CHAPTER 3

CONSUMER PERCEPTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In biology, perception refers to the senses that any organism uses to collect information
about its environment. Wade & Tavris (1987) note that the senses corresponding to the
human sense organs have been categorised at least since Aristotle's time as: vision
(our eyes), hearing (our ears), taste (our tongues), touch (our skin) and smell (our
noses). Walters & Bergiel (1989) continue the biological viewpoint by explaining that
according to the modem outlook, our sense of smell and taste are our olfactory senses
due to the fact that our senses of smell and taste are so closely entwined. They
continue by stating that humans also perceive in a kinaesthetic mode (using muscles
and joints) and in a vestibular mode (through our internal organs).

In consumer behaviour, however, perception refers to much more than just the
biological use of our sense organs. It includes the way stimuli are interacted and
integrated by the consumer.

Although there are numerous definitions in literature explaining perception from a

consumer behaviour perspective, the one used by Walters et al (1989, p. 333) provides
particular clarity on the topic:

"The entire process by which an individual becomes aware of

the environment and interprets it so that it will fit into his or her

frame of reference."

Walters et al (1989) expand on the definition by stating that every perception involves
a person who interprets through the senses some thing, event, or relation which may
be designated as the percept. Van der Walt (1991 ) adds that perception occurs when
sensory receptors receive stimuli via the brain, code and categorise them and assign

49
certain meanings to them, depending on the person's frame of reference. A person's
frame of reference consists of a/l his previous held experiences, beliefs, likes, dislikes,
prejudices, feelings and other psychological reactions of unknown origin.

From the discussion it is eminent that the perception process has long been recognised
as the most significant barrier to effective communication. It is at this point that the
sender does or does not get through to the receiver (Aaker et ai, 1987). since correct
decoding of marketing information hinges on the consumer's perception of the
communication content (Van der Walt, 1991).

A problem though with perception and related studies (Schiffman et ai, 1991) is that two
individuals may be subject to the same stimuli under apparently the same conditions,
but how they recognise, select, organise and interpret them is a highly individual
process based on each person's own needs, values, expectations and the like.
Individuals furthermore act and react on the basis of their perceptions, not on the basis
of objective reality. With this in mind (Schiffman et ai, 1991), it is important that
marketers understand the whole notion of perception and its related concepts so that
they can more readily determine what influences consumers to buy.

The perception process is also complicated due to the possibility that individuals may
be stimulated below their level of conscious awareness (known as subliminal
perception), ie they can perceive stimuli without being consciously aware of the stimuli
in question.

Individuals also experience a certain amount of risk when making a purchasing decision
and have a limited capacity to process a\l the different stimuli directed at them. This
leads to a selective perception process where individuals will expose themselves
selectively to marketing stimuli, pay selective attention to these stimuli and then interpret
it to conform with previous held beliefs and attitudes. Only messages conforming to held
beliefs will be retained.

50
3.2 FRAME OF REFERENCE

The relevance of briefly referring to the frame of reference while researching consumer
perception, can be explained by the fol/owing statement by Van der Walt (1991, pp. 295­
296):

"Merely seeing or hearing, however, cannot be referred to as

perception. Perception is seeing or hearing it in terms of a

person's frame of reference."

Van der Walt (1991) continues by explaining that a person's frame of reference consists
of all his previous experiences, beliefs, likes, dislikes, habits, prejudices, feelings and
other psychological reactions of unknown origin. Furthermore, it is important to note
that a person's frame of reference is unique to that person. The frame also acts as a
filter for any stimuli that a person is exposed to, or as Mowen (1993) suggests, it acts
as an anchor to which any rising issue is compared to on a judgemental scale. Stanton,
Etzel & Walker (1991) expand on the latter statement by explaining that if an
inconsistency is discovered, the new information will be distorted to conform to the
established beliefs.

3.2.1 Operation of the frame of reference

As noted earlier, the frame of reference acts as a filter. According to Van der Walt
(1991), however, exactly how this filter works remains a mystery which could possibly
never be solved. The frame entails the evaluation of every stimulus to which a person
is exposed in the light of previously held emotions, behavioural intentions and beliefs.
These evaluations are concluded in an overall orientation or attitude towards a certain
object, also referred to as a mental set. Figure 3.1 provides a detailed assessment of
the frame of reference.

51
 FIGURE 3.1: INFORMATION FLOW THROUGH THE FRAME OF REFERENCE

Feedback

Symbols Stimuli Frame of reference

used by the picked up
advertisers by the
in the sensory Overall
advertising receptors Cognitive component orientation
message or attitude
Beliefs
r (also called
Experience
a mental
Knowledge '"U
set) CD
.....
(')
CD Cl
"0
.­ CD
o· (')
Ci)'

- o·
:::3
Affective component 0 :::3
I---"

.... Emotions .­ 3
: :r
Feelings
CD
fl)
A
Prejudices 3
CD
::r

(Q
(f) I

I (f)

fl)

(Q
CD
Behavioural component
~
Reactions
Habits
Intentions

01
rv I Source: Van derWalt (1991, p. 297)
The three main components through which all information must flow in the frame of
reference are the cognitive, affective and behavioural components.

* Cognitive component

The cognitive component consists of the total configuration of beliefs and knowledge
about a certain object, as well as previously gained experience.

* Affective component

The affective component involves emotions, feelings and prejudices. Prejudices refer
to faulty interpretations made previously, and such prejudices cannot be changed easily.

* Behavioural component

The behavioural component has to do with habits, reactions and intentions. Any
information contradicting one's habits and intentions will not be accepted easily.

Therefore, it can be said that if it is stated that a message was perceived, it means that
the stimuli have passed through all three components of the individual's frame of
reference in such a way that the person is ultimately able to come to a decision. The
fact that stimuli are passing through a person's frame of reference does not mean that
the message was perceived correctly or that the decision that flows from it will be
positive.

According to Walters et al (1989) it is important to note that the meaning of the market
stimulus depends on the context in which it is perceived. All our senses have some limit
to responsiveness to stimulation. These limits are referred to as trlresholds.

