Tempering (metallurgy)
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase
the toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed
after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done
by heating the metal to some temperature below the critical point for
a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air. The exact
temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and Differentially tempered steel. The
depends on both the specific composition of the alloy and on the various colors produced indicate the
desired properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard temperature to which the steel was
tools are often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are heated. Light-straw indicates 204 °C
tempered at much higher temperatures. (399 °F) and light blue indicates
337 °C (639 °F).[1][2]
Contents
Introduction
History
Terminology
Carbon steel
Quenched-steel
Normalized steel
Welded steel
Quench and self-temper
Blacksmithing
Tempering colors
Differential tempering
Interrupted quenching
Austempering
Martempering
Physical processes
Embrittlement
Alloy steels
Cast iron
White tempering
Black tempering
Precipitation hardening alloys
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Introduction
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys,
such as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing
the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually
accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing the
brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed after
quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest
state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the
quenched work-piece to a temperature below its "lower critical
Photomicrograph of martensite, a
temperature". This is also called the lower transformation very hard microstructure formed
temperature or lower arrest (A1) temperature; the temperature at when steel is quenched. Tempering
which the crystalline phases of the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, reduces the hardness in the
begin combining to form a single-phase solid solution referred to as martensite by transforming it into
austenite. Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to various forms of tempered
destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure, called martensite.[3] martensite.
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering
process is crucial to achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures may
only relieve the internal stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher
tempering temperatures tend to produce a greater reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength
and tensile strength for an increase in elasticity and plasticity. However, in some low alloy steels, containing
other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low temperatures may produce an increase in
hardness, while at higher temperatures the hardness will decrease. Many steels with high concentrations of
these alloying elements behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which produces the opposite effects
under the conditions found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to as maraging steels.[3]
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the martensite, forming a
microstructure called "tempered martensite". Tempering is also performed on normalized steels and cast
irons, to increase ductility, machinability, and impact strength.[3] Steel is usually tempered evenly, called
"through tempering," producing a nearly uniform hardness, but it is sometimes heated unevenly, referred to
as "differential tempering," producing a variation in hardness.[4]
History
Tempering is an ancient heat-treating technique. The oldest known example of tempered martensite is a pick
axe which was found in Galilee, dating from around 1200 to 1100 BC.[5] The process was used throughout
the ancient world, from Asia to Europe and Africa. Many different methods and cooling baths for quenching
have been attempted during ancient times, from quenching in urine, blood, or metals like mercury or lead,
but the process of tempering has remained relatively unchanged over the ages. Tempering was often
confused with quenching and, often, the term was used to describe both techniques. In 1889, Sir William
Chandler Roberts-Austen wrote, "There is still so much confusion between the words "temper,"
"tempering," and "hardening," in the writings of even eminent authorities, that it is well to keep these old
definitions carefully in mind. I shall employ the word tempering in the same sense as softening."[6]
Terminology
In metallurgy, one may encounter many terms that have very specific meanings within the field, but may
seem rather vague when viewed from outside. Terms such as "hardness," "impact resistance," "toughness,"
and "strength" can carry many different connotations, making it sometimes difficult to discern the specific
meaning. Some of the terms encountered, and their specific definitions are:
Strength: Resistance to permanent deformation and tearing. Strength, in metallurgy, is still a
rather vague term, so is usually divided into yield strength (strength beyond which deformation
becomes permanent), tensile strength (the ultimate tearing strength), shear strength
(resistance to transverse, or cutting forces), and compressive strength (resistance to elastic
shortening under a load).
Toughness: Resistance to fracture, as measured by the Charpy test. Toughness often
increases as strength decreases, because a material that bends is less likely to break.
Hardness: A surface's resistance to scratching, abrasion, or indentation. In conventional metal
alloys, there is a linear relation between indentation hardness and tensile strength, which
eases the measurement of the latter.[7]
Brittleness: Brittleness describes a material's tendency to break before bending or deforming
either elastically or plastically. Brittleness increases with decreased toughness, but is greatly
affected by internal stresses as well.
Plasticity: The ability to mold, bend or deform in a manner that does not spontaneously return
to its original shape. This is proportional to the ductility or malleability of the substance.
Elasticity: Also called flexibility, this is the ability to deform, bend, compress, or stretch and
return to the original shape once the external stress is removed. Elasticity is inversely related
to the Young's modulus of the material.
