GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Introduction
Digestion: The process by which food is broken down into simple chemical substances that can
be absorbed and used as nutrients by the body through mechanical and enzymatic activity.
Functions of digestive system
Thus, the functions of digestive system include:
1. Ingestion or consumption of food substances
2. Breaking them into small particles
3. Transport of small particles to different areas of the digestive tract
4. Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion
5. Digestion of the food particles
6. Absorption of the digestive products (nutrients)
7. Removal of unwanted substances from the body.
GIT (Gastrointestinal tract) is formed by two types of organs:
1. Primary digestive organs.
i. Primary Digestive Organs: Organs where actual digestion takes place. They include; mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine
ii. Accessory organs: They help primary digestive organs in the process of digestion. They
include; teeth, tongue, salivary glands, exocrine part of pancreas, liver and gallbladder.

A. MOUTH
Functions of mouth include:
1. Ingestion of food materials
2. Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva
3. Appreciation of taste of the food
4. Transfer of food (bolus) to the esophagus by swallowing
5. Role in speech
6. Social functions such as smiling and other expressions.

Salivary glands: They are classified into three types, based on the type of secretion:
1. Serous Glands
They are made of serous cells which secrete thin and watery saliva. They include parotid glands
and lingual serous glands
2. Mucus Glands
They are made of mucus cells; they secrete thick, viscous saliva with high mucin content. They
include lingual mucus glands, buccal glands and palatal glands belong to this type.
3. Mixed Glands
They are made of serous and mucus cells. They include submandibular, sublingual and labial
glands.

Properties of Saliva
i. Volume: 1-1.5L of saliva is secreted daily (about 1 mL/minute).
ii. Reaction: Mixed saliva from all the glands is slightly acidic with pH of 6.35 to 6.85
3. Specific gravity: It ranges between 1.002 and 1.012
4. Tonicity: Saliva is hypotonic to plasma.

Composition of saliva
Mixed saliva contains 99.5% water and 0.5% solids.

Functions of saliva
i. Prepares food for Swallowing:
Saliva moistens and dissolves food, moistens the mucus membrane of mouth, facilitates
chewing.
Movement of tongue rolls the moistened and masticated food into a bolus.
Mucin of saliva lubricates the bolus and facilitates swallowing.
ii. Appreciation of taste
Taste is a chemical sensation, thus as a solvent, saliva dissolves the solid food substances, these
stimulate the taste buds, which then recognizes the taste.
iii. Digestion of food
a. Salivary amylase [a carbohydrate-digesting (amylolytic) Enzyme], acts on cooked or
boiled starch and converts it into dextrin and maltose. It is activated by acidic medium.
b. Maltase (occurs in traces in human saliva): It converts maltose into glucose. It is
activated by acidic medium.
c. Lingual lipase [a lipid-digesting (lipolytic) enzyme].
It is secreted from serous glands, it digests milk fats (pre-emulsified fats).
d. It converts triglycerides of milk fat into fatty acids and diacylglycerol. It is activated by
acidic medium.
iv. Cleansing and protective functions
a. Constant secretion of saliva rinses and keeps the mouth and teeth free of food debris,
shed epithelial cells and foreignparticles.
b. As a result, saliva prevents bacterial growth by removing materials, which may serve as
culture media for the bacterial growth.
c. Enzyme lysozyme present in saliva kills some bacteria such as staphylococcus,
streptococcus and brucella.
d. Proline-rich proteins present in saliva posses antimicrobial property and neutralize the
toxic substances such as tannins.
e. Lactoferrin of saliva also has antimicrobial property.
f. Proline-rich proteins and lactoferrin protect the teeth by stimulating enamel formation.
g. Immunoglobulin IgA in saliva has antibacterial and antiviral actions.
h. Mucin present in the saliva protects the mouth by lubricating the mucus membrane of
mouth.
v. Enhances speech
It moistens and lubricates soft parts of mouth and lips, this helps in speech. If the mouth
becomes dry, articulation and pronunciation becomes difficult.
vi. Excretory Function
Saliva excretes various types of organic and inorganic substances for instance mercury,
potassium iodide, lead, and thiocyanate.
It also excretes some viruses such as those causing rabies and mumps.
In some pathological conditions, saliva excretes unusual substances, for example glucose in
diabetes mellitus. In certain conditions, some constituents of saliva are excreted in large
quantities, for example, excess urea during nephritis and excess calcium during
hyperparathyroidism.
Vii. Regulation of Body Temperature
In dogs and cattle, excessive dripping of saliva during panting helps in the loss of heat and
regulation of body temperature. But in human beings, this function is played by sweat glands
And not saliva.
viii. Regulation of water balance
When the body water content decreases, salivary secretion also decreases. This causes dryness of
the mouth and induces thirst. When water is taken, it quenches the thirst and restores the body
water content.