53
3.3 THRESHOLDS

Wade et al (1987) note as introduction to the discussion on thresholds that the

relationship between the physical properties of stimuli and the human psychological
experience of them is studied in the field of psychophysics. Drawing on principles of
both physics and psychology, they examine how varying the intensity or strength of a
stimulus affects the strength of sensation in an observer.

Schiffman et al (1991) explain that sensation is the immediate and direct response of
the sensory organs to simple stimuli (eg an advertisement, a brand name etc.). Human
sensitivity refers to the experience of sensation, where the sensitivity to stimuli varies
with the quality of an individual's sensory receptors (eg smell or eyesight) and the
amount or intensity of the stimuli to which he is exposed. Sensation itself depends on
energy change or differentiation of input. It can therefore be said that an unchanging
environment, regardless of the strength of the sensory input, provides little or no
sensation at all.

The following example by Schiffman et al (1991) may provide more clarity on the above
discussion: A person living in a busy street of mid-town Manhattan would probably
receive little or no sensation from the inputs of noisy stimuli such as tyres screeching,
sirens of fire-engines, or horns honking, since such sounds are so common in New York
City. One honk more or less would not make any difference. The reason is that in
situations where there is a great deal of sensory input, the senses do not detect small
intensities or differences in input. As the sensory input decreases however, our ability
to detect changes in input or intensity increases, to the point where we attain maximum
sensitivity under conditions of minimal stimulation.

This leads to the statement of Assael (1992, p. 131) which reads as follows: "The ability
of consumers to detect variations in light, sound, smell, or other stimuli is determined
by their threshold levels." Wilkie (1990) states that a threshold simply is a point at which
an effect begins to occur.

54
There are two different threshold levels, namely an absolute threshold, below which no
stimulus can be detected and a differential threshold, the minimum difference between
two stimuli that can be detected. A third threshold is often referred to in literature (eg
Van der Walt, 1991 and Walters et ai, 1989) as an upper threshold, beyond which
increased stimulation produces no increased response.

3.3.1 The absolute threshold

Schiffman et al (1991) explains that the lowest level at which an individual can
experience a sensation is called his absolute threshold, often referred to as the lower
threshold. This means that the point where a difference can be detected between
"something" and "nothing" is a person's absolute threshold for that stimulus.

3.3.2 The differential threshold

The differential threshold, also called the just noticeable difference, is the minimal
difference in stimuli that can be reliably detected by an observer when two stimuli are
compared (Wade et ai, 1987, supported by Assael, 1992, and Schiffman et ai, 1991).
Schiffman et al (1991) explain that the just noticeable difference U.n.d.) between two
stimuli is not an absolute amount, but an amount relative to the intensity of the first
stimulus. The latter phenomenon is referred to as Weber's Law.

'I< Weber's law

Wade et al (1987, p. 164) defines Weber's Law as:

"A law of psychophysics stating that the change necessary to produce a

just-noticeable-difference is a constant proportion of the original stimuli."

Aaker et al (1987) added to the definition by first stating that the degree to which a
stimulus will be regarded as different will not depend on the absolute stimulus change

55
but on the percentage of change from some reference point, and secondly by supplying
the equation used by Weber's Law to determine the constant that varies across senses:

.:;1
- =K

where the smallest increase in stimulus intensity that will be perceived

as different from the existing intensity;
existing stimulus intensity; and
K constant that varies across senses.

A practical example of Weber's Law might explain the phenomenon more clearly
(adapted from Wade et al 1987): Assume a pebble weighs 5 kg. When a second is
weighed, the detectable difference between the two pebbles is 100 gram (0,02 kg).
Now, suppose a boulder weighs 100 kg. How much must the second boulder weigh to
detect a difference? The answer is 102 kg, an addition of 0,02 kg of 100 kg, or 2 kg.
The importance of the example is that the proportion of the change necessary to
produce the j.n.d. is the same. It is interesting to note, as was seen in the example, that
the larger the object (or the higher the price for a product), the larger the difference has
to be to be noticed (Assael, 1992).

The principles of Weber's Law (and the related concept of j.n.d) is widely used in
marketing decisions such as price increases and reduction in size or quality of products.

Related to the discussion on thresholds is subliminal perception, where it is believed

that individuals can be influenced by stimuli without being consciously aware of such
stimuli. It is generally accepted that subliminal stimuli are not capable of influencing
consumer behaviour or decision-making even though such stimuli may exist. From a
marketing perspective, however, it is important to examine subliminal perception. As
stated by Moore (1982), if only one per cent of a total audience of ten million is
influenced by a subliminal message, such a message can be meaningful in altering the

56
behaviour of individuals.

Before turning to subliminal perception it should be emphasised that each individual has
his own, unique threshold limit, applicable only to him (Walters et ai, 1989).

3.3.3 Subliminal perception

The controversial topic regarding subliminal perception dates back as far as September
1957 where approximately 45 000 people attended the movie called "Picnic" in a theatre
in Fort Lee, New Jersey. This movie allegedly contained subliminal advertising
messages displayed at 1/3000 of a second at intervals of five seconds. The subliminal
messages invited audience members to "eat popcorn" and "drink Coca-Cola".

After the experiment the researcher, Mr Vicary, reported dramatic increases in Coca­
Cola (18%) and popcorn sales (57,8%). Mr Vicary, however, could not provide any
documentation regarding the increase in sales.

The reaction regarding the alleged results was immediate and widespread and raised
serious ethical questions, since consumers could be influenced by messages without
their approval or without them even knowing about it. Laws were drafted prohibiting the
use of subliminal advertising on television, while public response included statements
such as:

"... take tt-lis invention and everything connected with it and attach it to the
centre of the next nuclear explosive scheduled for testing." (Cousins
1957, p. 20 in Moore, 1982, p. 38)

After a second study was conducted, this time controlled and supervised, no change
occurred in either the sale of Coca-Cola or popcorn. After being questioned, Mr Vicary
admitted that he had fabricated the results hoping he could revive his failing business
(Wells, Burnett & Moriarty, 1989 and Weir, 1984).

57
From the discussion above, one of the major controversies regarding consumer
perception arises namely whether consumers can actually perceive marketing stimuli
below their thresholds of awareness.

