COGPSYC

Psychology: 3. Cognitive
1. Feelings
2. Thoughts Cognitive neuroscience​: field that studies how
3. Behavior thinking processes are connected to
Behavior reinforces thoughts > (thoughts biological elements of the body
create feelings) > feelings create behavior ★ Basic principle: mind and body are
connected (​dualism​)
Cognitive Psychology as a ​perspective​ (way Techniques in studying the brain:
of looking at/explaining an event/behavior) 1. Post mortem studies
2. Animal studies
Different perspectives in psychology​: 3. Brain scanning:
1. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic a. EEG
a. Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, - Electroencephalography
Carl Jung - Electrical activity in the brain
b. Behaviors are innate (eg, sleep studies)
c. Internal forces are within the b. CT (computed tomography)
mind - Radiation to form image
d. Unconscious c. PET
e. Why it failed - ​hard to prove - Positron Emission tomography
the unconscious (id, ego, - Injects a radioactive substance
superego) - Imaging test
2. Behaviorism d. MRI (photo)
a. Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner, John - Magnetic Resonance imaging
Watson - 3D still image of the brain
b. Found a way to be more e. fMRI (video)
scientific (​external​); wanted to - Functional MRI
improve the psychoanalytic - Brain activity in real time
way of explaining behavior Parts of the brain:
c. 2 principles​: ● Hippocampus - learning & memory
i. Human behavior is formation
controlled by​ reward & ● Thalamus - relays sensory info
punishment ● Hypothalamus - regulates temp.,
ii. Behaviors are shaped eating, sleeping, & endocrine system
by ​environment ● Midbrain - carries msgs abt sleep &
(nurture) arousal
d. BUT.. the problem was: ● Pons - relays info b/w cerebral cortex
i. It’s not entirely shaped and cerebellum
by reward and ● Cerebellum - balance, fine muscle
punishment movement
ii. Not always shaped by ● Medulla - heartbeat & breathing
environment ● Amygdala - anger & aggression
e. Collapse of behaviorism: ​not ● Corpus callosum - info b/w the 2
enough​ to completely explain cerebral hemispheres
behaviors of humans
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● Septum - anger & fear ★ The better the match b/w the type of
● Cerebral cortex - thinking/sensing elaboration of the encoding and the
functions, voluntary movement type of task required for retrieval, the
● Frontal lobe - motor processing & better the retrieval results
higher thought processes
● Parietal lobe - somatosensory Theories/Models of Memory
processing (consciousness & 1. Atkinson Shiffrin Model - the more you
attention) rehearse, the more you remember
● Temporal lobe - auditory processing a. Sensory memory - 10s,
(hearing) & visual memory retention gateway
● Occipital lobe - visual processing b. Short term memory - 30s,
● Striatum - reward system** remember w/ short rehearsal
★ The way we think and behave can be c. Long term memory
explained biologically 2. Levels of Processing - the deeper you
★ Brain modularity - different parts of the understand, the more you remember
brain are responsible for different a. Visual/physical level
functions b. Acoustic/phonological level
Attention c. Semantic level
4 kinds of attention: 3. Working Memory Model
1. Signal detection a. Visuospatial sketchpad
2. Search attention b. Phonological loop
3. Selective attention c. Episodic buffer
4. Divided attention 4. Multiple Memory Model
★ Vigilance - high level of attention over a. Episodic (events)
a period of time b. Semantic (facts)
○ Fatigue destroys vigilance c. Explicit
Neuroscience of attention: d. Implicit
1. Alerting - right frontal cortex e. Procedural
2. Orienting - superior parietal lobe ★ Memory is NOT random, it is highly
3. Executive attention - Anterior organized
cingulate ★ One CAN function w/o another
Neurotransmitters of attention: ★ The more you pay attention, the more
● Norepinephrine you remember
● Dopamine Mnemonic techniques:
● Serotonin
● Acetylcholine How to remember better:
How to test if one’s memory is good? 1. Rehearsal
1. Recall tests a. Maintenance - repetitive
2. Recognition tests b. Elaborative
3. Explicit tests - require high conscious 2. Organization of info
effort 3. Sleep
4. Implicit tests - require low conscious 4. Practice
effort a. Massed - cramming
5. Procedural tests - ability to remember b. Distributive
a procedure 5. Hormones & neurotransmitters
(acetylcholine, serotonin, cortisol)
6. Transform words to images
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Why do people forget?

1. Biological factors
a. Cortisol
b. Alzheimer’s
c. Brain trauma
2. Decay theory - no longer using Lace supot
3. Interference
a. Retroactive - new knowledge
disrupts the recall of past
things
b. Proactive - things learned in
the past disrupts learning of
new things
4. Repressed memories
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TEST Theories/Models of Memory

Different perspectives in psychology: 1. Atkinson shiffrin (more rehearsal)
1. Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic 2. Levels of processing (more
a. innate/unconscious understanding)
2. Behaviorism 3. Multiple memory model
3. Cognitive 4. Working memory model*
- understanding. mental processes
such as memory, perception, thinking, How to remember better:
and. problem solving, and how they 1. Rehearsal
may be related to behavior. a. Maintenance
b. Elaboration
Techniques in studying the brain: 2. Sleep
1. Post mortem 3. Organization of info
2. Animal studies 4. Practice (Distributed vs Massed)
3. EEG (electrical activity) 5. Hormones & neurotransmitters (serotonin,
4. CT (image) cortisol, acetylcholine)
5. PET (injection) 6. Visualization
6. MRI (3D still image)
7. fMRI (video) Why do we forget?
1. Biological factors
Parts of the brain: 2. Interference (retroactive vs proactive)
Hippocampus - learning/memory formation 3. Decay theory
Thalamus - sensory info 4. Repressed memories
Hypothalamus - temp., eating, sleeping
Midbrain - sleep & arousal
Pons
Cerebellum - balance & coordination
Medulla - heartbeat & breathing
Amygdala - anger & aggression
Corpus callosum - info bw 2 hemispheres
Septum - fear & anger
Cerebral Cortex

