1

COLUMNS AND
STRUTS
(CENTRALLY-LOADED)
 2

• Strut - a machine part subjected to an axial compressive

force.
• A strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
• Column, pillar or stanchion is a vertical strut under
compression whose failure is due to buckling load,
critical load, or crippling load.
• The machine members that must be investigated for
column action are piston rods, valve push rods,
connecting rods, screw jack, etc.
 3

Failure of a Column

• Short columns may fail due to crushing caused by

compressive load called crushing load.
• Long columns fail due to instability called buckling
(bending sideways).
• The load, at which the column tends to have lateral
displacement or tends to buckle is called buckling load,
critical load, or crippling load .
• The buckling takes place about the axis having minimum
radius of gyration or least moment of inertia.
 4

Types of End Conditions of Columns

(a) Both the ends hinged or pin jointed
(b) Both the ends fixed
(c) One end is fixed and the other hinged
(d) One end is fixed and the other free
 5

Equivalent or Effective Length of Columns, Le

The equivalent length of a given column with given
end conditions is the length of an equivalent column
of the same material and cross-section with hinged
ends.

Relation between equivalent length Le and actual length L

 6

Slenderness Ratio
• The ratio Le / k is known as slenderness ratio.
• It is the ratio of the effective length of the column to the
least radius of gyration of the section.
Radius of gyration :
I 2 I
k ;k 
A A
I  moment of inertia
A  cross - sectional area
For solid circular section : Note: The vertical column
will have two moments of
π 4 π 2
I d ;A d inertia (viz. Ixx and Iyy); the
64 4 least value of the two
moments is to be used in the
d
k relation.
4
 7

Euler’s Formula Le
Euler’s Formula is applicable for long columns where  120
k
 2 EA
Fc  2
 FN
 Le 
 k
 
Fc  crippling, buckling or critical load
E  Young' s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
A  cross sectional area
k  least radius of gyration of the cross - section
Le  effective l ength of the column
F  actual load of the column
N  factor of safety
 8

Johnson’s Formula for Short Columns

Le
Johnson’s Formula is applicable for columns where 30   120
k

Johnson' s Parabolic Formula :

The critical or crippling load,
 S y  Le  2 
Fc  AS y 1  2     FN
 4 E  k  
S y  yield strength of column material
 9

Stresses for Members under Compression

1. Short Compression Members :
Le
 30, most likely not to fail by buckling, no column action
k
F
Compressive stress, S c 
A
2. Long and slender columns :
Le
 120, failure is due to buckling
k
F
Compressive stress, S c   E
A
 E  factor for column action from Euler' s formula
2
S y  e 
L
E   k
 2E
 10

3. Short Columns :
Le
30   120,
k
F
Compressive stress, S c   J
A
 J  factor for column action from Johnson' s formula
1
J 
 S y  Le  2 
1  2   
 4 E  k  
 11

Sample Problem 1
• A piston rod is subjected to a maximum compression load of
35600 lbs. and is 24 in. long. It is securely fastened to the
cross-head and piston, thus the ends can be considered fixed.
The material has a yield strength of 71000psi in order to obtain
a desired hardness. What would be the diameter for N=3?

F  35600lbs.
L  24in.
S y  71000 psi
N 3
Le
Since d is unknown, so as with ; thus we must take chances
k
on which equation to try on.
 12

F  max . compressive load acting on the piston rod

F  35600 lbs.
Fc  FN  356003  106800 lbs.
L 24in
For both ends fixed : Le    12in
2 2
From Euler' s Formula :
 2 EA  2 EI d 4
Fc  2
 2
:I 
 Le  L 64
 k
e

 
  4

 30 x10 psi  d
2 6

106800lbs.   64 
12in 2
d  1.0 in.
 13

Johnson' s Parabolic Formula

 S y  Le  2 
Fc  AS y 1  2   
 4 E  k  
d 4 4 d
 12in.for both ends fixed 
I L 24
k    
A 64 d  
2
4
; Le
2 2
  
2

 2     12in  
106800lbs   d 71000 psi  1   2
71000

4  

 6

 4 30 x10 psi  d 4  

d  1.43in
 14

Check to determine which is applicable.

