Copyright 2011 by Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. For reprints, call HBS Publishing at (800) 545-7685.

BH 437
Business Horizons (2011) 54, 307—314

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www.elsevier.com/locate/bushor

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Global managers’ perceptions of cultural
competence
Christine Uber Grosse

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Thunderbird: The American Graduate School of International Management

KEYWORDS Abstract To work effectively in the global business arena, managers need a strong set
Cross-cultural of intercultural management skills. When dealing with clients, co-workers, and other
competence; stakeholders at home or abroad, managers with cross-cultural competence have a
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Management skills; distinct competitive advantage in the multicultural marketplace. Although generally
Global managers; accepted as a valuable asset for doing business, cross-cultural competence defies easy
Training; definition. This study attempts to conceptualize the complex term from the practi-
Business education tioner’s point of view. What does cross-cultural competence mean to global managers?
From their perspective, which aspects of culture do business people need to understand?
From the universe of cultural beliefs, values, attitudes, and country-specific informa-
tion, what should an executive, with limited time, focus on to develop a basic level of
cultural competence? This study asked Mexican managers what they needed to know
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about culture to do business with the U.S. In the process, they consistently identified
certain basic components of cultural competence. Responses were surprisingly similar
among the managers, indicating they had a clear picture of which cultural essentials
were most important for global executives to learn. The results of the study reveal a
working definition of cultural competence for global managers. This research also
provides trainers and business educators a content framework for a short-term training
program, based on the global managers’ perceptions of cross-cultural competence.
# 2011 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved.
No

1. The study also made recommendations for short-term cross-

cultural training programs with respect to appro-
This study examines global managers’ perceptions priate content and design. These perspectives
of what cultural competence is necessary to do from practitioners give language teachers and
business with the United States. The analysis of cross-cultural trainers a fresh view on which cul-
data collected from almost 50 executives in tural topics are most relevant to business.
Mexico provides insight regarding which aspects
Do

of culture managers consider essential for success-

ful business dealings with the U.S. The executives 2. Need for the study

Business language instructors and cross-cultural

E-mail address: [email protected] trainers have long wrestled with the issue of which

0007-6813/$ — see front matter # 2011 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.02.001

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 308 C.U. Grosse

aspects of culture to teach global managers. From business dealings. Out of the responses, a prelimi-

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the universe of business culture, which topics should nary image of basic business cultural competence
be taught in the short time available? The question emerges. The results suggest a fundamental set of

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becomes even more difficult, given the busy lives of cultural information, knowledge, attitudes, and
executives and business students, who typically have communication skills that are vital to business. As
limited time for language and cultural study. While experienced executives, the respondents know first-
business language professionals traditionally have hand the types of complications that arise due to
relied on needs assessments to determine the linguis- cross-cultural incompetence. Based on years of do-
tic needs of their clients, few studies have focused on ing business across borders and cultures, they iden-

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which cultural dimensions to teach. This study tify certain essentials of cultural understanding for
presents the opinions of global executives concerning global managers based in Mexico.
critical aspects of U.S. business culture. All respondents agree that understanding U.S.
As globalization and e-commerce develop, the and Mexican business culture is extremely impor-
need for cultural knowledge grows more acute. tant, since the working cultures are very different–—
According to Rhinesmith (1996, p. 13), both man- even opposite, in some cases. An analysis of the
agers and organizations must have ‘‘an openness to responses yielded five basic categories of cultural
other cultures that facilitates international dealings aspects that respondents considered most critical:

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and decisions.’’ The number of managers doing (1) business conduct; (2) attitudes toward time;
business overseas continues to swell in the New (3) business communication patterns; (4) laws and
Economy. Grosse (2000) reports that almost 80% regulations; and (5) other culture. These categories
of 63 midsize and large companies send personnel fit, more or less, within a framework for cultural
overseas, and 45% have plans to send additional study developed by Ferraro (1998, p. 89). He iden-
professionals abroad. Responding to increased de- tifies nine critical dimensions of value contrasts
mand for business cultural information, publishers between the U.S. and other cultures, including
have produced a number of handbooks–—including individualism, precise recognition of time, a future
op
Althen (1988), Kras (1995), Lanier (1996), Morrison, orientation, work and achievement, control over
Conaway, and Borden (1994), and Wanning (1996)–— the natural environment, youthfulness, informality,
that give an overview of business culture in dozens competition, and relative equality of the sexes. The
of countries. Mexican executives recognized seven of these dimen-
sions; however, none identified ‘control over the
natural environment’ or ‘youthfulness’ as fundamen-
3. Research methodology tal cultural values important to doing business.
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The data for the study derives from a short question- 3.1. Business conduct
naire administered to 116 international businesspeo-
ple working in 80 companies in Mexico. Forty percent Regarding business conduct, the responses of the
(47 individuals) answered the questions. The re- Mexican managers can be grouped into four main
spondents were enrolled in an English business com- areas: (1) pragmatism; (2) business-related charac-
munication class as part of a new distance learning teristics; (3) interpersonal relationships; and (4)
Masters in International Management in Latin
No