Regulation of salivary secretion

Autonomic nervous system is involved in the regulation of salivary secretion
Stimulation of parasympathetic fibers of salivary glands activate the acinar cells and dilate the
blood vessels of salivary glands. This causes secretion of saliva with large quantity of water. The
neurotransmitter is acetylcholine.
Stimulation of sympathetic fibers activate the acinar cells and cause vasoconstriction. This
causes secretion of saliva, which is thick and rich in organic constituents such as mucus.
The neurotransmitter is noradrenaline.

Assignment
1. Discuss factors that cause
a. Hyposecretion
b. Hypersecretion
2. Describe the effects of drugs and chemicals on salivary secretion
B. STOMACH

Glands of the stomach

They are named based on the location of the stomach where they occur. They include: Fundic
glands (gastric glands or oxyntic), pyloric glands and Cardiac glands.

Table 1: Secretory function of cells in gastric glands

Cell Secretory products
Chief cells Pepsinogen, Rennin, Lipase, Gelatinase and Urase
Parietal cells Hydrochloric acid and Intrinsic factor of Castle
Mucus neck cells Mucin
G cells Gastrin
Enterochromaffin (EC) cells Serotonin
Enterochromaffinlike (ECL) cells Histamine

Functions of stomach
1. Mechanical Function
 The stomach stores food for a long period, i.e. 3 to 4 hours. It has a maximum capacity of
up to 1.5 L. The food is emptied into the intestine slowly, these provides enough time for proper
digestion and absorption of food substances in the small intestine.
 Peristaltic movements of stomach mix the bolus with gastric juice and convert it into the
semisolid material known as chyme.
2. Digestion of food
3. Protective Function
4. Hemopoietic Function
5. Excretory Function
Many substances like toxins, alkaloids and metals are excreted through gastric juice.

Properties of gastric juice

Gastric juice is a mixture of secretions from different gastric glands.
Volume: 1200 mL/day to 1500 mL/day.
Reaction: Gastric juice is highly acidic with a pH of 0.9 to 1.2. Acidity of gastric juice is due to
the presence of hydrochloric acid.
Specific gravity: 1.002 to 1.004
Gastric juice is composed of 99.5% of water and 0.5% solids (organic and inorganic substances).
Table 2: Components of gastric juice

Functions of gastric juice

vi. Digestive Function
Proteolytic enzymes of the gastric juice are pepsin and rennin. Gastric juice acts mainly on
proteins.
a. Pepsin: It is secreted as inactive pepsinogen but converted into pepsin by hydrochloric
acid (ph is 6 and below)
b. Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses, peptones and polypeptides. It also causes
curdling and digestion of milk (casein).
c. Gastric lipase (a tributyrase) is active only when the pH is between 4 and 5 and becomes
inactive at a pH below 2.5. It hydrolyzes tributyrin (butter fat) into fatty acids and glycerols.
d. Gelatinase: Degrades type I and type V gelatin and type IV and V collagen (which are
proteoglycans in meat) into peptides
e. Urase: Acts on urea and produces ammonia
f. Gastric amylase: Degrades starch (but its action is insignificant)
g. Rennin: Curdles milk (present in animals only).

ii. Hemopoietic function

Intrinsic factor of Castle is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 from GI tract into the
blood. Vitamin B 12 is an important maturation factor during erythropoiesis. Its absence in
gastric juice causes deficiency of vitamin B12, leading to pernicious anemia
iii. Protective function of mucus
Mucus is secreted by mucus neck cells of the gastric glands and surface mucus cells in fundus,
body and other parts of stomach.
It protects stomach wall through
- Protects the stomach wall from irritation or mechanical injury, by virtue of its high
viscosity.
- ii. Prevents the digestive action of pepsin on the wall of the stomach, particularly gastric
mucosa.
- Protects the gastric mucosa from hydrochloric acid of gastric juice because of its alkaline
nature and its acid-combining power
iv. Functions of Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric acid is present in the gastric juice:
a. Activates pepsinogen into pepsin
b. Kills some of the bacteria entering the stomach along with food substances. This action is
called bacteriolytic action
c. Provides acid medium, which is necessary for the action of enzymes

Factors Stimulating the Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid include; gastrin, histamine and vagal
stimulation.
Other factors which increase the gastric secretion by stimulating gastric mucosa include: alcohol
and caffeine.
Factors Inhibiting the Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid include; secretin, Gastric inhibitory
polypeptide and peptide YY.