Using Euler' s Formula : d  1 in.; Le  12in.
d Le 124 
k ;   48; Euler' s Formula is not applicable.
4 k 1
Therefore,
d  1.43"  computed from Johnson' s Formula where
Le 124 
  33.6
k 1.43
 15

Sample Problem 2
• Find the Euler’s crippling load for a hollow cylindrical steel
column of 38 mm external diameter and 4 mm thick. The
length of the column is 2.3 m and hinged at its both ends.
Take E = 200 GPa.
From Euler' s Formula :

Fc 
 2 EA

 2 EI
:I 

 do 4  di 4 ; d  38  24   30mm
2 2 i
 Le  L 64
 k
e

 
For both ends hinged, Le  L  2300mm

 2  200000

N   
2  
mm  64 
38 mm4
 30 mm 4

Fc 
2300mm 2
Fc  23356.11 N
 16

• What is the safe load for a factor of safety of 3?

• Using the calculated safe load above, compute for the
compressive stress induced on the column. Take Sy=330 MPa

Fc 23356.11 N
Fc  FN  F    7785.37 N
N 3
For both ends hinged, Le  L  2300mm

k
I


 do  di 4 4

4
 d 2
 di
2
  38 2

 30 2
 12.1mm
 
o

64 d o  d i
2 2
A 4 4
Le 2300
  190.1  120, use Euler' s Equation
k 12.1
 17

Le
For Long and slender columns :  120
k
F
Sc   E
A
 E  factor for column action from Euler' s formula
2
S y  e 
L
E   2   2
k 330 190 . 12
 6.04
 E  200000
S c  6.04 
7785.37
 110.06 MPa

4
 
382  30 2
SHAFTING
• Shaft: is a rotating machine element which is used to
transmit power from one place to another and
subjected to torsion or a combination of torsion,
bending and axial loading.
• Shafts are usually cylindrical solid in cross-section
but sometimes hollow shafts are also used.
• An axle, though similar in shape to the shaft, is a
stationary machine element and is used for the
transmission of bending moment only.
• It simply acts as a support for some rotating body
such as hoisting drum, a car wheel or a rope sheave.
• A spindle is a short shaft that imparts motion either
to a cutting tool (e.g. drill press spindles) or to a work
piece (e.g. lathe spindles).
Types of Shafts
• 1. Transmission shafts. These shafts transmit power
between the source and the machines absorbing power.
The counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all
factory shafts are transmission shafts. Since these shafts
carry machine parts such as pulleys, gears etc., therefore
they are subjected to bending in addition to twisting.
• 2. Machine shafts. These shafts form an integral part of
the machine itself. The crank shaft is an example of
machine shaft.

Line shaft – transmission shaft driven by the prime mover.

Counter shaft – transmission shaft intermediate between
the line shaft and the driven machine
21
Stresses in Shafts
Pure Torsion :
Tr
Ss 
J
16T
Ss   solid shaft
D 3

16TDo
Ss   hollow shaft

 Do  Di
4 4
 Pure Bending :
Mc
Sf 
I
32 M
Sf   solid shaft
D 3

32 MDo
Sf   hollow shaft

 Do  Di
4 4

 Deflections of Shafts

Lateral Deflection :
Angular Deflection/
For simply supported shaft :
Angle of Twist/
FL3
Torsional Deformation : y
TL 48 EI
 For cantilever shaft :
JG
TL FL3
  solid shaft y
 4
DG 3EI
32
TL
  hollow shaft

32
D 4
o D G
i
4

Combined Loads on Shafts
• Axial and Bending/Flexural Loads:

Mc F Sy S
S max    S allow  or u
I A N N
32 M 4 F 32  FD 
S max    3 
M
D 3
D D 
2
8 
• Axial and Torsional Loads:

F 4F Tr 16T
S  ; Ss  
A D 2
J D 3
Based on Max. Shear Stress Theory :
2 2

S smax  S s 2   S  
16
T 2

 FD 
 
2 D 3
 8 
Based on Max. Normal Stress Theory :

S
2  FD  
2

S max
S
  S s      3
2 16
  T2 
FD
 
2 2 D  8  8  

• Bending/Flexural and Torsional Loads:

Mc 32 M Tr 16T
S  ; S  
D J D 3
3 s
I
Based on Max. Shear Stress Theory :
2
S
 S s     
16

2 2 2
S smax T M
2 D 3
Based on Max. Normal Stress Theory :

 
2
S
S max
S
  S s      3 M  T 2  M 2
2 16
2 2 D
• Axial, Bending/Flexural and Torsional Loads

Mc F 32  FD  Tr 16T
S   3 
M   s
; S  
I A D  8  J D 3
Based on Max. Shear Stress Theory :
2 2
S  FD 
S smax  S s     
16
T M  
2 2

2 D 3
 8 
Based on Max. Normal Stress Theory :
2  2

S max
S
  S s 2     3 M   T 2   M   
S 16 FD FD
2 2 D  8  8  
 
Shaft Design by ASME Formulas
• Design stresses based on ASME Code for Design of
Transmission Shafting:

Shear Design Stress :

S sd  0.3S y or 0.18Su  use whichever is smaller.
If shaft is with a keyway, S sd '  0.75S sd
Normal Design Stress :
S d  0.6 S y or 0.36 Su  use whichever is smaller.
If shaft is with a keyway, S d '  0.75S d
Combined Torsion and Bending on Shaft
For Solid Shaft
Tr 16T Mc 32 M
Ss   ; Sf  
J D 3
I D 3
If material is ductile, max. shear stress theory applies :
2 2 2
S  16T   32 M 
S smax  S s 2
    3   3
2  D   2D 
16
S smax  T 2
 M 2
; T 2  M 2  equivalent twisting moment
D 3

Considering factors due to combined shock and fatigue

K s  for shear; K m  for bending

S smax 
16
K sT 2  K m M 2  S s or S sd'
D 3 d
If material is brittle, max. normal stress theory applies :
2 2 2
S  16T   32 M 
S max
S
  S s 
2
  
32 M
  3  3
2  
2 2D 3
 D   2D 

S max 
16
D 3
M 
 T 2
 M 2

M  
T 2  M 2  equivalent bending moment

Considering factors due to combined shock and fatigue

K s  for shear; K m  for bending

S max 
16 K M   K sT    K m M 
2 2   S or S
D 3  m  d d'
For Hollow Shaft

Tr 16TDo Di
Ss   ; let j   Di  jDo
4

J  Do  Di4
 Do
16TDo 16T  1 
Ss  
 4 4 4

 Do  j Do Do3 1  j 4 
 
Mc 32 MDo
S  Sf  
I 
 Do4  Di4 
32 MDo 32 M  1 
S 

 Do  j Do
4 4 4

Do3 1  j 4 
 
If material is ductile, max. shear stress theory applies, use :
 1 
S smax 
16
 K sT    K m M 
2 2
1  j 4   S sd
Do3  
If material is brittle, max. normal stress theory applies, use :
K M    1 
S max 
16
 m
 K sT 
2
 K m M  
2
 1  j 4 
 Sd
Do3

If shaft is solid, the equation above can also be

referred to by using Do=D and j=0 since Di=0.
Combined Axial and Bending Loads on Shaft
 FD 
 S d for solid shaft 
32
S max  K
 m M  
D 3  8 
 1  
FD 1  j 2 
  S d for hollow shaft 
32
S max  1  j 4   K m M 
Do3  8 
  factor for column action
  1, if axial load is tensile
2
S y  e 
L
A. For
Le
 120,    k
fr. Euler' s formula 
k  E 2

B. For 30 
Le
 120,  
1
fr. Johnson's formula 
k   Le  
2

 Sy k  
1   2  
 4 E 
 
 Combined Axial, Torsional and Bending Loads on Shaft
From Max. Shear Stress theory :


16  1 


 K sT    K m M 


FDo 1  j 2   2

  S sd
2
S smax 3  4 
Do  1  j   8 
From Max. Normal Stress theory :


16  1  


 KmM 
  K T 
FDo 1  j 2


 Km M 
 

FDo 1  j  
2 2

   Sd
2
S max 3  4 
Do  1  j  
s


8  8  

If shaft is solid, the equation above can also be

referred to by using Do=D and j=0 since Di=0.
Sample Problem 1
• A solid circular shaft is to transmit 20 hp at 600 rpm. It
also supports a bending load of 2000 in-lbs. The ductile
material for the shaft has Sy=48000psi and Su=65000psi.
A gear is fastened at the midpoint by means of a key. If
the factors due to combined shock and fatigue for shear
and bending are 1.0 and 1.5, determine the shaft
diameter based on ASME Formulas.

