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Fire Technology and Arson investigation

Prepared by: Marcelo L. Montanio

What is Fire?

In the World Book Encyclopedia (1994), fire is defined as the heat and light that comes from the burning
substances. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier, a French Chemist, proved that burning is the result of the rapid union of
oxygen with other substances.

Fire is also defined as the chemical reaction that involves the evolution of light and energy in sufficient amount to
be perceptible. Will there always be light in a flame (fire)? No. For instance, the burning of hydrogen with the air or
oxygen produces only water vapor from its chemical reaction. (Quintiere, 1998).

Fire could also be linked or is likewise the same as flame, combustion, and oxidation.

Chapter 1
Understanding the Nature of Fire

Lesson 1.1. Brief History of Fire

The earliest use of fire was to keep warm. As civilization advanced, people learned to use fire in many other
ways. People learned to use fire to cook food, to shape weapons and tools, to change clay into pottery, and to furnish
light. But early people had extremely slow and quite unsatisfactory ways of kindling fires (World Book Encyclopedia,
1994).

Today, we have not only improved the methods of kindling fires, but we also use fire in many more ways. Fire
furnishes the energy to drive machines and keeps industry running. It supplies the power to drive trains, ships, and
planes; and it generates electricity. Fire also sometimes used to remove and destroy waste materials. In addition, fire
is used in separating most metals from their ores, as well as in forging and shaping metals into useful things.

Fire in Legend

Prehistoric people may have gained knowledge of fire from observing things in nature, such as lightning, the fire
of volcanoes, and the heat of the sun. They also must have noticed that sparks fly when stones are struck upon one
another, or when the hoofs or claws of an animal strike some hard substance (World Book Encyclopedia, 1994).

In Persian literature, there is a story of the discovery of fire in a fight with a dragon. One of the stones that the
hero used as a weapon missed the monster and struck a rock. Light shone forth and human beings saw fire for the first
time. The mythology of nearly all early people contains some account of accidental or supernatural happenings that
first revealed fire to human beings. Early people regarded fire as a true gift of the gods.

Fire in Religion

Fire was considered sacred because it was so essential to the welfare of people. Fire worship and sun worship
have existed since very early times. Because fire was so hard to produce, the custom soon became common of
keeping a public fire, which was never allowed to die out. These fires were kept in every village among the Egyptians,
Persians, Greeks, and Romans. They were often in the civic center of the community.

The Temple of Vesta in Rome was an outstanding example of the importance of fire to the Romans. Vesta was
originally the goddess of the hearth (fire place) and her shine was in every home. But when religion became an affair
of the state, a temple was erected in which the sacred fire was kept burning at all times.

In Greek mythology, Prometheus bestowed godlike powers when he stole the gods’ fire to give it to humanity.
Humans have always worshiped fire for its awesome power in nature and its beneficence when controlled. Fire has
played a central role in religion. It has been personified as a god (for example, the Indo-Iranian Agni) and recognized
as a symbol of home and family in many cultures. It has also been a symbol of purification and of immortality and
renewal; hence, the lighting of flames of remembrance and the myth of PHOENIX (Grolier International Encyclopedia,
1998).

Early Means of Producing Fire

1. Two Sticks. One of the oldest methods of starting fires consists of rubbing two sticks together. The rubbing
creates friction between the sticks, and the friction generates heat. This heat eventually causes the wood to ignite. This
method often times takes a lot of time and energy.

2. Hand Drill. The hand drill is a more efficient method of rubbing two pieces of wood together. Rapidly
spinning a stick of wood against another piece of wood can generate enough friction and heat to cause the wood to
ignite.

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3. Bow Drill. As people developed tools, they adapted some of these fire making. Drawing the bow back and
forth spins the stick rapidly against the piece of wood, producing a large amount of friction. This friction between the
stick and the piece of wood can heat the wood until it ignites.