Phases of gastric secretion

Secretion of gastric juice is a continuous process. But the quantity varies, depending upon time
and stimulus. Gastric secretion occurs in three different phases. Each phase is regulated by neural
mechanism or hormonal mechanism or both.
a. Cephalic phase
Stimuli arises from head region (cephalus) and secretion of the juice is regulated by nervous
mechanism.
Gastric secretion occurs even without the presence of food in stomach.
The quantity of the juice (appetite juice) is less but is rich in enzymes and hydrochloric acid.
Nervous mechanism regulates cephalic phase through reflex action. Two types of reflexes occur:
 Unconditioned reflex: Unconditioned reflex is the inborn reflex. When food is placed in
the mouth, salivary secretion is induced
 Conditioned reflex: reflex response acquired by previous experience. Presence of food in
the mouth is not necessary to elicit this reflex. The sight, smell, hearing or thought of food,
which induce salivary secretion.

b. Gastric Phase; Secretion of gastric juice when food enters the stomach
It is regulated by both nervous through local myenteric reflex and vagovagal reflex and hormonal
control through gastrin .
The nerve endings secrete neurotransmitter acetylcholine, these stimulates secretion of gastric
juice and also gastrin.
Nerve endings also release the neurotransmitter called gastrin releasing peptide, which stimulates
the G cells to secrete gastrin.
Gastric juice secreted during this phase is rich in pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid.

Stimuli, which initiate these two mechanisms are:

1. Distention of stomach
2. Mechanical stimulation of gastric mucosa by bulk of food
3. Chemical stimulation of gastric mucosa by the food contents.

c. Intestinal phase
It is the secretion of gastric juice when chyme enters the intestine.
Initially, the gastric secretion increases but later it stops.
Intestinal phase of gastric secretion is regulated by nervous and hormonal control.

Initial Stage of Intestinal Phase: Chyme that enters the intestine stimulates the duodenal
mucosa to release gastrin, which is transported to stomach by blood. There it increases gastric
secretion.

Later Stage of Intestinal Phase: Gastric secretion is inhibited by two factors:

1. Enterogastric reflex: inhibits the gastric secretion and motility. It is due to the distention
of intestinal mucosa by chyme or chemical or osmotic irritation of intestinal mucosa by chemical
substances in the chyme.
It is mediated by myenteric nerve (Auerbach) plexus and vagus.

2. Gastrointestinal (GI) hormones. Presence of chyme in the intestine stimulates the

secretion of many GI hormones from intestinal mucosa and other structures. All these hormones
inhibit the gastric secretion and some motility.
i. Secretin: Secreted by the presence of acid chyme in the intestine
ii. Cholecystokinin: Secreted by the presence of chyme containing fats and amino acids in
intestine
iii. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): Secreted by the presence of chyme containing glucose and
fats in the intestine
iv. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP): Secreted by the presence of acidic chyme in intestine
v. Peptide YY: Secreted by the presence of fatty chyme in intestine.
vi. The pancreas also secretes a hormone called somatostatin during this phase; it inhibits gastric
secretion.

C. PANCREAS
Pancreas is supplied by sympathetic nerve fibre through splanchnic nerve and parasympathetic
fibers through vagus nerve.
Exocrine pancreas secretes pancreatic juice and endocrine pancreas secretes hormone insulin and
glucagon
Properties of pancreatic juice include:
Volume: 500 to 800 mL/day
Reaction: Highly alkaline with a pH of 8 to 8.3
Specific gravity: 1.010 to 1.018

Table 3: Components of pancreatic juice

NB.
- High bicarbonate content makes the pancreatic juice highly alkaline, so that it protects the
intestinal mucosa from acid chyme by neutralizingit.
- Bicarbonate ions provide the required pH (7 to 9) for the activation of pancreatic
enzymes.