Assael (1992, p. 724) defines subliminal perception as follows:

"Perception of a stimulus below the conscious level. If the

stimulus is beneath the threshold of conscious awareness, but

above the absolute threshold of perception, it is known as

subliminal perception."

Assael (1992) expanded his definition by adding that the conscious level is referred to
as the limen. Therefore, perception beneath the conscious level is subliminal.
Schiffman et al (1991) explain that although perception occurs at a level below the
conscious level, it is not below the absolute threshold. Perception of stimuli that is
above the conscious level of awareness is referred to as supraliminal perception.

Potentially, subliminal perception could be achieved in at least three major ways. The
possibilities are the presenting of visual stimuli for a very brief duration; presenting
auditory messages through accelerated speech at low volume levels; and embedding
or hiding images or words in pictorial material.

The purported benefit of using subliminal perception techniques in advertising,

according to Loudon & Della Bitta (1988), is that subliminal messages will not be strong
enough to arouse consumers' selective attention and defence mechanisms, but will be
strong enough to influence them at an unconscious level. Regarding this statement
Peter & Olson (1990), as well as Moore (1982) explain that one of the pioneers of
embedded images and words in advertising, a certain Dr Key, believes that humans
have at least two sensory input levels, one that encodes data at the conscious level and
a second operating at a level below conscious awareness.

58
According to Dr Key, a concealed word or symbol that is usually invisible to the
consciousness appears instantly perceivable at the unconscious level (Moore, 1982).
The foundation of the theory of Dr Key, namely that subliminal embeds exist in
advertising rests upon numerous different advertisements with embedded microscopic
erotica (Moore, 1982). In a liquor advertisement for example, Key found among others
the letters "s", "e" and "x" in different ice-cubes. In another advertisement he found
them on the back of a child's hand. Other sexual embedded symbols and messages,
of which many were male and female genitals, also featured as evidence for Key's
claims (Wilkie, 1986; Haberstroh, 1984; and Moore, 1982).

The problem with Key's theory, however, is that not only are none of the embedded
images visible to the naked eye (in fact it apparently requires weeks of analysis for
many of them to be discovered) but are sometimes also embedded upside down
(Moore,1982). Herberstroh (1984) furthermore claimed that when Key conducted his
research, none of the respondents ever discovered any of the subliminal details in the
advertisements. Of course, with the expert "guidance" of Dr Key, all were soon able to
"see" the objects he pointed out. A further counter argument is that there are no
psychological theories or data of the two alleged processing systems that Key refers to
(Peter et ai, 1993 and Moore, 1982). In conclusion, Moore (1982) stresses that Key
appears to invent whatever features of perception and memory would be necessary to
achieve the results imputed to embedded stimuli. Haberstroh (1984) supports the view
concerning Key, and adds that the broad advertising community and academic
profession perceive Dr Key as "crazy", "paranoid" and above all, "obsessed with sex".

But how does one see erotic and other symbols in ice cubes? Mowen (1993) provides
one answer by explaining that one can see the shapes for the same reason that you can
find dogs, cats, elephant, and faces in complex cloud formations. Schiffman et al (1991)
support this statement by adding that a vivid imagination can see whatever it wants to
see in just about any situation.

59
As a final conclusion on the topic of subliminal perception, it can be stated that
subliminal advertising is not capable of influencing the individual (Peter et ai, 1993;
Assael,1992; Loudon et ai, 1988; Schiffman et ai, 1991; Haberstroh, 1984; Weir, 1984;
Zanot, Pinicus & Lamp, 1983; and Moore, 1982) due to the following reasons:

* The effects of subliminal stimuli are extremely weak and most certainly are
overridden by a host of more powerful messages (Mowen, 1987).

* Perceptual thresholds differ from person to person, and even from time to time
(Wells et ai, 1989).

* Symbols that are subliminal to one person might be perceived consciously by

another. A message that is guaranteed to be subliminal to an entire audience
would probably be so weak that any effect would be limited (Wells et ai, 1989).

* Another problem is the lack of control that the advertiser would have over the
distance and position of the message, for this can also affect the recognisability
of the subliminal stimulus (Wells et ai, 1989).

* The recognisable (supraliminal) material, such as the commercial or the movie

used in conjunction with the subliminal message has different effects on people.
The supraliminal stimulus might overpower the subliminal material entirely (Wells
etal,1989).

60
 3.4 THE CONSUMER PERCEPTION PROCESS

3.4.1 Introduction

The perception process as displayed in Figure 3.2 consists of five distinct activities. The
first activity is that of exposure to stimuli. The second states that attention to stimuli has
to occur. During the third activity, organisation, people organise stimuli so that it can be
comprehended and retained. The fourth activity is that of interpretation of the message.
Information is retained during the last activity. As seen in Figure 3.2, a successful
perception process leads to a purchasing and consumption decision. Consumer
decision-making models were discussed in Chapter 2.

3.4.2 Exposure

Exposure, the first step of the perception process, occurs when a stimulus comes within
the range of our sensory receptor nerves, ie when stimuli come within the range of one
of our senses. Exposure is therefore simply the minimum requirement of perception.
No matter how great a message is, it will not be perceived unless a person is exposed
to the stimulus (Wells et ai, 1989).

Bisschoff (1992) explains that exposure to stimuli is of either an intentional or an

accidental nature. Intentional exposure occurs when an individual is exposed to market­
related information because of his own intentional, goal-directed behaviour, ie it reflects
a person's interests, reading habits, information needs and life style.

Accidental exposure to stimuli occurs when the individual is exposed to intensive

marketing campaigns, such as the messages portrayed by the broadcasting media,
billboards, point-of-sale displays in the retail store and the vast number of magazine and
newspaper advertisements. Furthermore, the individual is also accidently exposed to
information such as testimonies from friends or relatives concerning a specific product.
Such testimonies first leads to interest, and then to intentional exposure.

61
FIGURE 3.2: THE CONSUMER PERCEPTION PROCESS

Exposure

Attention

Organisation

Interpretation

Retention

Purchase and
consumption decisions

Source: Adapted from Hawkins et al (1992, p. 222)

62
Aaker et al (1987) conclude by emphasising the importance of exposure by stating that
there can be no communication (or a perception process for that matter) without
exposure.