P63025 2063025
T   2100.83in  lbs.
N rpm 600
M  2000in  lbs
S y  48000 psi
Su  65000 psi
K s  1.0; K m  1.5
Since material is ductile, max. shear stress theory applies :

S smax 
16
 K sT    K m M   S s d '
2 2

D 3

S sd  0.3S y  0.348000   14400 psi

S sd  0.18Su  0.1865000   11700 psi
Use whichever is smaller, that is, 11700psi.
But shaft is with keyway,
S sd '  0.75S sd  0.7511700   8775 psi
Solving values :

S smax 
16
1.02100.83  1.52000
2 2
 S sd '  8775
D 3

D3
16 1.02100.832  1.520002  1.286in
 8775
Allowable Deformation by ASME Formulas
Angle of Twist :
Transmission Shaft :
θallow  1 in a length of 20 diameters
Machinery Shaft :
θallow  0.08 to 1 per foot of length between supports
Transverse Deflection :
Transmission Shaft :
yallow  0.01 inch per foot of length between supports
Machinery Shaft :
yallow  0.002 inch per foot of length between supports
 PSME Code Formulas
For Main Power Transmitting Shaft :
D3 N
P
80
For Line Shaft carrying pulleys :
D3 N
P
53.5
For small, short shafts and counter shafts :
3 Said formulas were
D N
P based on
38 design stresses of:
Main shaft - 4 ksi
where : P  horsepower trasmitted Line shaft - 6 ksi
N  rpm Small, short, counter
shafts – 8.5 ksi
D  shaft diameter in inches
Empirical Formulas from Machinery’s Handbook
Required Shaft diameter :
a  for an allowable angle of twist not exceeding 0.08 per foot of length
D  0.294 T
b  for an allowable angle of twist not exceeding
1 in a length of 20 times the diameter
D  0.103 T
c  for short solid shafts subjected only to heavy transverse shear
1.7V
D
Ss
where : D  shaft diameter in inches
T  torque in in - lbs
V  maximum transverse shear load in lbs.
Ss  maximum torsional shear stress in psi
Empirical Formulas from Machinery’s Handbook

Shaft Supported Length and Shaft Diameter :

For a maximum deflection of 0.01 in. per foot of length
a  for shafting subjected to no bending action except its own weight
L  8.953 D 2
b  for shafting subjected to bending action due to pulleys, etc.
L  5.23 D 2
where : D  shaft diameter in inches
L  maximum distance between bearings in feet
 Sample Problem 2 (Board Problem, Oct. 1998)
A 3-in diameter short shaft carrying pulley close to the
bearings transmit how much horsepower if the shaft
makes 280 rpm?

D 3 N 33 280
P   198.95 hp
38 38
Sample Problem 3
What is the diameter of a line shaft that transmits 150 kW at 15 rps?
D3 N
P
53.5
 rev  60 s 
D 15
3
 