Functions of the Pancreatic Juice

a. Digestion function
Enzyme Activator Substrate End Products
Trypsin Enterokinase Proteins Proteoses and
Trypsin polypeptides
Chymotrypsin Trypsin Proteins Polypeptides
Carboxypeptidases Trypsin Polypeptides Amino acids
Nucleases Trypsin RNA and DNA Mononucleotides
Elastase Trypsin Elastin Amino acids
Collagenase Trypsin Collagen Amino acids
Pancreatic lipase Alkaline medium Triglycerides Monoglycerides and
fatty acids
Cholesterol ester Alkaline medium Cholesterol ester Cholesterol and fatty
hydrolase acids
Phospholipase A Trypsin Phospholipids Lysophospholipids
Phospholipase B Trypsin Lysophospholipids Phosphoryl choline
and free fatty acids
Colipase Trypsin Facilitates action of -
pancreatic lipase
Bile-salt-activated Trypsin Phospholipids Lysophospholipids
lipase Cholesterol esters Cholesterol and fatty
acids
Triglycerides Monoglycerides and
fatty acids
Pancreatic amylase - Starch Dextrin and maltose

b. Neutralizes acidity of chyme

Pancreatic juice is highly alkaline because of large quantity of bicarbonate ions. Thus it
neutralizes acidity of chyme in the intestine.
This action protects the intestine from the destructive action of acid in the chyme.

Secretion of pancreatic juice: It is regulated by both nervous and hormonal factors.

Pcreatic juice is secreted in three phases:
Cephalic,sight, thought or smell of food stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice
Gastric; when food enters the stomach, gastrin is secreted from stomach. When gastrin is
transported to pancreas through blood, it stimulates the pancreatic secretion which is rich in
enzymes
Intestinal phase; secretion of pancreatic juice when the chyme enters the intestine. It is under
hormonal control.
Some hormones stimulate the pancreatic secretion and some hormones inhibit the pancreatic
secretion.
Hormones Stimulating Pancreatic Secretion:
i.Secretin
It is produced by S cells of mucous membrane in duodenum and jejunum.
Secretin stimulates the secretion of watery juice which is rich in of bicarbonate ion and high in
volume.
ii. Cholecystokinin
It is secreted by I cells in duodenal and jejunal mucosa. It stimulates the secretion of pancreatic
juice which is rich in enzyme and low in volume.
Hormones Inhibiting Pancreatic Secretion
i. Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) secreted by PP cells in islets of Langerhans of pancreas
ii. Somatostatin secreted by D cells in islets of Langerhans of pancreas
iii. Peptide YY secreted by intestinal mucosa
iv. Peptides like ghrelin and leptin

D. Liver
Blood supply to the liver
- Hepatic artery arises directly from aorta and supplies oxygenated blood to liver.
- Portal vein is formed by superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein. It brings
deoxygenated blood from stomach, intestine, spleen and pancreas.
- Portal blood is rich in monosaccharides and amino acids.
- It also contains bile salts, bilirubin, urobilinogen and GI hormones.
- However, it has low oxygen content.
- Flow of blood from intestine to liver through portal vein is known as enterohepatic
circulation
- The blood from hepatic artery mixes with blood from portal vein in hepatic sinusoids.
Hepatic cells obtain oxygen and nutrients from the sinusoid.
- Substances synthesized by hepatic cells, waste products and carbon dioxide are
discharged into sinusoids.
- Sinusoids drain them into central vein of the lobule.
- Central veins from many lobules unite to form bigger veins, which ultimately form
hepatic veins (right and left) which open into inferior vena cava.
Table 4: Enterohepatic circulation
Functions of Liver
Liver is the largest gland.
It performs many vital metabolic and homeostatic
1. Metabolic Function
Liver is the organ where maximum metabolic reactions such as metabolism of carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins and many hormones are carried out.

2. Storage Function
Many substances like glycogen, amino acids, iron, folic acid and vitamins A, B12 and D are
stored in liver.

3. Synthetic Function
Liver produces glucose by gluconeogenesis.
It synthesizes all the plasma proteins and other proteins (except immunoglobulins) such as
clotting factors, complement factors and hormone binding proteins. It also synthesizes steroids,
somatomedin and heparin.

4. Secretion of Bile
Liver secretes bile which contains bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, fatty acids and lecithin.
Bile salts are required for digestion and absorption of fats in the intestine
Bile helps to carry away waste products and breakdown fats, which are excreted through feces or
urine.

5. Excretory Function
Liver excretes cholesterol, bile pigments, heavy metals (like lead, arsenic and bismuth), toxins,
bacteria and virus (like that of yellow fever) through bile.