3.4.3 Attention

An individual is exposed, whether intentionally or accidentally, to thousands of different

marketing stimuli during a normal living day ranging from thousands of different products
in a retail store, .all differing in packaging, colour and design to as many as 1 500
advertisements (Belch et ai, 1995; Assael, 1992; and Aaker et ai, 1987).

From a marketing perspective attention is of crucial importance, since no matter how

often a consumer is exposed to marketing stimuli, if no attention took place, the message
is of no use.

Assael (1992, p. 709) defines the attention process as:

"The momentary focusing of a consumer's cognitive capacity

on a specific stimulus."

Attention to a given stimulus has taken place only if a consumer notices or attends to the
stimulus. If a consumer does not focus on a stimulus, eg an advertisement, although he
has been exposed to it, attention did not take place.

The attention process can therefore be viewed as an information filter - a screening

mechanism that controls the quantity and nature of information any individual receives
(Aaker et ai, 1987).

Before attending to the factors determining attention, it is important to note that the so­
called attention filter operates at three different levels of effort and consciousness that
vary from active search to passive attention.

63
3.4.3.1 Levels of effort and consciousness in the attention process

Hawkins et al (1992) pointed out the importance of there being three different levels in
the attention process. The same person may devote different levels of attention to the
same stimulus in different situations. The three levels involved are active search,
passive search and passive attention.

According to Aaker et al (1987) a receiver actually seeks information at the first level of
the attention filter, active search. Information might be gathered from magazines not
normally read, or by soliciting the opinions of friends.

At the second level, passive search, a receiver searches for information only from
sources to which he is exposed during the normal course of events. No effort is made
to obtain information from sources not usually exposed to.

At the final level, passive attention, a receiver has little immediate need for information.
Although no conscious effort is made to obtain information, some may nevertheless enter
the system.

3.4.3.2 Factors determining attention

For the marketer to attempt to gain attention to his marketing efforts, it is useful to note
the different factors determining attention. The three factors are the stimulus, the
individual, and the situation (Hawkins et al. 1992).

3.4.3.2.1 Stimulus factors

According to Hawkins et al (1992) stimulus factors are physical characteristics of the

situation itself. Mowen (1993), supported by Assael (1992), Hawkins et al (1992),
Schiffman et al (1991), Wilkie (1990), Aaker et al (1987), and Berkman & Gilson (1986),
explains that a number of stimulus characteristics tend to attract our attention
independently of our individual characteristics. These stimulus characteristics are size

64
and intensity, colour, movement and contrast, position, isolation, format and information
quantity.

" Size and intensity

The size and intensity of the stimulus influence the probability of paying attention to it.
Large stimuli are more likely to attract attention than smaller ones, simply because a
consumer is more likely to notice them (Wilkie, 1990). Intensity of the stimulus can be
used to draw attention. Loud noises, strong scents and brighter lights are all commonly
used for this purpose.

" Colour, movement and contrast

Both colour and movement serve to attract attention. Bright colours and moving objects
are normally more noticeable. An example of the element of contrast suggests that a
black and white advertisement is likely to be noticed in a full-colour context. Wilkie
(1990) explains that contrast, because it represents a change to our sensory systems,
will activate our sensory receptors and stimulate our attention processes.

" Position

Position is one of the most interesting determinants of perception. Position refers to the
placement of an object in a person's visual field. Items placed more to the centre of the
visual field are more likely to be noticed than those placed near the edge of the field. This
explains why consumer goods manufacturers compete fiercely for eye-level space in
grocery stores. Likewise, advertisements placed on the upper half of a page get more
attention than the lower part and left-hand side more than the right. It is interesting to
note that Orientals, Arabs and people used to reading Hebrew will give perceptual
emphasis to other portions of the page.

65
* Isolation

Isolation is the process of separating the stimulus object from other objects. For
example, if a small object is placed in a virtually blank page, it draws immediate attention
due to the isolation principle.

* Format

The concept of format refers to the manner in which the message is presented. A
general rule is that simple, straight forward presentations receive more attention than
complex presentations. The concept of compressed information is related to format
since the speeding of a message can increase attention, whereas elements in the
message that increase the effort required to process the message tend to decrease
attention. Aaker et al (1987) agree that in printed advertising a short, simple copy can
be informative, but add that if a reader has real use for information and if the information
is well packaged, he can be induced to read a long copy. Format, like the other stimulus
elements, must be developed with a specific target market in mind (Hawkins et al, 1992).

* Information quantity

Information quantity relates more to the total stimulus field than to any particular item in
that field. Although there are substantial variations among individuals, all consumers
have limited capacities to process information. Information overload occurs when
consumers are confronted with so much information that they cannot or will not attend
to all of it. Instead, they become frustrated and either postpone or give up the decision,
make a random choice, or use a suboptimal portion of the total information available.

66
3.4.3.2.2 Individual factors

Individual factors are characteristics of the individual. The most important individual
factors are personal interests or needs. Berkman et al (1986) focus our attention on the
importance to remember that interests and needs vary from individual to individual and
that individual response factors cannot be gauged with the scientific precision of stimulus
factors as explained above.

Wilkie (1990) is of the opinion that our physical needs cause us to be more sensitive to
potential stimuli that might satisfy those needs. Hawkins et al (1992) refer to interest and
explain that interest can also influence personal perceptions since it is a reflection of our
overall lifestyle as well as a result of long-term goals and short-term needs. Short-term
goals and needs are heavily influenced by the situation. Our goals furthermore cause
us to be more attentive to specific stimuli that might help to satisfy them (Wilkie, 1990).
A practical example would be to notice how many petrol stations one observes once the
petrol gauge begins to drift towards the "Empty" mark.

Aaker et al (1987) continue the discussion by explaining why a person obtains

information. It is important to note that there are, of course, as many reasons as there
are situations and individuals. It, however, is instructive to examine four general motives
for attending to stimuli.

Information is first of all of practical value. It can also be supportive, stimulating and
interesting.

* Information of practical value

The objective of gaining information of practical value is that it will be of use to a person.
In an advertising context, an individual will obtain information that will help him make
better purchasing decisions. More information might be needed about certain products
such as expensive and new products with which the consumer is not familiar.