4. Weighted Bow Drill. The weighted bow drill generates more friction than the bow drill by weighing down the
wooden stick, making it push with more force against the other piece of wood. Moving the bow back and forth creates
frictional heat between the stick and piece of wood, which can ignite the wood.
5. Striking Flint. Another ancient method of starting fires consists of striking flint against another piece of flint
to produce sparks. Later, people also used flint and metal to produce sparks. The sparks can ignite tinder to start a
fire. The tinder usually consists of a substance that burns readily, such as wood or metal shavings.

6. Magnifying Glass. People have used magnifying glasses and sunlight to light fires since the invention of
lenses several thousand years ago. The magnifying glass focuses the sunlight on tinder, and the energy of the sunlight
heats the tinder until it ignites.

Lesson 1.2. Components of Fire

Fire is, in some ways, like living things. Both fire and animals require the same elements to exist, and each
ceases to exist if any one of these elements is withdrawn. As the animal needs food, the fire needs fuel; and as the
animal requires oxygen, the fire also requires oxygen; and as the animal requires warmth, the fire also requires heat.
Therefore, to create fire we must have fuel, oxygen, and heat (Gayon, 1993).

FIRE
Fuel Oxygen

Figure 1.1 Fire Triangle

Heat (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997)

Traditionally, fire has been described as having three components: heat, oxygen, and fuel. This triad was
illustrated by the fire triangle, which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a chemical relationship that would have
required hours to explain. We now realized, however, that the fire triangle falls short of integrating all the components
involved in producing flaming combustion. Today, the fire triangle is used to technically explain glowing combustion,
which occurs when fuel mass glows/burns without flaming. This is called solid-to-gas reaction (fuel being solid, and the
oxidizing agent a gas).

The additional component that is needed to explain flaming combustion is a chemical chain reaction. Such a
reaction yields energy or products that cause further reactions of the same kind, and this process is self-sustaining. To
show the interrelation of all four components, a more sophisticated geometric figure than the fire triangle is needed; the
three-dimensional, four-faceted tetrahedron is the most appropriate and is commonly used.

FIRE

Chemical Chain Reaction

Fuel
Fuel Oxygen
Oxygen

Heat Figure 1.2. Fire Tetrahedron

(Redsicker and O’connor, 1997)

In flaming combustion, fuel and the oxidizing agent are both in the gaseous state; hence this is referred to as
gas-to gas-reaction.

Lesson 1.3. Fuels

Fuel is any materials or substances capable of burning. It may be solid, liquid or gas.

a. Solid Fuels. The principal component is carbon.

b. Liquid Fuels. The principal component is hydrocarbon.
c. Gaseous Fuels. The principal component is hydrocarbon.

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A. Solid Fuels. The most obvious solids fuels are woods, fibers and plastics (Abis, 1986).

A. 1. Wood and wood-based products. Wood is a very versatile material which is commonly used for
construction, furniture and interior decoration among others. When the thermal environment is conductive to a given
reaction, they will char, smolder, ignite and burn.

Factors affecting ignition and burning of wood

Abis (1986) enumerates the following factors:

1. Physical Form.
2. Moisture Content
3. Heat of Conductivity
4. Rate and Period of Heating
5. Rate of Combustion.
6. Ignition Temperature.

A. 2. Fibers and Textiles. Almost all textiles fibers are combustible. Since textiles are an intimate part of daily
living – clothes we wear, carpets, curtains, beddings etc. – there is a high involvement of textiles in fire.

Factors that influence the burning of textiles

1. Chemical composition
2. Fiber finish. If sufficient combustible coating or decorative materials are placed on fabric, this will support
continued flaming.
3. Fabric weight. It affect the rate of combustion at which the textile undergoes. The heavier the fabric of the
same composition, the more considerable resistance to ignition.
4. Tightness of weave. The closer the fibers are in the weaving of fabrics the more it will minimize the air
spaces between them and thus delay the rate of burning.
5. Flame retardant treatment. The effect of chemical treatments in reducing the flammability of combustible
fabrics is varied and complex.