Impact resistance: Usually synonymous with high-strength toughness, it is the ability to resist
shock-loading with minimal deformation.
Wear resistance: Usually synonymous with hardness, this is resistance to erosion, ablation,
spalling, or galling.
Structural integrity: The ability to withstand a maximum-rated load while resisting fracture,
resisting fatigue, and producing a minimal amount of flexing or deflection, to provide a
maximum service life.
Carbon steel
Very few metals react to heat treatment in the same manner, or to the same extent, that carbon steel does,
and carbon-steel heat-treating behavior can vary radically depending on alloying elements. Steel can be
softened to a very malleable state through annealing, or it can be hardened to a state nearly as rigid and
brittle as glass by quenching. However, in its hardened state, steel is usually far too brittle, lacking the
fracture toughness to be useful for most applications. Tempering is a method used to decrease the hardness,
thereby increasing the ductility of the quenched steel, to impart some springiness and malleability to the
metal. This allows the metal to bend before breaking. Depending on how much temper is imparted to the
steel, it may bend elastically (the steel returns to its original shape once the load is removed), or it may bend
plastically (the steel does not return to its original shape, resulting in permanent deformation), before
fracturing. Tempering is used to precisely balance the mechanical properties of the metal, such as shear
strength, yield strength, hardness, ductility and tensile strength, to achieve any number of a combination of
properties, making the steel useful for a wide variety of applications. Tools such as hammers and wrenches
require good resistance to abrasion, impact resistance, and resistance to deformation. Springs do not require
as much wear resistance, but must deform elastically without breaking. Automotive parts tend to be a little
less strong, but need to deform plastically before breaking.
Except in rare cases where maximum hardness or wear resistance is needed, such as the untempered steel
used for files, quenched steel is almost always tempered to some degree. However, steel is sometimes
annealed through a process called normalizing, leaving the steel only partially softened. Tempering is
sometimes used on normalized steels to further soften it, increasing the malleability and machinability for
easier metalworking. Tempering may also be used on welded steel, to relieve some of the stresses and excess
hardness created in the heat affected zone around the weld.[3]
Quenched-steel
Tempering is most often performed on steel that has been heated above its upper critical (A3) temperature
and then quickly cooled, in a process called quenching, using methods such as immersing the hot steel in
water, oil, or forced-air. The quenched-steel, being placed in or very near its hardest possible state, is then
tempered to incrementally decrease the hardness to a point more suitable for the desired application. The
hardness of the quenched-steel depends on both cooling speed and on the composition of the alloy. Steel
with a high carbon-content will reach a much harder state than steel with a low carbon-content. Likewise,
tempering high-carbon steel to a certain temperature will produce steel that is considerably harder than low-
carbon steel that is tempered at the same temperature. The amount of time held at the tempering temperature
also has an effect. Tempering at a slightly elevated temperature for a shorter time may produce the same
effect as tempering at a lower temperature for a longer time. Tempering times vary, depending on the carbon
content, size, and desired application of the steel, but typically range from a few minutes to a few hours.
Tempering quenched-steel at very low temperatures, between 66 and 148 °C (151 and 298 °F), will usually
not have much effect other than a slight relief of some of the internal stresses and a decrease in brittleness.