67
Information of practical value would also be used once consumers are actively searching
for information. This may result in gathering information from sources normally not
exposed to, such as advertisements in specialist magazines, by soliciting information
from others, or by reading technical reports, especially when adequate information is not
available through prior experience.

Such an active search for information generates exposure that is extremely important
because such exposure will be more likely to affect product knowledge and attitude
structure than that not associated with effort. Furthermore, the receiver is apt to be close
to a purchase and the chances of forgetting the message is therefore lower.

The purchase, however, need not be imminent for a person to collect product
information. Individuals often acquire information for future reference, using processes
such as passive search or passive attention.

• Information that supports

People have a psychological preference for supportive information, ie they may be

motivated to be exposed to information that supports their opinion - selective exposure.
They therefore tend to avoid non-supportive or discrepant information. Selective
exposure will be discussed under Section 3.6.1.

Information that stimulates

It is a common fact that people get bored very easily and are therefore motivated to
reduce that boredom by seeking stimuli that are novel, unusual and different. In
particular, people may be motivated to seek out information that does not support their
positions due to influenced exposure patterns.

68
it
Information that interests

People tend to notice information that interests them. In turn, they are interested in
subjects with which they are involved. They are essentially interested in themselves and
in various extensions of themselves.

3.4.3.2.3 Situational factors

The final factor determining attention, the situation, are stimuli in the environment other
than the focal stimulus, focusing only on one stimulus source (eg an advertisement or
package), or temporary characteristics of the individual that are induced by the
environment, such as time pressure or a very crowded store. As mentioned earlier, it is
important to note that one person may devote different meanings to the same stimulus
in different situations.

Aaker et al (1987) conclude by stating that advertisers should try to attract attention, but
at the same time be cautious not to divert interest from the important points of the
message. In particular, it is of no use to attract an individual's attention if the brand and
its message get lost in the process.

3.4.4 Perceptual organisation

Assael (1992, p.720) defines perceptual organisation as:

"The organization of disparate information so that it can be

comprehended and retained."

Schiffman et al (1991) explain that people do not experience the numerous stimuli they
select from the environment as separate and discrete sensations. They rather tend to
organise them into groups and perceive them as unified wholes. The perceived
characteristics of even the simplest stimulus are therefore viewed as a function of the
whole to which the stimulus appears to belong. Assael (1992) and Wilkie (1990)

69
support this viewpoint by adding that during the perceptual organisation process,
consumers group information from various sources into a meaningful whole to better
comprehend such information and act on it

Aaker et al (1987) explain perceptual organisation by stating that because stimuli are
perceived not as a set of elements but as a whole, it can be concluded that this total has
a meaning of its own that is not necessarily deductible from its individual components.
This phenomenon is termed the Gestalt psychology.

Assael (1992, p.71S) defines the Gestalt psychology as:

"A German school of psychology that focuses on total

configurations or whole patterns. Stimuli, such as advertising

messages are seen as an integrated whole. In short, the

whole is greater than the sum of the parts."

Assael (1992) claims that the basic hypothesis of the Gestalt psychologists is that
people organise perceptions to form a complete picture of an object. Mowen (1993)
supports this view by stating that the Gestalt psychologists attempted to identify the
rules that govern how people take disjoint stimuli and make sense out of the shapes and
forms to which they are exposed.

Aaker et al (1987) suggest that even when stimuli are incomplete, people strive to form
a complete impression of a person or object. The reason for this statement is that an
individual has a cognitive drive towards an orderly cognitive configuration or
psychological field. An individual desires to make the field as good as possible.

Wilkie (1990)and Aaker et al (1987) conclude by stressing the fact that an important
tenet of the Gestalt psychology is that there is a cognitive drive to obtain what they term
a "good Gestalt", ie people desire to have perceptions that are simple, familiar, regular,
complete, meaningful and consistent.

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3.4.4.1 Gestalt principles of organisation

The three basic Gestalt principles of organisation (Mowen, 1993; Assael, 1992;
Schiffman et ai, 1991; Du Plessis, Rousseau & Blem, 1990; and Wilkie, 1990) centre
on closure, grouping (consisting of proximity, similarity and continuity) and context (the
principle of figure and ground). Other principles, according to Wilkie (1990), are
symmetry and common fate (supported by Mowen, 1993). Mowen (1993) as well as
Krebs and Blackman (1988) add illusion as the final element of perceptual organisation.
Figure 3.3 displays the various Gestalt principles of organisation.

* Closure

Perception favours a complete or closed figure. Closure, therefore, refers to a

perceiver's tendency to fill in the missing elements when a stimulus is incomplete.
Consumers have a desire to form a complete picture and derive a certain amount of
satisfaction in completing a message on their own (Figure 3.3-1).

.. Grouping

Individuals are more likely to perceive a variety of information as groups rather than as
separate units. As was noted earlier, principles of grouping that have emerged from
Gestalt psychology are proximity, similarity and continuity.

The tendency of proximity means that one object will be associated with another
because of its closeness to that object. The twelve circles in Figure 3.3-2 are seen as
three columns of circles rather than four rows of circles because of their vertical
proximity.

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* Context

Individuals will tend to perceive an object by the context in which it is shown. Assael
(1992) stresses that even the setting of an advertisement will influence the perception
of a product (Figure 3.3-5 is an example of the context principle. Both the horizontal
lines in the figure are of equal length, but because of the different positions of the
arrows - that is the context - the horizontal line on the left is perceived to be longer).

The most important principle of context is that of figure and ground. Perception tends
to feature one object at a time and view the remaining stimuli as background. Assael
(1992) suggests that, according to Gestalt psychology, individuals will in organising
stimuli into wholes, distinguish prominent stimuli (the figure that is generally in the
foreground) from less prominent stimuli (the ground or background). Figure 3.3-6 is an
example of the figure and ground principle. Mowen (1993) explains that the image
switches back and fa rt!"I because our brain cannot decipher whether the figure is the
black or the white portion of the drawing.