6. Heat Production
Enormous amount of heat is produced in the liver because of metabolic reactions. Liver is the
organ where maximum heat is produced.
7. Hemopoietic Function
In fetus (hepatic stage), liver produces the blood cells.
It stores vitamin B12 necessary for erythropoiesis and iron necessary for synthesis of
hemoglobin. Liver produces thrombopoietin that promotes production of thrombocytes.

8. Hemolytic Function
The senile RBCs after a lifespan of 120 days are destroyed by reticuloendothelial cells (Kupffer
cells) of liver.

9. Inactivation of Hormones and Drugs

Liver catabolizes the hormones such as growth hormone, parathormone, cortisol, insulin,
glucagon and estrogen.
It also inactivates the drugs, particularly the fat soluble drugs. The fat soluble drugs are
converted into water soluble substances, which are excreted through bile or urine.

10. Defensive and Detoxification Functions

Reticuloendothelial cells (Kupffer cells) of the liver play an important role in the defense of the
body.
Liver is also involved in the detoxification of the foreign bodies:
i. Foreign bodies such as bacteria or antigens are swallowed and digested by reticuloendothelial
cells of liver by means of phagocytosis.
ii. Reticuloendothelial cells of liver also produce substances like interleukins and tumor necrosis
factors, which activate the immune system of the body.
iii. Liver cells are involved in the removal of toxic property of various harmful substances
(detoxification).
Detoxification in occurs in two ways:
a. Total destruction of the substances by means of metabolic degradation.
b. Conversion of toxic substances into nontoxic materials by means of conjugation with
glucuronic acid or sulfates.

E. Gall bladder
Functions of gall bladder
1. Storage of Bile
Although bile is continuously secreted from liver, it is released into intestine only intermittently
Most of the bile is stored in gallbladder till it is required.
2. Concentration of Bile (5-10 times)
The mucosa of gallbladder rapidly reabsorbs water and electrolytes, except calcium and
potassium. But the bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol and lecithin are not reabsorbed.
3. Alteration of pH of Bile
The pH of bile decreases from 8 – 8.6 to 7 – 7.6 and it becomes less alkaline when it is stored in
gallbladder.
4. Secretion of Mucin
Gallbladder secretes mucin and adds it to bile, mucin acts as a lubricant for movement of chyme
in the intestine.
5. Maintenance of Pressure in Biliary System
Due to the concentrating capacity, gallbladder maintains a pressure of about 7 cm H2O in biliary
system. These is essential for the release of bile into the intestine.

Biliary system
Biliary system (extrahepatic biliary apparatus) is formed by gallbladder and extrahepatic bile
ducts (bile ducts outside the liver).
Right and left hepatic bile ductswhich come out of liver join to form common hepatic duct.
It unites with the cystic duct from gallbladder to form common bile duct.
Common bile duct unites with pancreatic duct to form the common hepatopancreatic duct or
ampulla of Vater, which opens into the duodenum.
There is a sphincter called sphincter of Oddi at the lower part of common bile duct, before it
joins the pancreatic duct.
Upon appropriate stimulation, the sphincter opens and allows flow of bile from gallbladder into
the intestine.

Properties of Bile
Volume: 800 to 1,200 mL/day
Reaction: Alkaline
PH: 8 to 8.6
Specific gravity: 1.010 to 1.011
Color: Golden yellow or green.

Table 5: Composition of bile

NB.
Bile is secreted by hepatocytes

Functions of Bile Salts

They are required for digestion and absorption of fats in the intestine.
a. Emulsification of fats: The process by which the fat globules are broken down into
minute droplets and made in the form of a milky fluid called emulsion in small intestine, by the
action of bile salts.
Bile salts emulsify the fats by reducing the surface tension due to their detergent action.
Emulsification of fats by bile salts needs the presence of lecithin from bile.
b. Bile salts combine with fats and make complexes of fats called micelles. This help in the
absorption of digested fats from intestine into blood.
c. Bile salts stimulate the secretion of bile from liver (choleretic action).
d. Cholagogue is. Bile salts act as cholagogues (an agent which causes contraction of
gallbladder and release of bile into the intestine) indirectly by stimulating the secretion of
hormone cholecystokinin. This hormone causes contraction of gallbladder, resulting in release of
bile.
e. Bile salts act as laxatives by stimulating peristaltic movements of the intestine.
f. Prevents of Gallstone Formation by keeping the cholesterol and lecithin in solution. In
the absence of bile salts, cholesterol precipitates along with lecithin and forms gallstone.