quality and standardization.

America degree program jointly offered by Thunder-
bird, The American Graduate School of International 3.1.1. Pragmatism
Management, and the Instituto Tecnologico de According to the respondents, Mexicans need to be
Estudios Superiores de Mexico (ITESM). The managers aware of the pragmatism and work ethic of American
addressed the following questions: managers; their pragmatism can be misinterpreted
by Mexican counterparts as ‘coldness.’ Since the
1. What do Mexican managers need to know about Latin people are very relationship-oriented, in gen-
U.S. culture in order to do business more effec- eral, this aspect merits mention. Mexican managers
tively with U.S. managers or companies? prefer to know first to whom they are talking,
Do

to become familiar with their roots and history.

2. What should be included in a two-day training Only then, after a sense of trust between the
program on U.S. culture for Mexican employees? two businesspeople develops, can the Mexicans feel
What would you include? comfortable and ready to continue with business.
Mexicans need to be familiar with the down-to-
Both questions yielded information about specific business pragmatism of U.S. managers, who tend to
types of cultural knowledge that are critical in focus on the bottom line and rely heavily on facts

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 Global managers’ perceptions of cultural competence 309

for their business decisions. In contrast, one man- of any culture, yet one in which each person is

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ager stated: ‘‘We in Mexico are more colloquial or considered ‘‘a replaceable cog in the wheel of
informal, and are not so inclined to statistics. The any organization.’’ Individual initiative and achieve-

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Americans are very manual-oriented and organized, ment are highly valued in U.S. society.
and we are more relaxed and ingenious.’’ American In contrast to the individualistic bent of U.S.
managers want to hear what the final expected managers, teamwork plays an important role in
results are going to be, at what cost, and the U.S.-based international business. To deal more
schedule needed to carry out those results. Brake, effectively with their American counterparts,
Walker, and Walker (1995) stress that Americans are Mexican managers have to be knowledgeable about

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‘doers,’ who believe that results and actions speak the team concept, and how to work in multicultural
louder than words. This action-oriented society is and virtual teams. With the proliferation of email,
illustrated, too, by the common saying that any videoconferencing, fax machines, and telephones,
decision is better than no decision. virtual teaming is used more and more often by U.S.
One manager commented that the U.S. work businesses.
ethic is so strong it appears the Americans live to
work, rather than work to live. Wanning (1996) finds 3.1.3. Interpersonal relationships
that Americans believe in progress, emphasize re- Respondents observed that Americans do not like to

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sults, and have an action-dependent self-image that get personal or talk about their families while doing
drives the U.S. worker to work hard. She noted that business, as Mexicans do. In fact, many feel that U.S.
even wealthy individuals work long hours in their managers are ‘cold’ and focused on business, not on
businesses. relationships or feelings. Some commented that
when they get to know each other, they can establish
3.1.2. Business-related characteristics strong relations. One manager with years of experi-
The most prominent business-related characteris- ence doing international business commented: ‘‘In
tics identified by the executive respondents includ- my personal opinion, they [American businesspeople]
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ed competitiveness, risk taking, individualism, and make a complete separation between job relations
teaming. The Mexicans found the Americans to be and personal relations.’’ American managers tend to
competitive and more aggressive risk takers than view people at work as just colleagues and not
their Mexican counterparts. The competitiveness of friends. The Mexicans observed that U.S. business
the Americans shows up in negotiation styles, where does not encourage social chat at work.
they frequently view conflict and confrontation as
opportunities. Some managers observed that in U.S. 3.1.4. Quality and standardization
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business, everyone is competing with each other Several participants identified quality and stan-
to reach higher positions. Kras (1995) points out dardization as key issues that are vital to really
that Mexicans tend to avoid personal competition, understanding U.S. business culture. One executive
in favor of peace and harmony at work. Lanier remarked: ‘‘Mexican managers have to know that
(1996) explains this heightened competition in light U.S. people are usually more demanding than
of the American pursuit of the bottom line. She cites Mexicans, which forces us to improve our quality,
drive for financial profit and dedication to work as and be more demanding when evaluating and deal-
No