* Symmetry

Wilkie (1990) explains that perception favours a symmetrical form over an asymmetrical
one when both interpretations are possible. Figure 3.3-7 depicts the principle of
symmetry. In Figure 3.3-7 A, individuals may see separate triangles rather than the
overall form. In Figure 3.3-78, one might focus more on the triangles than the irregular
four-sided shape, while the more regular overall outline displayed in Figure 3.3-7C may
be "shaped" to a more symmetrical form.

Common fate

Common fate suggests that moving elements that are travelling in the same direction
seem to form a unit. Figure 3.3-8 depicts an example of common fate.

73
'It
Illusion

Illusion, also termed the Ponzo illusion, suggests that lines of equal lengths are
perceived as being of different lengths; in the presence of adjacent angled lines, most
people jUQge the upper horizontal line to be longer than the lower horizontal line (Figure
3.3-9). According to Krebs et al (1988) an important characteristic of illusion is that by
simply becoming aware that a misperception is occurring, an individual will not be able
to correct the error. In such instances, knowledge available to an individual's cognitive
system is not sufficient to correct an error in the operation of his perceptual system.

3.4.5 Perceptual interpretation

Mowen (1993, p. 778) defines interpretation as:

"A process whereby people draw upon their experience,

memory, and expectations to interpret and attach meaning to

a stimulus."

Schiffman et al (1991) and Van derWalt (1991) explain that the interpretation phase is
uniquely individual, since it is based upon what individuals expect to see in the light of
their previous experience, on the number of plausible explanations they can envision,
and on their interests and motives at the time perception occurs. Mowen (1993) adds
to this by stating that during this phase, people will retrieve from long-term memory
information pertinent to the stimulus. Expectancies regarding what the stimulus "should
be like" are also retrieved from memory and used to interpret the stimulus.

Mowen (1993) notes a problem with interpretation, namely that individuals may interpret
the same stimulus differently. He adds that personal inclinations, bias, and most
important of all, expectations of the individual, will influence his interpretation of a
stimulus.

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Assael (1992), supported by Wilkie (1990), continues by explaining that perceptual
interpretation consists of two basic principles, namely categorisation and inference.
Categorisation assists the individual to process known information quickly and efficiently
and classify new information. Inference involves the development of an association
between two stimuli.

3.4.5.1 Perceptual categorisation

Perceptual categorisation is defined by Assael (1992, p. 710) as:

"Tendency of consumers to place marketing information into

logical categories in order to process information quickly and

efficiently, and to classify new information."

Wilkie (1990) explains that the categorisation process is extremely important since it
underpins all our interactions with our external world. He expands his explanation by
stating that the wayan individual initially categorises a stimulus, will affect how
interested that individual will be in the stimulus, what to expect from it, and whether it
will be evaluated positively or negatively. Furthermore, it is important to note that the
categorisation process works at an extremely rapid speed, anduslJally at the
unconscious level.

When an individual has previously encountered a specific external stimulus and has a
strong category for it in long-term memory (Wilkie, 1986), the process is similar to
"recognising" the stimulus pattern and calling forth the right node from long-term
memory. If an individual has not encountered a particular stimulus before, the
categorisation process must rely on matching "cues" from the stimulus to possible
categories in long-term memory, therefore arriving at what possible identity seems right
for it.

75
3.4.5.2 Perceptual inferences

According to Assael (1992, p. 716) inference:

"Involves the development of an association between two

stimuli; .,"

Wilkie (1986, p. 397) expands on the definition by stating that "an inference is a belief
that we developed based on other information". If a person's name is Sue for example,
that person is likely to be a woman; if a product has a high price, it is likely to be of
higher quality. Wilkie (1986) explains that not all inferences will be correct, although we
would like them to be so. Again, most of these inferences will be made at an
unconscious level due to the high speed involved in the processing of stimuli.
Perceptual inferences that are made at a conscious level will be termed conscious
inferences.

Assael (1992) concludes that there are three types of inferences: evaluation-based,
similarity-based, and correlation-based inferences. Evaluation-based inferences are
judgements leading to a consistently positive or negative evaluation of a brand.
Similarity-based inferences are beliefs about an object based on its similarity to other
objects. Because of similarity, individuals develop inferences about unfamiliar products
by linking them to products they are familiar with. Correlation-based inferences are
those based on associations from the general to the specific.

3.4.6 Retention

Van der Walt (1991) explains that even if the total perception process was successful
it serves no purpose if the individual is unable to recall the information when he is
required to act on it. The message has failed if a person cannot remember its content.

76
Retention is therefore the actual storage of processed information in the memory of the
individual. Hawkins et al (1992) expand the explanation by stating that memory plays
a critical role in guiding the perception process. Memory has a long-term storage
component and a short-term active component. Bisschoff (1992) adds to the discussion
by explaining that, since short-term memory is the active component, it deals with
problem-solving by using newly acquired information. This, however, can only be true
if no knowledge about a certain subject exists, and that is rarely the case. Long-term
memory is activated to help solve the problem by supplying relevant past stored
information. Long-term memory is once again activated to retain the information once
the processing has been completed, and this will remain dormant for future reference
purposes.

Walters et al (1989) conclude by expressing the opinion that retention is of a temporal

nature, ie of short duration. A stimulus with constant intensity therefore needs repetition
if it is to be brought to the consciousness.

15 PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE

Assael (1992, p. 720) defines perceptual defence as:

"Distortion of information by consumers so that it conforms to

their beliefs and attitudes. This function operates to protect

the individual from threatening or contradictory stimuli."

Schiffman et al (1991) view perceptual defence as a subconscious distortion of stimuli

that are important for the consumer not to see, even though exposure may already have
taken place. Therefore, threatening or otherwise damaging stimuli are less likely to
achieve awareness than neutral stimuli at the same level of exposure.

Van der Walt (1991) explains that there are two reasons why people apparently feel a
need to defend themselves against information. The two reasons are perceived risk and
perceptual overload. Perceived risk deals with the different kinds of risk associated with

77
a purchasing decision, while perceptual overload holds that the consumer has a limited
capacity to process the variety of stimuli directed at him.

Because of the above, consumers erect perceptual defence barriers, also known as the
selective perception process. Before attending to the selective perception process, the
focus will be directed towards perceived risk and perceptual overload.