Functions of bile
a. Bile salts enhances digestive process
b. Bile salts absorptive functions
c. Excretion of waste materials including; Bile pigments (major excretory products of the
bile), heavy metals like copper and iron, some bacteria like typhoid bacteria, some toxins,
cholesterol, lecithin and alkaline phosphatase.
d. Bile salts act as laxatives
e. Bile inhibits the growth of certain bacteria in the lumen of intestine by its natural
detergent action (antiseptic activity).
f. Bile salts have the choleretic action (see above).
g. As bile is highly alkaline, it neutralizes the acid chime which enters the intestine from
stomach. Thus, an optimum pH is maintained for the action of digestive enzymes.
h. Bile salt prevention of gallstone formation
i. The mucin in bile acts as a lubricant for the chyme in intestine.
j. Bile salts act as cholagogues

Regulation of secretion of bile

Secretion of bile from liver and release of bile from the gallbladder are influenced by some
chemical factors, which are categorized into three groups:
a. Choleretics
These are substances which increase the secretion of bile from liver. Effective choleretic agents
are: acetylcholine, secretin, cholecystokinin, acid chyme in intestine, bile salts.
b. Cholagogues
It is an agent which increases the release of bile into the intestine by contracting gallbladder.
Common cholagogues are: bile salts, calcium, fatty acids, amino acids, and inorganic acids. All
these substances stimulate the secretion of cholecystokinin, which in turn causes contraction of
gallbladder and flow of bile into intestine.
c. Hydrocholeretic Agents
This is a substance which causes the secretion of bile from liver, with large amount of water and
less amount of solids. Hydrochloric acid is a hydrocholeretic agent.

F. Small Intestine
 Small intestine consists of three portions: proximal part known as duodenum, middle part
known as jejunum and distal part known as ileum.
 Mucous membrane of small intestine is covered by minute projections called villi.
 Villi are lined by columnar cells, which are called enterocytes.
 Each enterocyte gives rise to hair-like projections called microvilli. Villi and microvilli
increase the surface area of mucous membrane by many folds.
 Within each villus, there is a central channel called lacteal, which opens into lymphatic
vessels. It contains blood vessels also.
 Crypts of Lieberkühn (intestinal glands) are simple tubular glands of intestine. They open
into the lumen of intestine between the villi.
 Epithelial cells (columnar cells) lining the intestinal glands undergo division by mitosis at
a faster rate. Some of these cells (known as enterocytes) are pushed over the lining of the villi.
 They secrete enzymes.
 Other types of cells which occur between columnar cells of the intestinal glands include:
- Argentaffin cells or enterochromaffin cells, which secrete intrinsic factor of Castle
- Goblet cells, which secrete mucus
- Paneth cells, which secrete the cytokines called defensins.

Functions of Small Intestine

i. Mechanical Function:Mixing movements of small intestine help in the thorough mixing of
chyme with the digestive juices like succus entericus, pancreatic juice and bile.
ii. Secretory Function: Small intestine secretes succus entericus, enterokinase and the GI
hormones.
iii. Hormonal Function: Small intestine secretes many GI hormones such as secretin,
cholecystokinin, etc. These hormones regulate the movement of GI tract and secretory activities
of small intestine and pancreas
iv. Digestive function related to functions of succus entericus
v. Activator Function; Related to the functions of succus entericus
vi. Hemopoietic Function; related to functions of succus entericus
vii. Hydrolytic Function; related to functions of succus entericus
viii. Absorptive function: Presence of villi and microvilli in small intestinal mucosa increases
the surface area of mucosa. This facilitates the absorptive function of intestine.
Digested products of foodstuffs, proteins, car bohydrates, fats and other nutritive substances such
as vitamins, minerals and water are absorbed mostly in small intestine. From the lumen of
intestine, these substances pass through lacteal of villi, cross the mucosa and enter the blood
directly or through lymphatics.

Water and mineral salt absorption is as follows:

- In small intestine, sodium is absorbed actively. It is responsible for absorption of glucose,
amino acids and other substances by means of sodium cotransport.
- Water moves in or out of the intestinal lumen until the osmotic pressure of intestinal
contents becomes equal to that of plasma.
- In ileum, chloride ion is actively absorbed in exchange for bicarbonate.
- Calcium is actively absorbed mostly in upper part of small intestine.