Tempering at higher temperatures, from 148 to 205 °C (298 to 401 °F), will produce a slight reduction in
hardness, but will primarily relieve much of the internal stresses. In some steels with low alloy content,
tempering in the range of 260 and 340 °C (500 and 644 °F) causes a decrease in ductility and an increase in
brittleness, and is referred to as the "tempered martensite embrittlement" (TME) range. Except in the case of
blacksmithing, this range is usually avoided. Steel requiring more strength than toughness, such as tools, are
usually not tempered above 205 °C (401 °F). Instead, a variation in hardness is usually produced by varying
only the tempering time. When increased toughness is desired at the expense of strength, higher tempering
temperatures, from 370 to 540 °C (698 to 1,004 °F), are used. Tempering at even higher temperatures,
between 540 and 600 °C (1,004 and 1,112 °F), will produce excellent toughness, but at a serious reduction
in the strength and hardness. At 600 °C (1,112 °F), the steel may experience another stage of embrittlement,
called "temper embrittlement" (TE), which occurs if the steel is held within the TE temperature range for too
long. When heating above this temperature, the steel will usually not be held for any amount of time, and
quickly cooled to avoid temper embrittlement.[3]
Normalized steel
Steel that has been heated above its upper critical temperature and then cooled in standing air is called
normalized steel. Normalized steel consists of pearlite, martensite and sometimes bainite grains, mixed
together within the microstructure. This produces steel that is much stronger than full-annealed steel, and
much tougher than tempered quenched-steel. However, added toughness is sometimes needed at a reduction
in strength. Tempering provides a way to carefully decrease the hardness of the steel, thereby increasing the
toughness to a more desirable point. Cast-steel is often normalized rather than annealed, to decrease the
amount of distortion that can occur. Tempering can further decrease the hardness, increasing the ductility to
a point more like annealed steel.[8] Tempering is often used on carbon steels, producing much the same
results. The process, called "normalize and temper", is used frequently on steels such as 1045 carbon steel,
or most other steels containing 0.35 to 0.55% carbon. These steels are usually tempered after normalizing, to
increase the toughness and relieve internal stresses. This can make the metal more suitable for its intended
use and easier to machine.[9]
Welded steel
Steel that has been arc welded, gas welded, or welded in any other manner besides forge welded, is affected
in a localized area by the heat from the welding process. This localized area, called the heat-affected zone
(HAZ), consists of steel that varies considerably in hardness, from normalized steel to steel nearly as hard as
quenched steel near the edge of this heat-affected zone. Thermal contraction from the uneven heating,
solidification and cooling creates internal stresses in the metal, both within and surrounding the weld.
Tempering is sometimes used in place of stress relieving (even heating and cooling of the entire object to
just below the A1 temperature) to both reduce the internal stresses and to decrease the brittleness around the
weld. Localized tempering is often used on welds when the construction is too large, intricate, or otherwise
too inconvenient to heat the entire object evenly. Tempering temperatures for this purpose are generally
around 205 °C (401 °F) and 343 °C (649 °F).[10]
Quench and self-temper
Modern reinforcing bar of 500 MPa strength can be made from expensive microalloyed steel or by a quench
and self-temper (QST) process. After the bar exits the final rolling pass, where the final shape of the bar is
applied, the bar is then sprayed with water which quenches the outer surface of the bar. The bar speed and
the amount of water are carefully controlled in order to leave the core of the bar unquenched. The hot core
then tempers the already quenched outer part, leaving a bar with high strength but with a certain degree of
ductility too.
Blacksmithing
Tempering was originally a process used and developed by blacksmiths (forgers of iron). The process was
most likely developed by the Hittites of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), in the twelfth or eleventh century
BC. Without knowledge of metallurgy, tempering was originally devised through a trial-and-error method.
Because few methods of precisely measuring temperature existed until modern times, temperature was
usually judged by watching the tempering colors of the metal. Tempering often consisted of heating above a
charcoal or coal forge, or by fire, so holding the work at exactly the right temperature for the correct amount
of time was usually not possible. Tempering was usually performed by slowly, evenly overheating the metal,
as judged by the color, and then immediately cooling, either in open air or by immersing in water. This
produced much the same effect as heating at the proper temperature for the right amount of time, and
avoided embrittlement by tempering within a short time period. However, although tempering-color guides
exist, this method of tempering usually requires a good amount of practice to perfect, because the final
outcome depends on many factors, including the composition of the steel, the speed at which it was heated,
the type of heat source (oxidizing or carburizing), the cooling rate, oil films or impurities on the surface, and
many other circumstances which vary from smith to smith or even from job to job. The thickness of the steel
also plays a role. With thicker items, it becomes easier to heat only the surface to the right temperature,
before the heat can penetrate through. However, very thick items may not be able to harden all the way
through during quenching.[11]
Tempering colors
If steel has been freshly ground, sanded, or polished, it will form an oxide layer on its surface when heated.