3.5.1 Perceived risk

Mowen (1993 p. 782) defines perceived risk as:

"A consumer's perception of the overall favorability of a

cource of action based upon an assesment of the possible

outcomes and on the likelihood that those outcomes will

occur."

Van der Walt (1991) explains that because the consumer constantly needs to make
decisions regarding products and services that best satisfy his needs, and the
consequences of such decisions are often uncertain, he faces some degree of risk when
making a purchasing decision.

Schiffman et al (1991), supported by Van der Walt (1991), stress the importance to note
that the consumer is influenced only by the risk he perceives, regardless of whether or
not such risk actually exists. If no risk is perceived, there will be no reaction, even in
dangerous situations. Schiffman et al (1991) furthermore stress that the amount of
money involved in a purchasing decision is not directly related to the amount of risk
perceived. Therefore, selecting the right mouthwash may present as great a risk to a
consumer as selecting a new television set.

There are several kinds of risk associated with a purchasing decision. Some people are
more vulnerable to some kinds of risk than others, and some are more vulnerable to all
kinds and experience great difficulty making up their minds.

78
The different types of risk, as well as the uncertainty associated with the specific risk is
shown in Table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1: TYPE OF PERCEIVED RISK AND RELATED UNCERTAINTY

I T~~e of Risk I Uncertaint~ I

Functional! Risk that the product will not perform as expected (eg Will it
Performance work? or, Will it last?)
Physical Risk that the product will physically harm the buyer (eg Is it
safe to use?)
Financial Risk that the outcome will harm the consumer financially (eg
Am I wasting money?)
Social Risk that friends or acquaintances will deride the purchase
(eg Will my family and friends approve my choice? or, Will
they admire me?)
Psychological Risk that the product will lower consumer's self-image (eg
Will it make me feel (look) good? or, Will it impress others?
Time Risk that the time spent in a product search may be wasted if
the product does not perform as expected (eg Will I have to
go through the shopping effort all over again?)
Opportunity loss Risk that by taking one action the consumer will miss out on
doing something else he would really prefer doing (eg Will
the purchase of one expensive item deprive me from buying
many other, less expensive items?)

SOURCE: Compiled from Mowen (1993, p. 197), Schiffman et al (1991, p.181) and
Van der Walt (1991, p. 301).

Van der Walt (1991) explains that all types of risk are involved to a greater or lesser
extent with the consumer's ego or self-esteem. High risk perceivers are sensitive to
risk, lack self-confidence and have egos which can be easily bruised by making what
they see as a "wrong decision" such as wasting a lot of money on a product which in
any case may not work properly and may also make them look ridiculous. Schiffman
et al (1991) add that high-risk perceivers are narrow categorisers, since they limit their
product choice to a few safe alternatives. They would rather exclude some perfectly
good alternatives than chance a poor selection. In contrast, low-risk perceivers are

79
broad categorisers since they tend to make their choices from a much wider range of
alternatives. They would rather risk a poor selection than limit the number of alternatives
from which they can choose.

3.5.2 Perceptual overload

Van der Walt (1991), supported by Walters et al (1989), explains that the second reason
why consumers have a need for perceptual barriers (selective perception), is that they
have limited capacities to process all the information directed at them. She states that
perceptual overload occurs because the mind of the individual fails to comprehend all
the sensations, often of conflicting nature, which bombard one's senses at any given
moment.

Marketing stimuli bombarding the senses include an enormous number of variables, all
of which compete for the consumer's attention. Different shapes, sizes, colours and
conflicting messages are but a few examples of the variables.

Van der Walt (1991) concludes that perceptual defence occurs throughout the
perception process. Man's ability to be selective when dealing with information helps
him to adjust and make consumer decisions without undue difficulty. As stated earlier,
it is understandable that these decisions will not always be completely logical or rational.

3.6 SELECTIVE PERCEPTION

Selective perception can be defined (Assael, 1992, p. 722) as the process where:

"Consumers perceive marketing stimuli selectively to

reinforce their needs, attitudes, past experiences, and

personal characteristics. Selective perception means that the

identical ad, package, or product can be perceived very

differently by two consumers"

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Schiffman et al (1991) and Wells et al (1989) add to the definition by describing
selective perception (referred to as defence barriers by Van der Walt, 1991) as a
heightened awareness of stimuli that interest the consumer, a process of screening out
information that does not interest him, and retaining information that does.

Belch et al (1995), supported by Van der Walt (1991) and Walters et al (1989), justify
the existence of a selective perception process by explaining that such a process is
required because of the sheer number of stimuli that a person is exposed to every day
(advertisements alone account for between 300 and 1 500 per normal working day).
The individual mind simply fails to comprehend and interpret all the sensations that
bombard the senses at any given time due to the limited capacity of a person's sensory
system.

The selective perception process to be discussed consists of selective exposure,

selective attention, selective interpretation and selective retention. The stage of
organising stimuli is the same as discussed in the perception process, since individuals
will during both the perception and selective perception process attempt to organise
stimuli so that they can better comprehend (interpret) and retain it. Figure 3.4 displays
the selective perception process.

3.6.1 Selective exposure

According to Schiffman et al (1987, p. 710) selective exposure can be defined as the

"Conscious or subconscious exposure of the consumer to

certain media or messages, and the subconscious or active

avoidance of others."

Schiffman et al (1991), supported by Van derWalt (1991) and Wilkie (1986), expand on
their definition by explaining that consumers actively seek messages that are pleasant
or with which they are sympathetic, and actively avoid painful or threatening ones.

81
 FIGURE 3.4: THE SELECTIVE PERCEPTION PROCESS

Stimuli

I IT 1 I -l-----T -T I T I
Exposure

Attention

Interpretation

Retention

ex>
N
Source: Adapted from Hawkinset al (1992, p. 223)
Assael (1992) adds to the discussion by stating that selective exposure can be
explained by the consistency theories, such as dissonance theory, which suggest that
people have a cognitive drive to develop consistent cognitions and behaviours about
objects. The dissonance theory predicts that cognitive dissonance, the existence of
conflicting cognitive elements, is discomforting and that people will try to reduce it. One
mechanism of reducing dissonance is selective exposure, by obtaining supportive
information and avoiding discrepant information. Schiffman et al (1991) confirm this
viewpoint by adding that consumers selectively expose themselves to advertisements
that reassure them of the wisdom of their purchasing intention.