Most of the vitamins are absorbed in upper part of small intestine and vitamin B12 is absorbed in
ileum. Absorption of water-soluble vitamins is faster than fat soluble vitamins

Table 6: Structure of intestinal gland and villus

In addition, the first part of duodenum contains some mucus glands (Brunner glands).
These glands penetrate muscularis mucosa and extend up to the submucus coat of the intestinal
wall.
They open into the lumen of intestine directly, they secretes mucus and traces of enzymes.

Succus entericus
These are secretions from small intestine
Their properties are;
Volume: 1800 mL/day,
Reaction : Alkaline
pH : 8.3
Table 7: Composition of succus entericus

Functions of Succus entericus

i.Digestion function (see the table below)
Enzyme Substrate End product
Peptidases Peptides Amino acids
Sucrase Sucrose Fructose and glucose
Maltase Maltose and maltriose Glucose
Lactase Lactose Galactose and glucose
Dextrinase Dextrin, maltose and maltriose Glucose
Trehalase Trehalose (carbohydrate present in Glucose
mushrooms and yeast)
Intestinal lipase Triglycerides Fatty acids

ii. Protective function

- Mucus present in the succus entericus protects the intestinal wall from the acid chyme,
which enters the intestine from stomach; thereby it prevents the intestinal ulcer.
- Defensins secreted by paneth cells of intestinal glands are the antimicrobial peptides.
They are called natural peptide antibiotics because of their role in killing the phagocytosed
bacteria.
iii. Activator Function
Enterokinase present in intestinal juice activates trypsinogen into trypsin. Trypsin, in turn
activates other enzymes.
iv. Hemopoietic Function
Intrinsic factor of Castle present in the intestine plays is necessary for the absorption of vitamin
B12, this enhances erythropoiesis
v. Hydrolytic Process
Intestinal juice helps in all the enzymatic reactions of digestion.

Regulation of secretion of succus entericus

 Secretion of succus entericus is regulated by both nervous and hormonal mechanisms.
 Stimulation of parasympathetic nerves causes vasodilatation and increases the secretion
of succus entericus.
 Stimulation of sympathetic nerves causes vasoconstriction and decreases the secretion of
succus entericus.
 Additionally, when chyme enters the small intestine, the mucosa is stimulated by tactile
stimuli or irritation. It causes the development of local nervous reflexes, which stimulate the
glands of intestine.
 When chyme enters the small intestine, intestinal mucosa secretes enterocrinin, secretin
and cholecystokinin, which promote the secretion of succus entericus by stimulating the
intestinal glands.

G. Large intestine (Colon)

Large intestine is made up of the following parts: cecum with appendix, ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon or pelvic colon, rectum and anal canal.
Present in mucosa of large intestine are crypts of Leiberkühn and mucus-secreting glands.
The large intestine secretes large intestinal juice (is a watery fluid with pH of 8.0).
Table 8: Composition of large intestinal juice

Functions of large intestinal Juice

i. Neutralization of Acids
Strong acids formed by bacterial action in large intestine are neutralized by the alkaline nature of
large intestinal juice.Due to the presence of large quantity of bicarbonate.
ii. Lubrication Activity
Mucin lubricates the mucosa of large intestine and the bowel contents, so that, the movement of
bowel is facilitated.
It also protects the mucus membrane of large intestine by preventing the damage caused by
mechanical injury or chemical substances.

Functions of Large Intestine

i. Absorptive Function
Large intestine plays absorbs various substances such as:water, electrolytes, organic substances
like glucose, alcohol and drugs like anesthetic agents, sedatives and steroids.
ii. After the absorption of nutrients, water and other substances, the unwanted substances in the
large intestine form feces. This is excreted out.
iii. Large intestine excretes heavy metals like mercury, lead, bismuth and arsenic through feces.
iv. Secretory Function, large intestine secretes mucin and inorganic substances like chlorides and
bicarbonates.
iv. Synthetic function; bacterial flora of large intestine synthesizes folic acid, vitamin
B12 and vitamin K. By this function, large intestine contributes in erythropoietic
activity and blood clotting mechanism.

Dietary fibre (Roughage)

It is a group of food particles which pass through stomach and small intestine without being
digested and reach the large intestine unchanged.
Characteristic feature of dietary fiber is that it is not hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes. So, it
escapes digestion in small intestine and passes to large intestine.
It provides substrate for microflora of large intestine and increases the bacterial mass.
The anaerobic bacteria, in turn, degrade the fermentable components of the fiber and are
absorbed.
The remaining components are excreted through feces.