A. 3. Plastics. Plastics, other than cellulose nitrates, are classified as ordinary combustibles. They comprise a
group of material consisting mainly of organic substances or high molecular weight substances. They are solid in the
finished state although at some stage of manufactured plastics can be made to flow into a desired shape, usually
through the application of heat or pressure or both.

B. Liquid Fuels. The most common liquid fuels are kerosene, gasoline, oil based products, and other volatile
substances (though they may be compressed slightly).

Liquids, like gases assume the shape of their containers and may diffuse. Unlike gases, they have a definite
volume (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997).

Classification of Liquid fuels

Liquid fuels are classified into flammable and combustible solids (Abis, 1986).

1. Flammable liquids. It refers to any liquid having a flashpoint below 37.8 *C.

2. Combustible liquids. It refers to any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 37.8 *C.

Flammable and combustible liquids, strictly speaking, will not cause fire. It is then the vapors from the
evaporation of these liquids when exposed to air and under the influence of heat, which will burn or explode. Gasoline
is the most widely used flammable liquid. Its generation of flammable vapors at atmospheric temperature is common
knowledge (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997).

C. Gaseous Fuels. Gaseous fuels are either natural or manufactured flammable gases. Gaseous fuels are those in
which molecules are in rapid movement and random motion. They have no definite shape or volume, and assume the
shape and volume of their container. Other properties include compressibility, expandability, permeability, and diffusion
(Abis, 1986).

Classification of Gases According to Physical Properties

Physical properties of gases are of primary concern of fire protection since these affect the behavior of gases
when they are accidentally released. From the standpoint of fire technology, the classes of gas according to physical
properties are:

1. Compressed gas. Is one which at all normal atmospheric temperature inside its container, exist solely in the
gaseous state under pressure.

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2. Liquefied gas. Is one in which, at normal atmospheric temperature inside its container, exist partly in the
liquid state and partly in the gaseous state.

3. Cryogenic gases. Is a liquefied gas which exist in its container at temperature far below normal
atmospheric temperature.

Classification of Gases According to Usage

The primary concern of this method of classification is the relation between principal use and fire protection. Not
only does general industry use this classification but also standards and codes.

1. Fuel Gases. These are customary used for burning with air to produce heat, which in turn is utilized as
power, light and process.

2. Industrial Gases. These are used for industrial processes as those used in welding and cutting.

3. Medical Gases. These are used for treatment and respiratory therapy.

Hazards of Gases

For the purpose of systematic evaluation of gas hazards, distinction should be made by hazards presented by
gas when confined in a container and the hazards when the gas escapes from a container.

1.Hazards of confinement

a. Gases expand when heated, and when confined, the heating results in an increase in pressure, which can
result in gas release and/or cause container failure.

b. Heat container can fail due to contact with flames from an exposing fire, thus loss in strength of the material
of which the container is made.

2.Hazard of Gas when released from their container. It may vary with the physical and chemical properties of
the gas and the nature of the environment into which they were released.

Physical Properties of Matter Related to Fire

1.Specific gravity. It is the weight of a substance compared with an equal volume of water (thus, water = 1.0).
Most flammable liquids have a specific gravity of less than that of water. Gasoline’s specific gravity is 0.70, so it will
float on water. That of carbon disulfide is 1.3, so it will sink in water (Redsicker and O’Connor, 1997).
2.Boiling point. The constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal or above to the
atmospheric pressure.
3.Ignition temperature. The temperature at which a flammable material will ignite, whether it be gas, liquid, or
solid.
4.Flash point. The temperature at which the vapors given off (gas) is not sufficient in quantity to burn. For
example, the fire point of gasoline, this is –50 *F, for kerosene, 110 *F.
5.Fire Point. The temperature at which the material will give off sufficient vapors to sustain combustion
(burning).

Chemical Properties of Fire

Abis (1986) enumerates the following chemical properties of fire.