Van der Walt (1991) concludes by stating that exposure to a message only means that
it has been seen. There is no guarantee that the individual will choose to pay attention
to it.

3.6.2 Selective attention

Wilkie (1990) stresses that while selective exposure vastly reduces the range of stimuli
available to a person, it does not decide which remaining stimuli will be perceived. This
is determined by selective attention.

Selective attention can be defined (Mowen, 1993, p. 784) as:

"The concept that consumers selectively decide to which

stimuli they should attend."

As stated in the definition, it is clear that the process of selective attention is the
focusing of attention on selective aspects of the environment and blocking out of others
(Belch et ai, 1995; Assael, 1992; and Wade et ai, 1987).

83
People vary according to the kind of information they are interested in and the form of
message and type of medium they prefer (Schiffman et al. 1991). Van der Walt (1991 )
adds by stating that a person will only pay attention to a message that fits within his
frame of reference. She continues by explaining that consumers have a heightened
awareness of stimuli which meet their needs and depressed awareness of stimuli
irrelevant to their needs. Therefore, consumers are likely to pay attention to
advertisements for products that may satisfy their needs.

In studying the concept of selective attention, it is important to note the following:

* Selective attention shows that the brain is not focused on responding to

everything the sense receptors send its way (Wade et ai, 1987).

* Because we pay attention by exception, and because of the incredible speed

at which our perceptual system works, only those marketing stimuli with the
power to capture and hold our attention have the potential of being perceived
(Stanton et ai, 1991 and Wilkie, 1990).

* Even if the consumer does pay attention to all the details in a message it does
not mean that he wi" interpret it as intended by the marketer (Van der Walt,
1991 ).

3.6.3 Selective interpretation

Assael (1992, p. 722) defines selective comprehension (selective interpretation) as:

"Interpreting discrepant information so that it is consistent

with beliefs and attitudes. II

Wilkie (1990) states that once an external stimulus receives attention from an individual,
it begins to be consciously processed by his conceptual system. Belch et al (1995)
explain that consumers interpret information based on their own attitudes, beliefs, and

84
previous experiences. Furthermore, in selective interpretation, consumers will often
interpret information in a manner that will support their own position.

Van der Walt (1991) supports this viewpoint by adding that the information which has
succeeded in passing through the exposure and attention barriers, "flows" through the
selective interpretation barrier which enables the consumer to discard some bits of
information, to change the meaning of others, or to place undue emphasis on certain
sections. This may result in the meaning of the message being quite different from the
message of the communicator originally intended.

According to Van der Walt (1991), two possible reasons for the faulty decoding of
messages due to selective interpretation could be that of misindexing the message or
distorting the meaning.

Misindexing refers to the way people tend to classify or categorise the meaning of the
message and can often be ascribed to poor message construction. For example, an
advertisement is so amusing or novel that the situation itself becomes the message
while the originally intended message (product name or benefits) is overlooked.
Another possibility is that the attention-getting device becomes the message, resulting
in thoughts being steered away from the real meaning.

Distortion refers to the way the meaning of a message is changed by the consumer,
whether done purposely or subconsciously. Conflicting stimuli, ie stimuli in contrast with
previously held beliefs, habits, likes and dislikes create an imbalance in a person's
cognitive structure, making him feel uncomfortable. To rectify the imbalance, the
consumer must either change the meaning of the message or bring about changes in
his cognitive structure. The meaning of the message can be distorted by either levelling
or sharpening.

* Levelling suggests that an important portion of information in the message is

overlooked. It is important to note that if the brand name is overlooked,
consumers might end up buying the competitor's product.

85
 * Sharpening claims that the consumer reads additional information into a
message, ie information that does not actually appear in the message.

In conclusion, Van der Walt (1991) adds that if the nature of the message does not fit
into the person's frame of reference it may be discarded entirely.

3.6.4 Selective retention

Selective retention can be defined (Assael, 1992, p. 722) as follows:

"Consumers remember those messages or portions of

messages most relevant to the decision and most likely to

conform to their beliefs and attitudes."

According to Belch et al (1995) the meaning of selective retention is that consumers do

not remember all the information they see, read or hear, even after attending to and
correctly interpreting the message. The advertiser should therefore attempt to ensure
that information will be retained in the consumer's memory so as to be available when
it is time to make a purchase. As noted earlier, repetition of advertising messages aims
to increase retention, especially at the time of the purchasing decision.

Van der Walt (1991) mentions two phenomena that may occur during the selective
retention process, namely a positive sleeper effect and a boomerang effect.

* The positive sleeper effect causes the consumer who has not been convinced
by the advertisement to react in the desired way anyway, that is by purchasing
the product. The only possible reason for this behaviour is that retention was not
complete, and therefore the consumer forgot the nature or theme of the message
and remembered only the recommendation that the product should be bought.

* The boomerang effect causes the consumer to reverse his previous held

86
 conviction and intention to purchase the product and to take directly the opposite
course of action by purchasing a competitive product. A possible reason for this
behaviour is that the consumer could not recall the differential product benefits
mentioned in the original advertisement. This means that the message did not
succeed to cross the just-noticeable-difference threshold.

3.7 SUMMARY

From the discussion it can be seen that the perception process may be the most
significant barrier to effective communication due to the number of different influences
on the perception process. Important to note is the fact that the total perception process
is highly individual and that the same person may devote a different meaning to the
same stimuli in different situations. From a marketing perspective it is extremely
important to note that consumers act and react on the basis of their perceptions, not on
object reality.

The stimuli to which an individual is exposed, need to be above the absolute threshold
level if they are to be perceived. All stimuli that a person is exposed to first pass
through his frame of reference which consist of all his previous held beliefs,
experiences, etc.

Information to be retained passes through the perception process. Because of the great
number of stimuli that an individual is exposed to and the fact that risk is perceived
during decision-making, consumers expose, pay attention, interpret and retain
information selectively. All stimuli are also conformed to coincide with existing held
beliefs. Information of conflicting nature to a person's frame of reference will not be
changed easily.

Chapter 4 examines the importance of product attributes to the marketer and the
consumer.

87