the underlying motivation for many workaholics; in ing with U.S. companies.’’ Indeed, others com-
her view, Americans ‘‘want so much to get to the top mented that U.S. managers are always looking for
or make a corporate name for themselves that they quality and good prices. Regarding standardization,
scarcely take time out for their own families, for one manager stated:
recreation, or for pleasure’’ (p. 51).
With respect to the American openness to risk, a I think the most important difference be-
Mexican executive observed: ‘‘They like to risk tween Mexican and U.S. culture, talking about
money in their ideas.’’ Harris and Moran (1996) business environment, is standardization. For
affirm that Americans are risk takers; given the example, I am sure that a great percentage of
rewards of capitalism, generally speaking they are the Mexican labor has the ability to perform
Do

not risk averse. In contrast, Mexicans tend to try to any kind of job, even if it is a very specialized
avoid risk, or work things out to minimize it. Mexican one. However, most of them are not certified
managers also need to know about U.S. individual- with the proper training that complies with
ism, since this is reflected in the business environ- the standards of certain kinds of companies. If
ment, as well as in several different aspects of Mexican managers want to do business with
life. Morrison et al. (1994, p. 407) identify the Americans, they have to invest money in
United States as probably the most individualistic training, and then get the paper that certifies

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 310 C.U. Grosse

that the company does the job in accordance Thus, the Mexicans sum up the U.S. attitude toward

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with international standards, such as the punctuality.
ISO 9002 certification.

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3.2.2. Schedules and timelines
3.2. Attitudes toward time In Mexico, the perception of time is more poly-
chronic, and stresses involvement with people and
Mexican executives widely recognized the different completion of transactions rather than strict compli-
attitudes toward time as a major stumbling block ance with meeting times. In the U.S., where time is
for doing business with the U.S. They discussed the monochronic, people put strong emphasis on sched-

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need to understand U.S. business practices with ules and timelines. In keeping with this tendency,
respect to: (1) punctuality; (2) schedules and time- respondents note that the Americans are very strict
lines; (3) value of time; and (4) personal versus with their working schedule, and usually work from 9
business time. to 5. One articulated the flexibility of time in Mexico:
The time-related differences link to the U.S. ‘‘Sometimes we use words or phrases like ‘in a mo-
being a monochronic culture, while Mexico is poly- ment,’ which means you will receive the work during
chronic. With humor, Gesteland (1999) explains the the next hour and not immediately.’’
difference between the two; he describes mono-

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chronic cultures like the U.S. as ‘‘clock-obsessed, 3.2.3. Value of time
schedule-worshipping cultures’’ (p. 58). People Mexican managers need to know that they are deal-
from polychronic cultures such as Mexico have much ing with Americans who believe time is money, and
more flexible attitudes toward time, and are less view it as a valuable resource. Business patterns
obsessive about punctuality and deadlines. They reflect this attitude toward the value of time.
place a higher value on relationships than on fixed Americans prefer to do business first–—get straight
schedules and timelines. to the point and then, when the business is over,
have fun. In Mexico, the order is reversed: when
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3.2.1. Punctuality doing business, it is very common to start with
Global managers need to understand how important dinner, drinks, and fun, and then to do business.
punctuality is to Americans, not only for appoint-
ments and meetings, but for shipments, payments, 3.2.4. Personal vs. business time
documents, et cetera. To the Americans, delivery on American managers make a clear distinction be-
Monday means delivery on Monday. To emphasize tween personal and business time. For them, busi-
the point, one executive noted that when Americans ness time is for business only; they do not waste
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say that a meeting starts at 3:15, it starts at 3:15. If work hours. Personal time is very important, and
they call a meeting from 3:00 to 4:00, the meeting Americans would rather not sacrifice their personal
will start at 3:00 and finish at 4:00. U.S. managers time to business-related matters, whereas Mexicans
want people to respect time. If someone arrives late easily blend the two aspects of life.
to a meeting, they view it as an insult or as disre-
spectful. On the other hand, in Mexico, it is common 3.3. Business communication patterns
knowledge that when an appointment is set at 8:00,
No