1.Endothermic Reactions. These are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the
reaction takes place.
2.Exothermic Reactions. Are those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produced substances with
less energy than the reactants.
3.Oxidation. It is a chemical change that is exothermic. It is actually the deterioration or aging of materials.
4. Flames. It refers to incandescent gases. In order to be sustained, it should maintain a high temperature and a
concentration of short-lived intermediate chemical reactions between fuel and oxidizer. There are different types of
flames, categorized as:

a.Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:

(1) Luminous flame is orange-red, will deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to incomplete
combustion of fuel and has a lower temperature.
(2) Non-luminous flame is blue, will not deposit soot due to almost complete combustion of the fuel and has
relatively high temperature.

b.Based on fuel and air mixture:

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(1) Premixed flame is exemplified by the Bunsen-type laboratory burner where the hydrocarbon is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
(2) Diffusion flame is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced through the nozzle into the atmosphere,
which diffuses, in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable mixture. The rate at which the fuel and
oxidizer are brought together determines the characteristics of a diffusion flame.

c. Based on smoothness:

(1) Laminar flames are flames that follow a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
(2) Turbulent flames are those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddy. As physical size, gas density or
velocity is increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

Lesson 1.4. Heat

Heat is described as a condition of “matter in motion” caused by the movement of molecules. All matters contain
some heat, regardless of how low the temperature, because molecules are constantly moving. When a body of matters
is heated, the speed of molecules increases and thus the temperature increases. Anything that sets the molecules of a
material in faster motion produces heat in that material (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997). Heat is an essential element
in converting fuel to its gaseous state.

Sources of Heat Energy

The following are the five (5) general categories of heat energy: (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997)

1.Chemical heat energy. Chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation. The speed of the oxidation
reaction is an important factor; rust is also the product of oxidation, but a very slow one.

2. Mechanical heat energy. Mechanical heat is the product of friction. Our ancestors rubbed sticks together to
generate heat to start a fire. Internal metal components of machinery can overheat, due to lubricant breakdown or ball-
bearing failures, and cause ignition of available combustibles.

3.Electrical heat energy. Electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction. Poor
wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing through an improperly sized wire
are other sources of electrical heat.

4.Nuclear heat energy. Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles (fission or
fusion, respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant produces steam to turn steam turbines.
When more heat is produced than is lost (transferred), there is a positive heat balance. When more heat is lost than is
produced, there is a negative heat balance.

5.Solar heat energy. The energy transmitted from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation is called solar
heat energy.

Heat Transfer

Heat can travel throughout a building by one or more of the three methods, conduction, convection and radiation.
So the transferred heat not only facilitates the spread of fire, but also starts a fire that is not directly related with the first
burning.

1.Conduction. One of the ways heat moves is known as conduction. The definition of conduction is the transfer
of heat from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature by increased kinetic energy. This
increased kinetic energy is passed from molecule to molecule. Conductors are materials that heat can pass through.
Not all materials are good conductors.

2.Radiation. In the early 1900s, German physicist Max Planck formulated this form of heat transfer. He wrote
that all substances emit radiant energy simply because they have a positive absolute temperature. Radiation is the
process of heat transfer by means of infrared radiation, a form of electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves do not
need any material medium for their propagation. Space is almost completely empty, so the sun’s heat cannot reach us
by conduction or convection. Because electromagnetic waves don’t need a medium they are able to travel through
space.

3. Convection. It is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or liquid (see Ideal Gas Law).
Heat transfer in convection is cheaply responsible for the spread of fire in the structure. The super-heated gases
evolved from a fire are lighter than air and consequently rise; they can and do initiate additional damage. In large fires,
the high fireball that accompanies the incident is referred to as the firestone and is an example of convection of heat.

Lesson 1.5. Classification of Fire

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1. Class A fires. These are fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as, wood, cloth, paper, rubber,
and many plastics. Water is used in cooling or quenching effect to reduce the temperature of the burning material
below its ignition temperature.

2. Class B fires. It involves flammable and combustible liquids, greases and gases such as gasoline, oil,
lacquers, paints, mineral spirits, and alcohols.

3. Class C fires. These are fires involving energized electrical equipment.

4. Class D fires. It involves combustible metals such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium,
lithium, calcium, zirconium, zinc and potassium.