As the temperature of the steel is increased, the thickness of the iron oxide will also increase. Although iron
oxide is not normally transparent, such thin layers do allow light to pass through, reflecting off both the
upper and lower surfaces of the layer. This causes a phenomenon called thin-film interference, which
produces colors on the surface. As the thickness of this layer increases with temperature, it causes the colors
to change from a very light yellow, to brown, then purple, then blue. These colors appear at very precise
temperatures, and provide the blacksmith with a very
accurate gauge for measuring the temperature. The
various colors, their corresponding temperatures, and
some of their uses are:
Faint-yellow – 176 °C (349 °F) – engravers,
razors, scrapers
Light-straw – 205 °C (401 °F) – rock drills,
reamers, metal-cutting saws
Dark-straw – 226 °C (439 °F) – scribers, planer Pieces of through-tempered steel flatbar. The first
blades one, on the left, is normalized steel. The second is
Brown – 260 °C (500 °F) – taps, dies, drill bits, quenched, untempered martensite. The remaining
hammers, cold chisels pieces have been tempered in an oven to their
Purple – 282 °C (540 °F) – surgical tools, corresponding temperature, for an hour each.
punches, stone carving tools "Tempering standards" like these are sometimes
used by blacksmiths for comparison, ensuring that
Dark blue – 310 °C (590 °F) – screwdrivers,
the work is tempered to the proper color.
wrenches
Light blue – 337 °C (639 °F) – springs, wood-
cutting saws
Grey-blue – 371 °C (700 °F) and higher – structural steel
Beyond the grey-blue color, the iron oxide loses its transparency, and the temperature can no longer be
judged in this way. The layer will also increase in thickness as time passes, which is another reason
overheating and immediate cooling is used. Steel in a tempering oven, held at 205 °C (401 °F) for a long
time, will begin to turn brown, purple or blue, even though the temperature did not exceed that needed to
produce a light-straw color. Oxidizing or carburizing heat sources may also affect the final result. The iron
oxide layer, unlike rust, also protects the steel from corrosion through passivation.[12]
Differential tempering
Differential tempering is a method of providing
different amounts of temper to different parts of the
steel. The method is often used in bladesmithing, for
making knives and swords, to provide a very hard edge
while softening the spine or center of the blade. This A differentially tempered sword. The center is
increased the toughness while maintaining a very hard, tempered to a springy hardness while the edges
sharp, impact-resistant edge, helping to prevent are tempered slightly harder than a hammer.
breakage. This technique was more often found in
Europe, as opposed to the differential hardening
techniques more common in Asia, such as in Japanese swordsmithing.
Differential tempering consists of applying heat to only a portion of the blade, usually the spine, or the
center of double-edged blades. For single-edged blades, the heat, often in the form of a flame or a red-hot
bar, is applied to the spine of the blade only. The blade is then carefully watched as the tempering colors
form and slowly creep toward the edge. The heat is then removed before the light-straw color reaches the
edge. The colors will continue to move toward the edge for a short time after the heat is removed, so the
smith typically removes the heat a little early, so that the pale-yellow just reaches the edge, and travels no
farther. A similar method is used for double-edged blades, but the heat source is applied to the center of the
blade, allowing the colors to creep out toward each edge.[13]
Interrupted quenching
Interrupted quenching methods are often referred to as tempering, although the processes are very different
from traditional tempering. These methods consist of quenching to a specific temperature that is above the
martensite start (Ms) temperature, and then holding at that temperature for extended amounts of time.
Depending on the temperature and the amount of time, this allows either pure bainite to form, or holds-off
forming the martensite until much of the internal stresses relax. These methods are known as austempering
and martempering.[14]
Austempering
Austempering is a technique used to form pure bainite, a transitional
microstructure found between pearlite and martensite. In
normalizing, both upper and lower bainite are usually found mixed
with pearlite. To avoid the formation of pearlite or martensite, the
steel is quenched in a bath of molten metals or salts. This quickly
cools the steel past the point where pearlite can form, and into the
bainite-forming range. The steel is then held at the bainite-forming
temperature, beyond the point where the temperature reaches an
equilibrium, until the bainite fully forms. The steel is then removed Time-temperature transformation
from the bath and allowed to air-cool, without the formation of (TTT) diagram. The red line shows
either pearlite or martensite. the cooling curve for austempering.