it really means 8:30 to 9:00. However, this happens Executives identified key U.S. business communica-
more often in informal or personal meetings than in tion patterns that are important for Mexican busi-
business. nesspeople to understand. These patterns include:
But with U.S. business appointments, the Mexican (1) directness; (2) informality and simplicity;
managers recommend arriving early, even if it is an (3) yes, no, and promises; and (4) jokes and topics
informal meeting. Generally speaking, Americans to avoid.
take punctuality more seriously than their Mexican
counterparts. Being late can give U.S. managers the 3.3.1. Directness
wrong impression. One respondent went so far as to American directness is a major cultural difference
say: ‘‘they might not even open the door for you, so that Mexicans need to understand. In contrast with
Do

forget about a second chance if you want to do Mexican culture, if Americans want something, they
business.’’ Another executive commented on the say directly what they need. American managers
importance of punctuality: ‘‘It doesn’t matter if it often prefer to confront and deal with problems
rains, if the car wheels suffered damage or whatev- from the outset of a project, rather than as they pop
er, they are used to getting to work on time when- up along the way. Gesteland (1999) describes the
ever there’s an appointment, so it is important to be verbal directness and straightforward-speaking
more organized and fulfill working time accurately.’’ style of the U.S. negotiator; he notes that Americans

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 Global managers’ perceptions of cultural competence 311

sometimes do not even realize their direct style may manager added that Mexican managers need to

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offend people from less-direct cultures. In fact, understand the importance of the commitments
Americans sometimes distrust negotiators who use they make from the U.S. point of view. According

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an indirect and ambiguous communication style. to the respondents, Mexican managers should not
Various respondents gave advice regarding U.S. make any promises, unless they are sure that they
directness. Among other things, the Mexican man- can fulfill them later. Mexicans may say yes very
ager needs to be more direct during conversations quickly, but later find they cannot deliver as
with U.S. colleagues: ‘‘They need to know how to go promised; U.S. managers will be disappointed if
straight ahead, rather than spending much time their expectations are not met. Kras (1995, p. 66)

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speaking or writing.’’ Mexican managers also should describes the Mexican view toward word and ac-
prepare an agenda before an appointment, listing tion, asserting:
the topics they want to discuss. While U.S. managers
like to get straight to the point, Mexican managers Mexican executives still tend to feel that a well-
typically need a long time to warm up. intentioned word is an acceptable substitute
Regarding the language used, respondents ad- for action. They often lack a strong sense of
vised that Mexicans should freshen up their language commitment to what they say they intend to
skills, as conversations with U.S. counterparts will do. They usually consider their word a desirable

yo
probably be held exclusively in English. One com- goal, but feel no disgrace if problems delay or
mented: ‘‘Knowing basic English is not enough; you prevent its realization in practice.
need to master the business language also because it
can involve the usage of words and/or expressions In contrast, Americans feel a strong commitment to
that may have a different meaning.’’ action if they give their word. This is especially true
regarding the written word and its binding nature.
3.3.2. Informality and simplicity Several executives described the get-it-in-writing
Several study participants commented on the infor- mentality of U.S. business as worthy of cross-cultur-
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mal behavior and dress code of the Americans. The al study: ‘‘In Mexico, verbal communication is used
Mexicans observed that American managers tend more often than in the U.S. Most of the time, it is not
not to dress very formally, especially in cities with supported by any paper.’’ As articulated by Althen
a warm temperature. U.S. business manners are not (1988, p. 137):
as strict in Mexico, and Americans are more relaxed.
Some U.S. managers even do business on a golf The written word is supremely important to
course–—and successfully! Americans tend to use American businesspeople. They make notes
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first names, rather than the titles (e.g., Licenciado, about conversations, keep files on their various
Doctor) commonly used in Mexico. One executive projects, and record the minutes of meetings.
observed: ‘‘It is crucial to learn their approach: The contract or the agreement must be written
‘Just call me Bob’.’’ People from the U.S. speak down in order to be taken seriously.
and write with very informal language, compared to
business Spanish. A respondent elaborated on the The Mexicans cited this difference as important to
U.S. preference for informality: ‘‘Americans like understand, since in their culture this behavior
No