Components of Dietary Fiber

Fibres that are partially degradable include; cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin, while other
component; lignin, D-glucans, and gums.are indigestible.
Dietary fiber also contains minerals, antioxidants and other chemicals that are useful for health.
Sources of dietary fiber are fruits, vegetables, cereals, bread and wheat grain (particularly its
outer layer).
Diet with high dietary fiber has health benefits since dietary fiber:
 Delays emptying of stomach
 Increases formation of bulk and soft feces and eases defecation
 Contains substances such as antioxidants and other useful substances.
 When high dietary fiber food is taken, other foods, which may cause some diseases may
be decreased in quantity or completely excluded from diet. For instance, diet with high fiber
content tends to be low in energy and it may be useful in reducing the body weight.
 Some components of dietary fiber also reduce blood cholesterol level and thereby
decrease the risk for coronary heart disease and gallstones.
 Dietary fiber is suggested for treating or to prevent constipation and bowel syndrome.
 It is also useful in treatment of some disorders such as diabetics, cancer, ulcer, etc.

Movement of Gastrointestinal Tract

A. Mastication
Mastication or chewing is the first mechanical process in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, by which
the food substances are torn or cut into small particles and crushed or ground into a soft bolus.
It involves three types of movements:
 Opening and closure of mouth
 Rotational movements of jaw
 Protraction and retraction of jaw
Mastication plays significant role such as;
 Breakdown of foodstuffs into smaller particles
 Mixing of saliva with food substances thoroughly
 Lubrication and moistening of dry food by saliva, so that the bolus can be easily
swallowed
 Appreciation of taste of the food.
 Mastication is mostly a reflex process but also a voluntary action. It is regulated by the
center for mastication located in medulla and cerebral cortex. Mandibular division of 5 th
cranial (trigeminal) nerve innervate muscles of mastication.

B. Deglutition (Swallowing)
The process by which food moves from mouth into stomach.
It occurs in three stages:
 Oral stage, when food moves from mouth to pharynx (voluntary)
The bolus from mouth passes into pharynx through the following stages:
 Bolus is placed over postero-dorsal surface of the tongue. It is called the preparatory
position
 Anterior part of tongue is retracted and depressed.
 Posterior part of tongue is elevated and retracted against the hard palate. This pushes the
bolus backwards into the pharynx
 Forceful contraction of tongue against the palate produces a positive pressure in the
posterior part of oral cavity. This also pushes the food into pharynx

 Pharyngeal stage, when food moves from pharynx to esophagus (Involuntary)

The bolus is pushed from pharynx into the esophagus.
Pharynx is a common passage for food and air. It divides into larynx (for entry of air) and
esophagus (for entry of food).
Larynx lies anteriorly and continues as respiratory passage. Esophagus lies behind the larynx and
continues as GI tract.
Since pharynx communicates with mouth, nose, larynx and esophagus, during this stage of
deglutition, bolus from the pharynx can enter into four paths:
 Back into mouth
 Upward into nasopharynx
 Forward into larynx
 Downward into esophagus.
However entry of bolus through other paths is prevented by:
1. Back into Mouth; It is prevented by:
 Position of tongue against the soft palate (roof of the mouth)
 High intraoral pressure, developed by the movement of tongue.
2. Upward into Nasopharynx; It is prevented by
Elevation of soft palate along with its extension called uvula.
3. Forward into Larynx; It is prevented by:
 Approximation of the vocal cords
 Forward and upward movement of larynx
 Backward movement of epiglottis to seal the opening of the larynx (glottis)
 All these movements arrest respiration for a few seconds. It is called deglutition apnea
(swallowing apnea). This is arrest of breathing during pharyngeal stage of deglutition.
4. Entrance of Bolus into Esophagus
The bolus has to pass only through the esophagus, it is enhanced by various factors:
i. Upward movement of larynx stretches the opening of esophagus
ii. Simultaneously, upper 3 to 4 cm of esophagus relaxes. This part of esophagus is formed by the
cricopharyngeal muscle and it is called upper esophageal sphincter or pharyngoesophageal
sphincter
iii. At the same time, peristaltic contractions start in the pharynx due to the contraction of
pharyngeal muscles
iv. Elevation of larynx also lifts the glottis away from the food passage.
As a result; bolus moves easily into the esophagus. The whole process takes place within 1 to 2
seconds and this process is purely involuntary.

 Esophageal stage, when food moves from esophagus to stomach.