Depending on the holding-temperature, austempering can produce
either upper or lower bainite. Upper bainite is a laminate structure formed at temperatures typically above
350 °C (662 °F) and is a much tougher microstructure. Lower bainite is a needle-like structure, produced at
temperatures below 350 °C, and is stronger but much more brittle.[15] In either case, austempering produces
greater strength and toughness for a given hardness, which is determined mostly by composition rather than
cooling speed, and reduced internal stresses which could lead to breakage. This produces steel with superior
impact resistance. Modern punches and chisels are often austempered. Because austempering does not
produce martensite, the steel does not require further tempering.[14]
Martempering
Martempering is similar to austempering, in that the steel is quenched in a bath of molten metal or salts to
quickly cool it past the pearlite-forming range. However, in martempering, the goal is to create martensite
rather than bainite. The steel is quenched to a much lower temperature than is used for austempering; to just
above the martensite start temperature. The metal is then held at this temperature until the temperature of the
steel reaches an equilibrium. The steel is then removed from the bath before any bainite can form, and then
is allowed to air-cool, turning it into martensite. The interruption in cooling allows much of the internal
stresses to relax before the martensite forms, decreasing the brittleness of the steel. However, the
martempered steel will usually need to undergo further tempering to adjust the hardness and toughness,
except in rare cases where maximum hardness is needed but the accompanying brittleness is not. Modern
files are often martempered.[14]
Physical processes
Tempering involves a three-step process in which unstable martensite decomposes into ferrite and unstable
carbides, and finally into stable cementite, forming various stages of a microstructure called tempered
martensite. The martensite typically consists of laths (strips) or plates, sometimes appearing acicular
(needle-like) or lenticular (lens-shaped). Depending on the carbon content, it also contains a certain amount
of "retained austenite." Retained austenite are crystals which are unable to transform into martensite, even
after quenching below the martensite finish (Mf) temperature. An increase in alloying agents or carbon
content causes an increase in retained austenite. Austenite has much higher stacking-fault energy than
martensite or pearlite, lowering the wear resistance and increasing the chances of galling, although some or
most of the retained austenite can be transformed into martensite by cold and cryogenic treatments prior to
tempering.
The martensite forms during a diffusionless transformation, in which the transformation occurs due to shear-
stresses created in the crystal lattices rather than by chemical changes that occur during precipitation. The
shear-stresses create many defects, or "dislocations," between the crystals, providing less-stressful areas for
the carbon atoms to relocate. Upon heating, the carbon atoms first migrate to these defects, and then begin
forming unstable carbides. This reduces the amount of total martensite by changing some of it to ferrite.
Further heating reduces the martensite even more, transforming the unstable carbides into stable cementite.
The first stage of tempering occurs between room-temperature and 200 °C (392 °F). In the first stage,
carbon precipitates into ε-carbon (Fe24C). In the second stage, occurring between 150 °C (302 °F) and
300 °C (572 °F), the retained austenite transforms into a form of lower-bainite containing ε-carbon rather
than cementite (archaically referred to as "troostite").[16][17] The third stage occurs at 200 °C (392 °F) and
higher. In the third stage, ε-carbon precipitates into cementite, and the carbon content in the martensite
decreases. If tempered at higher temperatures, between 650 °C (1,202 °F) and 700 °C (1,292 °F), or for
longer amounts of time, the martensite may become fully ferritic and the cementite may become coarser or
spheroidize. In spheroidized steel, the cementite network breaks apart and recedes into rods or spherical
shaped globules, and the steel becomes softer than annealed steel; nearly as soft as pure iron, making it very
easy to form or machine.[18]
Embrittlement
Embrittlement occurs during tempering when, through a specific temperature range, the steel experiences an
increase in hardness and a reduction in ductility, as opposed to the normal decrease in hardness that occurs
to either side of this range. The first type is called tempered martensite embrittlement (TME) or one-step
embrittlement. The second is referred to as temper embrittlement (TE) or two-step embrittlement.
One-step embrittlement usually occurs in carbon steel at temperatures between 230 °C (446 °F) and 290 °C
(554 °F), and was historically referred to as "500 degree [Fahrenheit] embrittlement." This embrittlement
occurs due to the precipitation of Widmanstatten needles or plates, made of cementite, in the interlath
boundaries of the martensite. Impurities such as phosphorus, or alloying agents like manganese, may
increase the embrittlement, or alter the temperature at which it occurs. This type of embrittlement is
permanent, and can only be relieved by heating above the upper critical temperature and then quenching
again. However, these microstructures usually require an hour or more to form, so are usually not a problem
in the blacksmith-method of tempering.