simple things, a fast email or a fax without so much would be viewed as insulting, indicating a lack of
formality; just say what you have to say. Period.’’ trust.
Expanding on this theme, Training Management
Corporation (1997) generalizes that Americans 3.3.4. Jokes and topics to avoid
may appear to oversimplify things and look for quick One executive advised: ‘‘Mexicans should learn not
solutions. to make jokes with sexual or racial connotations.
They’re not funny. They’re considered disgusting
3.3.3. Yes, no, and promises and out of place.’’ Another respondent recom-
Many executives commented about what it means mended learning the proper etiquette for being
when a U.S. businessperson says ‘yes,’ ‘no,’ or introduced to a prospect; this includes which topics
Do

makes promises. One noted that Mexicans need to of conversation to avoid, like money, religion, and
understand that when an American says no, it’s a sexist talk.
definitive no. Another observed that people from
the U.S. do not find it difficult to say no. 3.4. Laws and regulations
Several stated that Americans do not make
false but friendly promises in order to get along The differences between U.S. and Mexican laws, and
with somebody. If they promise, they deliver. One business/government relations, are considered to be

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 312 C.U. Grosse

important cultural knowledge. U.S. labor unions also prejudices toward aging and gender are not com-

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play a significant role that Mexicans need to under- mon.’’ Another brought up cultural differences with
stand. In the view of one manager: ‘‘U.S. business respect to sexism: ‘‘I would also warn the Mexican

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culture is more concerned and aware of laws because executives about sexism and sex-sensitive styles.
of the impact that some actions can have in terms of Nowadays, it is very common to find professional
penalties and lawsuits; for example, confidentiality women in important positions.’’
issues and sexual harassment.’’ Another manager To gain a better understanding of American hu-
commented: ‘‘They pay a lot of attention to discrim- mor, global executives should go to a comedy club to
inatory behavior in order to avoid it, due to the strong get immersed in U.S. culture. They will also note

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legal consequences it causes.’’ that meals in the U.S. and Mexico are very different,
Mexican managers should understand that busi- not only regarding ingredients, but also in the meal-
ness is handled very differently in the U.S. with times and quantity of food consumed during the day.
respect to the role of lawyers. Americans depend In addition, several respondents suggested learning
heavily on lawyers to do business; for example, to basic U.S. geography; they believe it is valuable to
revise business contracts. One respondent opined: get to know the regions and some important facts
about the people in different regions.
Although Americans sometimes say the world

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would be a better place without lawyers, they
do not feel safe–—especially in international 4. Short-term training programs
business–—without their lawyer’s blessing.
Business must be settled with a written con- In addressing the second item on the question-
tract, even though the handshake is important. naire, respondents suggested content and training
Americans have a saying: ‘Get it in writing’. activities for two-day training sessions. Their ideas
contrasted with the cross-cultural training typi-
Several respondents raised the issue of corruption. cally provided by foreign language and ESL pro-
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Basically, one banker summed up the comments of fessors in their classes. Understandably, most
the group: ‘‘Corruption is not included in their business language faculty have educational and
vocabulary.’’ The role of experts in U.S. business experiential background in language and culture,
also received some attention in the responses. Ex- rather than business. For this reason, the ideas
perts are relied on at all levels. In general, U.S. of the international businesspeople presented
employees have a high degree of specialization in a here will help broaden the perspective of faculty
unique area. One manager observed: ‘‘In Mexico, who want to become more involved in providing
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employees are driven to be flexible rather than intensive cross-cultural training on topics of criti-
specialized, which is a remarkable difference with cal need.
the U.S.’’ The model below is adapted from the respon-
dents’ recommendations. This design can be ex-
3.5. Other culture panded or contracted to fit the interests of the
learner and teacher, and the amount of time avail-
Remaining topics raised by the executives fall able for training. If possible, I recommend forming
No

into the category of other culture. Most often, classes along the lines of multicultural teams, com-
the Mexican managers named sports as an important posed of U.S. and non-U.S. learners. In a university
area of U.S. business culture. Talking about sports or corporate setting, students who are native and
was identified as a great icebreaker with American non-native speakers of English (from foreign lan-
businesspeople. Respondents recommended going guage and ESL classes) can be taught together in
to a baseball, football, basketball, or ice hockey the same class. For example, Business Spanish–—or
game with American counterparts; further encour- French, German, Japanese, Russian, or another
agement was given to learning more about these language–—and Business English students could take
sports, even though many Mexicans already know a the course together, and learn about each other’s
great deal about them. Another recommendation culture as they experience the training. Students
Do

was for Mexican businesspeople to become familiar from three or more cultures could study together,
with how some Americans play tennis or golf as a comparing information and attitudes, and sharing
way to close deals. experiences. As they work on class projects, they
Respondents considered the following topics to could observe and compare each others’ reactions,
be important: knowledge of U.S. gender issues, communication styles, and cultural similarities and
American humor, food, geography, and history. differences. In this way, the learners can gain deep-
One executive pointed out: ‘‘In the United States, er understanding of each other and their culture.