Right hemisphere - creativity

Left hemisphere - logic

Frontal lobe - higher thought processes

Parietal lobe - somatosensory processes
Temporal lobe - hearing
Occipital lobe - visual
4 kinds of attention:
1. Signal detection
2. Search attention
3. Selective attention*
4. Divided attention
How to test if one’s memory is good?
1. Recall tests
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2. Recognition tests
3. Explicit tests
4. Implicit tests
5. Procedural tests
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INTELLIGENCE​ - an asset; ability to solve 2. Ill defined problem:

problems/answer questions ● Unclear​ solutions
● No single correct formula; many
Levels of Intelligence: possible solutions
● Mental effort: formulate solution →
Basic truths about intelligence: execute
1. Intelligence is BOTH nature and nurture 3. Convergent thinking
● Nature - born intelligent; genes ● Searching for ONE solution to a
● Nurture - made intelligent; problem
effort/environment/stimulation ● Logical
2. Many definitions of intelligence ● Paired with a well-defined problem
● Each definition is different for each 4. Divergent thinking
psychologist → many different ● Searching for MANY solutions to a
intelligence tests problem; possibilities
3. Intelligence has many expressions ● Brainstorming
● It isn’t just based on grades -Gardner ● Creativity
● *Integrative approach → let’s not 5. Insight
choose the best model, let’s find the ● Distinctive, sometimes sudden
intelligence that overlaps in all models solution to a problem out of nowhere
4. Intelligence can be quantified ● Lightbulb/eureka moment!
● IQ = (mental age/chronological ● Must have these prerequisites:
age)x100 ○ Effort in solving the problem
● Speed of processing info ○ Basic knowledge of necessary
● Speed of reaction time details
● Speed of retrieval ○ Past experience of solving a
● Divided attention problem
★ Improving intelligence: 6. Heuristics
● Malleability of intelligence → ● Simple, efficient rules to form
intellectual ability can always be judgements and make decisions
further developed ● Mental shortcuts that lighten the
● Increase academic self efficacy cognitive load of making decisions
● Make students love going to school ● Usually works BUT can lead to
● Make kids know intelligence is errors/biases
malleable ● Not good for solving ill defined
● Let kids learn as early as possible problems
7. Mental set
PROBLEM SOLVING ● Tendency to approach a problem in a
● Problems are ​inevitable particular way → end up getting stuck
● A world full of ​complexity and diversity ● Mindset of “solution to 1 problem is a
because of ​people​ and s​ ituations solution to ALL problems”
● Cognitively limiting
What counts as a problem? → block to a goal ● Mental exercises and more
information to overcome mental sets
1. Well defined problem:
● Clear​ solutions to problem
● Steps to be taken (eg, formula)
● Mental effort: execute solution
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★ Effective strategies for problem solving ● Subitizing (quick small calculations) -

● Gain more experience eg, the fish count game thing
○ More problems → more
learning Decision shortcuts; heuristics/fallacies/biases:
○ More learning → more ● Representativeness
solutions ○ Decide based on the prototype
○ More solutions → easier in your mind
problem solving ○ Comparing to an existing
● Seek advice from others model in your mind
● Be rational when solving problems ○ Decisions based on what's
● Incubate/rest typical/usual
● Special case: use intuition ● Availability
(subconscious thinking) ○ Decide based on what’s
○ Types of intuition: readily available
■ Ordinary ○ What you first remember when
■ Expert (prof training) deciding (because of
■ Strategic EXPOSURE)
(learned/practiced) ● Framing
DECISION MAKING ○ Decide on how the information
Classical Decision theory​ → theory that is presented to you (presented
explain how people make decisions positively/meaningfully)
● Claim: people make decisions ○ Impact (goal: to feel good)
rationally ○ What makes a good impact
● Logical, hard thought, reflected ★ We immediately choose what we always
★ Bounded Rationality → we are rational but see (availability) and what made an impact on
only to an extent us (framing)
Subjective Expected Utility theory ● Illusory correlation: imagined
● Seek pleasure and avoid pain relationship between 2 things
● Make decisions based on emotions ● Overconfidence
● Subjective utility ○ When we overestimate our
○ Calculation based on abilities or knowledge
subjective value than objective ○ Difference between what
criteria people really know and what
● Subjective probability they think they know
○ Based on subjective likelihood ● Gambler’s fallacy
than objective statistical ○ mistaken belief that, if
computations something happens more
● Maximizing frequently than normal during
○ collects all options then a given period, it will happen
chooses the best less frequently in the future.
● Satisficing - opposite of maximizing ★ ​Paradox of choice
○ Time efficient ○ Less is more; too much
○ Choosing the first option that is choices is stressful
good enough for you/meets ○ Paralysis - get stressed
the min. Requirements ○ Escalation of expectations
○ accept an available option as ○ Self-blame
satisfactory. ○ Opportunity cost
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★ Elimination by aspects: eliminating /////PSYCSOC/////

alternatives by focusing on aspects of each
alternative, one at a time What influences aggression?
Aversive incidents - external factors that
★ How can I make good decisions heighten aggression
● Match strategy with the problem ● Pain
○ Short term → heuristics ● Heat
○ Long term → logic ● Attacks
● Solve more problems Arousal - being physically stirred up
intensifies various emotions; arousal feeds
emotions
Aggression cues - eg, a gun,
Media Influences
Group Influences
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COGPSYC 2ND LE