Two-step embrittlement typically occurs by aging the metal within a critical temperature range, or by slowly
cooling it through that range, For carbon steel, this is typically between 370 °C (698 °F) and 560 °C
(1,040 °F), although impurities like phosphorus and sulfur increase the effect dramatically. This generally
occurs because the impurities are able to migrate to the grain boundaries, creating weak spots in the
structure. The embrittlement can often be avoided by quickly cooling the metal after tempering. Two-step
embrittlement, however, is reversible. The embrittlement can be eliminated by heating the steel above
600 °C (1,112 °F) and then quickly cooling.[19]
Alloy steels
Many elements are often alloyed with steel. The main purpose for alloying most elements with steel is to
increase its hardenability and to decrease softening under temperature. Tool steels, for example, may have
elements like chromium or vanadium added to increase both toughness and strength, which is necessary for
things like wrenches and screwdrivers. On the other hand, drill bits and rotary files need to retain their
hardness at high temperatures. Adding cobalt or molybdenum can cause the steel to retain its hardness, even
at red-hot temperatures, forming high-speed steels. Often, small amounts of many different elements are
added to the steel to give the desired properties, rather than just adding one or two.
Most alloying elements (solutes) have the benefit of not only increasing hardness, but also lowering both the
martensite start temperature and the temperature at which austenite transforms into ferrite and cementite.
During quenching, this allows a slower cooling rate, which allows items with thicker cross-sections to be
hardened to greater depths than is possible in plain carbon-steel, producing more uniformity in strength.
Tempering methods for alloy steels may vary considerably, depending on the type and amount of elements
added. In general, elements like manganese, nickel, silicon, and aluminum will remain dissolved in the
ferrite during tempering while the carbon precipitates. When quenched, these solutes will usually produce an
increase in hardness over plain carbon-steel of the same carbon content. When hardened alloy-steels,
containing moderate amounts of these elements, are tempered, the alloy will usually soften somewhat
proportionately to carbon steel.
However, during tempering, elements like chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum precipitate with the
carbon. If the steel contains fairly low concentrations of these elements, the softening of the steel can be
retarded until much higher temperatures are reached, when compared to those needed for tempering carbon
steel. This allows the steel to maintain its hardness in high temperature or high friction applications.
However, this also requires very high temperatures during tempering, to achieve a reduction in hardness. If
the steel contains large amounts of these elements, tempering may produce an increase in hardness until a
specific temperature is reached, at which point the hardness will begin to decrease.[20][21] For instance,
molybdenum steels will typically reach their highest hardness around 315 °C (599 °F) whereas vanadium
steels will harden fully when tempered to around 371 °C (700 °F). When very large amounts of solutes are
added, alloy steels may behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which do not soften at all during
tempering.[22]
Cast iron
Cast iron comes in many types, depending on the carbon-content. However, they are usually divided into
grey and white cast iron, depending on the form that the carbides take. In grey cast iron, the carbon is
mainly in the form of graphite, but in white cast iron, the carbon is usually in the form of cementite. Grey
cast iron consists mainly of the microstructure called pearlite, mixed with graphite and sometimes ferrite.
Grey cast iron is usually used as-cast, with its properties being determined by its composition.
White cast iron is composed mostly of a microstructure called ledeburite mixed with pearlite. Ledeburite is
very hard, making the cast iron very brittle. If the white cast iron has a hypoeutectic composition, it is
usually tempered to produce malleable or ductile cast iron. Two methods of tempering are used, called
"white tempering" and "black tempering." The purposes of both tempering methods is to cause the cementite
within the ledeburite to decompose, increasing the ductility.[23]
White tempering
Malleable (porous) cast iron is manufactured by white tempering. White tempering is used to burn off
excess carbon, by heating it for extended amounts of time in an oxidizing environment. The cast iron will
usually be held at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) for as long as 60 hours. The heating is
followed by a slow cooling rate of around 10 °C (18 °F) per hour. The entire process may last 160 hours or
more. This causes the cementite to decompose from the ledeburite, and then the carbon burns out through
the surface of the metal, increasing the malleability of the cast iron.[23]
Black tempering
Ductile (non-porous) cast iron (often called "black iron") is produced by black tempering. Unlike white
tempering, black tempering is done in an inert gas environment, so that the decomposing carbon does not
burn off. Instead, the decomposing carbon turns into a type of graphite called "temper graphite" or "flaky
graphite," increasing the malleability of the metal. Tempering is usually performed at temperatures as high
as 950 °C (1,740 °F) for up to 20 hours. The tempering is followed by slow-cooling through the lower
critical temperature, over a period that may last from 50 to over 100 hours.[23]
Precipitation hardening alloys
Precipitation hardening alloys first came into use during the early 1900s. Most heat-treatable alloys fall into
the category of precipitation hardening alloys, including alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium and
nickel. Several high-alloy steels are also precipitation hardening alloys. These alloys become softer than
normal when quenched, and then harden over time. For this reason, precipitation hardening is often referred
to as "aging."