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 Global managers’ perceptions of cultural competence 313

Instead of only one instructor, the class has as many Business issues:

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teachers as there are learners. The topics and sub-
topics suggested by the managers for a short inten-  Team work

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sive training program are listed below by category.
 Decision making process
Business communication skills:
 Establishment of a plan for each goal
 Communicate effectively in English
 Management of meetings

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 Verbal and non-verbal communication
 Business dress
 Short and direct communication
 Risk taking
 Protocol and etiquette
 Work Groups (about work relations between
 Greetings Americans and Mexicans)

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 Titles  Quality assurance in services and products

 Gestures to be avoided  Time management

 Topics of conversation to avoid  Leadership

 Permission to smoke  Project management

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 Negotiations: direct, fast, going to bottom line  Diversity

 Persuasion and influence  Business entertainment and meals

 Long-term profitable relationships Social sciences:

 Potential conflict situations  Brief U.S. History

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 Solutions to cross-cultural conflict situations  Economic development

 The ‘you’ viewpoint  Demographics: population, ethnic groups

 Executive reports with short sentences and com-  Geography

mon words
 Politics
No

 Formality from the U.S. point of view

 Social issues: Society and major social problems
 Direct sales method (e.g., divorce rate, drug abuse)

 Importance of technology  Relations between U.S. and Mexico (e.g., NAFTA,

bilateral agreements)
Values:
 Mexican companies in the U.S. and U.S. compa-
 Importance of the individual nies in Mexico
Do

 Value of time U.S. law:

 Family principles and values  Lawsuits and contracts

 Pragmatism of U.S. managers  Legal system

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[email protected] or 617.783.7860
 314 C.U. Grosse

 Active management recommendations to avoid The findings of this study will help language and

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lawsuits cultural instructors, materials developers, curricu-
lum designers, and program administrators to better

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 U.S. labor unions understand what cultural competence means to in-
ternational business people. We can certainly learn
from the study executives’ experience in the field,
5. Training activities and benefit from their perspective on essential cross-
cultural issues in doing business with the U.S.
The managers suggested a variety of training activi-

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ties for their two-day training programs. These in- References
cluded group participation and discussion, icebreaker
activities, case studies of U.S. and Mexican compa- Althen, G. (1988). American ways: A guide for foreigners in the
nies, videos about companies, practical illustrations United States. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
of real situations that come up at work, role-play Brake, T., Walker, D. M., & Walker, T. (1995). Doing business
situations, and solving real problems. Several people internationally: The guide to cross-cultural success. New York:
recommended using experiential learning that in- McGraw Hill.
Ferraro, G. P. (1998). The cultural dimension of international
cluded icebreaker activities, taking participants out

yo
business (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
for an American breakfast, having lunch at a fast food Gesteland, R. R. (1999). Cross-cultural business behavior. Copen-
place, and shadowing an American counterpart all hagen, Denmark: Handelshojskolens Forlag (Copenhagen Busi-
day to witness meetings and daily work activities. ness School Press).
Finally, they recommended that the participants go to Grosse, C. U. (2000). Global strategy for developing cross-cultural
competence. In R. E. Grosse (Ed.), Thunderbird on global
a U.S. baseball game or comedy club. .business strategy (pp. 308—327). New York: John Wiley & Sons
Harris, P. R., & Moran, R. T. (1996). Managing cultural differ-
ences: Leadership strategies for a new world of business.
6. Conclusions Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co.
op
Kras, E. S. (1995). Management in two cultures: Bridging the gap
between U.S. and Mexican managers. Yarmouth, ME: Inter-
In sum, the respondents in this study identified cultural Press.
important aspects of culture for business learners. Lanier, A. R. (1996). Living in the U.S.A. Yarmouth, ME: Intercul-
The information they provided in a narrative fell tural Press.
into five basic categories: (1) business conduct; (2) Morrison, T., Conaway, W. A., & Borden, G. A. (1994). How to
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No
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