 1hp   s  1 min 
150kW     2.29 inches
 0.746kW  53.5
KEYS
• A key is a piece of mild steel inserted between
the shaft and hub of the pulley, gear, sprocket,
etc. to connect these together in order to
prevent relative motion between them.
• It is always inserted parallel to the axis of the
shaft.
• Keys are used as temporary fastenings and
are subjected to considerable crushing and
shearing stresses.
• A keyway is a slot or recess in a shaft and hub
of the pulley to accommodate a key.
 Types of Keys
1. Sunk Keys: The sunk keys are provided half in the
keyway of the shaft and half in the keyway of the hub.
a. Rectangular sunk key.
b. Square sunk key. Key with square cross-section
That is, w  t
c. Parallel sunk key. The parallel sunk keys may be of
rectangular or square section uniform in width and thickness
throughout.
Parallel key of rectangular cross-section is a flat key.
d. Gib-head key. It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one
end known as gib head to provide ease in removal.
e. Feather key. A key attached to one member of a pair
which permits relative axial movement
It is fastened either to the shaft or hub, the key being a
sliding fit in the key way of the moving piece.
f. Woodruff key. The woodruff key fits into a semi-
cylindrical seat on the shaft.
Its extra depth in the shaft prevents any tendency to turn
over in its keyway.
It has the following disadvantages:
1. The depth of the keyway weakens the shaft.
2. It can not be used as a feather.
2. Saddle Keys
a. A flat saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in
the hub and is flat on the shaft as shown. It is likely to slip
round the shaft under load. Therefore it is used for
comparatively light loads.
b. A hollow saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway
in the hub and the bottom of the key is shaped to fit the
curved surface of the shaft. Since hollow saddle keys hold on
by friction, therefore these are suitable for light loads.
3. Round Keys
The round keys, as shown in the figure are circular in section
and fit into holes drilled partly in the shaft and partly in the
hub.
Round keys are usually considered to be most appropriate
for low power drives.
Sometimes the tapered pin is held in place by the friction
between the pin and the reamed tapered holes.
4. Splines
Splines are permanent keys
made integral with the
shaft. Such shafts are
known as splined shafts.

These shafts usually have

four, six, ten or sixteen
splines.

The splined shafts are used

when the force to be
transmitted is large in
proportion to the size of the
shaft as in automobile
transmission and sliding
gear transmissions.
 Stress Analysis for a Rectangular Key
 M0  0
d 
T  F 
2

2T
F
d

T  torque transmitted by the shaft, Shearing stress in key :

F  tangential force acting at F
Ss   S sd
the circumference of the shaft, wL
d  diameter of shaft, Compressive or crushing stress :
L  length of key, F
Sc   Sd
w  width of key. t
L 
t  thickness of key 2
S sd ,S d  shear design stress, normal L is computed from the above equations.
design stress Use whichever is longer.
 Sample Problem 1
• Determine the length of a flat key for a shaft of 50 mm
diameter. The key has a width of 16mm and a thickness of
10mm. The allowable shearing and crushing stresses for
the key material are 42 MPa and 70 MPa, respectively.
While, the design torsional stress for the shaft is 45 MPa.

Given :
d  50mm
Key : S s  42 N 2 ; SC  70 N
mm mm 2
Shaft : S s  45 N
mm 2
w  width of key  16 mm
t  thickness of key  10 mm
 S s shaft πd 3 
45 50 
3
T   1104466.2 N-mm
16 16
2T 21104466.2 
F   44178.65 N
d 50
Shearing stress in key :
F
Ss  Compressive or crushing stress :
wL
44178.65 F
L  65.74mm Sc 
1642 t
L 
2
44178.65
L  126.22mm
 10 
70 
2
Use the larger value, L  126.22mm
 Sample Problem 2 (Board Problem, 1998)
• A 76.2 mm diameter shafting of SAE 1040 grade, cold
rolled, has a yield point of 50 ksi and has a ¾” x ¾” x 5”
key. Compute the minimum yield point in the key in order to
transmit the torque of the shaft. The factor of safety to use
is 2 and the yield point for shear is one-half of the yield
point.
a. 47.52 ksi c. 47.12 ksi
b. 47.25 ksi d. 47.21 ksi

Given :
d  76.2mm  3 in.
Shaft : S y  50ksi  50000 psi
Key : w  t  0.75 in.
L  5 in.
FS  2; S ys  0.5S y
  S ys   0.5S y  16T
S d shaft        3
 FS  shaft  FS  shaft d
 0.550000   3
  3 
T 
2
 66267.97 in-lbs
16
2T 266267.97 
F   44178.65 lbs. Compressive or crushing stress :
d 3
 Sy  F
Shearing stress in key : S c    
 FS  key t
 S ys   0.5S y  F L 
S s        2
 FS  key  FS  key wL
244178.65
244178.65 Sy 
Sy   47123.89 psi  0.75 
0.50.755 5 
 2 
S y  47.12ksi
S y  47123.89 psi  47.12ksi