Although most precipitation hardening alloys will harden at room temperature, some will only harden at
elevated temperatures and, in others, the process can be sped up by aging at elevated temperatures. Aging at
temperatures higher than room-temperature is called "artificial aging". Although the method is similar to
tempering, the term "tempering" is usually not used to describe artificial aging, because the physical
processes, (i.e.: precipitation of intermetallic phases from a supersaturated alloy) the desired results, (i.e.:
strengthening rather than softening), and the amount of time held at a certain temperature are very different
from tempering as used in carbon-steel.
See also
Annealing (metallurgy)
Austempering
Precipitation strengthening
Tempered glass
References
1. Light, its interaction with art and antiquities By Thomas B. Brill - Plenum Publishing 1980 Page
55
2. Andrews, Jack (1994). New Edge of the Anvil: a resource book for the blacksmith. pp. 98–99
3. Steel metallurgy for the non-metallurgist By John D. Verhoeven - ASM International 2007 Page
99-105
4. The Medieval Sword in the Modern World By Michael 'Tinker' Pearce - 2007 Page 39
5. Tool steels By George Adam Roberts, George Krauss, Richard Kennedy, Richard L. Kennedy -
ASM International 1998 Page 2
6. Roberts-Austen By Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, Sydney W. Smith - Charles Griffin &
Co. 1914 Page 155-156
7. Pavlina, E. J.; Tyne, C. J. Van (1 December 2008). "Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile
Strength with Hardness for Steels". Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance. 17 (6):
888–893. doi:10.1007/s11665-008-9225-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11665-008-9225-5).
8. Steel castings handbook By Malcolm Blair, Thomas L. Stevens - Steel Founders' Society of
America and ASM International Page 24-9
9. Practical heat treating By Jon L. Dossett, Howard E. Boyer - ASM International 2006 Page 112
10. How To Weld By Todd Bridigum - Motorbook 2008 Page 37
11. Practical Blacksmithing and Metalworking By Percy W. Blandford - TAB Books 1988 Page 3,
74–75
12. Practical Blacksmithing and Metalworking By Percy W. Blandford - TAB Books 1988 Page 74-
75
13. Knife Talk II: The High Performance Blade By Ed Fowler - Krause Publications 2003 Page 114
14. Elements of metallurgy and engineering alloys By Flake C. Campbell - ASM International 2008
Page 195-196
15. Steel Heat Treatment Handbook By George E. Totten -- Marcel Dekker 1997 Page 659
16. Phase Transformations in Steels, Volume 1: Fundamentals and Diffusion-Controlled
Transformations by Elena Pereloma, David V Edmonds -- Woodhead Publishing 2012 Page
20--39
17. Light Microscopy of Carbon Steels by Leonard Ernest Samuels ASM International 1999 Page
20--25
18. Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel By Romesh C. Sharma - New Age International (P)
Limited 2003 Page 101-110
19. Elements of metallurgy and engineering alloys By Flake C. Campbell - ASM International 2008
Page 197
20. "Hardenable Alloy Steels :: Total Materia Article" (http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=
CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=91). www.keytometals.com.
21. Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies By George E. Totten -- CRC Press 2007
Page 6, 200--203
22. Steels: Microstructure and Properties: Microstructure and Properties By Harry Bhadeshia,
Robert Honeycombe -- Elsevier 2006Page 191--207
23. Physical metallurgy for engineers By Miklós Tisza - ASM International 2002 Page 348-350
Further reading
Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide by Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and Leo Alting
pg. 410
External links
A thorough discussion of tempering processes (https://web.archive.org/web/20061009175103/
http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2004/Tempered.Martensite/tempered.martensite.html)
Webpage showing heating glow and tempering colors (http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/
animato/3003/3003am.html)
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