves to enter the Twenty First century with a
record of success against colonialism, racism and imperialism of all brands.
The determination to be internationally equal partners with the developed countries drives them
on. India, as one of the foremost leaders of the developing countries, has been playing its notable
part. But it has to modify and improvise its methods in the context of new developments, if it is to
maintain its leadership position in the world, especially among the developing countries.

Self Assessment Questions

Tick Mark (&) the correct response:
9. The UNICEF is a UN Specialised Agency and is concerned with:
a) Environment
b) Education and Culture
c) Trade
d) None of the above

10. The five permanent members of the UN are

a. US, UK, France, Japan, India
b.UK, France, Japan, Germany, China
c. France, China, US, UK, Russia
d. China, Russia, Germany, Russia, Japan

13.6 Summary
In this Unit we discussed how the new forms of domination emerged replacing the earlier method,
viz., colonialism; how and in what way the new methods of domination influenced political,
economic, military and cultural systems of the newly independent and other developing countries;
how colonialist imperialism used racism to subjugate and segregate people and how racist
separation and discrimination was used by the Neo-colonialist powers to strengthen themselves
and the methods being used by the developing countries to resist domination by the developed
countries, and the challenges being face by the developing countries in their present struggle.

Glossary
`Companion Movements’: When two or more liberation movements are engaged in fighting
against the same colonial or imperialist Power, the movements often coordinate their activities. n.
Diplomatic recognition: The act of acknowledging mutual ties between two governments. Very
often it entails establishing of embassies in the respective countries.
Economic and Military Sanctions: Measures intended to prohibit economic and military help for
a regime that had violated human rights or provisions of international law.
`Frontline’ States: Countries that are geographically located on the borders of a colonised
territory or a state where liberation struggle is in progress. For instance, when there was struggle
in South africa and Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Mozambique and Botswana were called the
Frontline countries.
`Hot Pursuit’ Raids: Armed attacks by a country’s defence forces on a neighbouring
independent country violating the latter’s boundaries. The declared intention of the attackers is to
punish the forces of liberation demanding a change in the government of the attacking country.
Internal Colonisation: Domination and occupation of a territory by an independent neighbouring
country, after the territory has been duly decolonised by a colonial power, external to the
continent.
Metropolitan Power(s): The former colonial country of countries of Europe such as the UK,
France, Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.
`Mother’ Country: The country from which a particular group of people has migrated and has
settled down in another land.
Observer Status: An honoured position or an invitation to an important conference given by the
organiser to a group or country because the invitee also shares the same feelings or believes in
similar ideology or supports the same principle as the host.
Referendum: A method of knowing the opinion of the people on issues of public importance.
People are usually asked to vote whether or not they approve or support a policy or legislation.
Settlers: Citizens of the colonial country encouraged and sponsored by their government to
emigrate and settle down in the colonies conquered or acquired by their governments.
Totalitarianism: An ideology of domination whereby the ruling party or power controls all
activities of citizens such as politics, economics, culture, media and social life.

13.7 Terminal Questions

1) What is Neo-Colonialism? What methods are used by Neo-Colonialist powers to expand their
influence?
2) Name the three principles that pushed India to participate in the anti apartheid movement.
3) What are the challenges the developing countries face in the present international order?
4) Discuss the position of the developing countries in today’s world.

13.8 ANSWERS
Self Assessment
1. communist
2. 1960s
3. d
4. c
5. False
6. False
7. Rio de Janeiro
8. Beijing, 1975
9. b
10.c

Terminal Questions
1) Refer section 13.6. `Neo-colonialism’ is a policy the ex-colonial and the dominant Super
Powers adopt to exercise their power and influence on the developing countries. Colonialism of
acquiring and controlling colonies has been replaced by dominance through different means,
some overt and others indirect.

2) Refer section 13.5.4. The three main principles that made India to participate in the anti-
apartheid movement are:
• Racism was considered to be degrading the colonised people. Since Mahatma
Gandhi was himself ill-treated by the racists, Indians understood how cruel racism was.
• Racism was contrary to the religious beliefs and tradition of India. All the people
were urged to be treated as belonging to one large family.
• Independent India’s strong adherence to the principles of the UN Charter.

3) Membership of the United Nations, formation of regional, sub-regional groupings, by the

MNCs; environmental pollution including depletion of the ozone layer of atmosphere and nuclear
weapon increase.