Phases of Fire and Its Behavior

As a fire progresses, it normally passes through three phases: incipient, free burning and smoldering. Many
factors can alter the rate and intensity of a fire’s evolution. No two fires are exactly the same. They vary in many ways
from incident to accident (P.S.B.R.C).

1. The Incipient Phase. It is the earliest phase of fire with the actual ignition. The fire is limited to the original
materials of ignition. In the incipient phase, the oxygen content in the air has not been significantly reduced, and the
fire is producing water vapor (H 2O), carbon dioxide (CO 2), a small quantity of sulfur dioxide (SO 2), carbon monoxide
(CO) and other gases.

The behavior of fire during the incipient phase is “rollover”, sometimes referred to as “flameover”. It takes place
when unburned combustible gases released during the incipient phase accumulate at the ceiling level. These
superheated gases are pushed, under pressure, away from the fire area and into uninvolved areas where they mix
with oxygen.

2. Steady – state Burning Phase or Free Burning Phase. It is the phase of fire where sufficient oxygen and
fuel are available for fire growth and open burning to a point where total involvement is possible.

When the temperature reaches the ignition temperature of these items, a flashover occurs: flames instantly
“flashover” the entire area. Flashover is defined as “a stage in the development of a continued fire in which all exposed
surfaces reach ignition temperature, more or less simultaneously, and fire spreads rapidly.

3. Hot Smoldering Phase. After the steady-state burning phase, flames may cease to exist if the area of
confinement is airtight. In this state, burning is reduced to glowing embers. As the flames die down, the room becomes
completely filled with dense smoke and gases, which are forced from all cracks under pressure. The fire continues to
smolder and the room to fill with dense smoke and gases at a temperature well over 1000 *F. Such intense heat
evaporates the lighter fuel fractions, such as hydrogen and methane, from the combustible material in the room. The
resulting superheated mixture of gases needs only a fresh supply of oxygen to resume free burning at an explosive
rate. This type of explosion is referred to as a backdraft or smoke explosion. Backdraft is an explosion resulting from
the sudden introduction of air (oxygen) into a confined space containing oxygen-deficient superheated products of
incomplete combustion. A backdraft may result if someone opens a “hot door”. This is why firefighters are trained to
touch a door with their bare hands and feel its temperature before opening it.

Products of Combustion

When a fuel burns, there are four (4) products of combustion: heat, light, smoke and fire gases.
1. Heat. It is a form of energy that is measured in degrees of temperature to signify its intensity.

2. Flame. It is the visible, luminous body of a burning gas. When the burning gas is mixed with the proper
amount of oxygen, the flame becomes hotter and less luminous. The loss of luminosity is caused by a more complete
combustion of the carbon.

3. Smoke. It is encountered at most fires, consists of a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, finely divided that have been released from the material involved.

4. Fire Gases. Refers to those gases that remain when the product of combustion are cooled below normal
temperature. Gases formed by a fire depends on many variables among which are: (Abis, 1986)

a. Carbon Dioxide. All wood products contain carbon, thus they produced carbon dioxide when burned even
in small fires. It’s colorless and tasteless.
b. Carbon monoxide. One of the most dangerous by-products of fire is due to unburned particles of fuel.
When leather, hair and woolen fabrics burned, chemicals produce fumes
c. Ashes and embers. It is a by-product of some classes of fire; class A always leaves ashes and embers,
whereas Class C may only leave small amount, Class B never leaves.
d. Hydrogen Sulfide. When materials like rubber, skin, hides, wool, hair, silk and meat are burned one of the
products formed is hydrogen sulfide. This colorless, highly toxic gas smell like rotten eggs.

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e. Sulfur Dioxide. This colorless gas with irritating, suffocating odor is formed when sulfur and sulfur
containing organic substance like wood, rubber, wool and silk are burned. Sulfur dioxide causes the eyes to be watery
and is irritating to the respiratory tract.

f. Hydrogen Chloride. Chloride containing plastic materials will produce hydrogen chloride when burned.
Polyvinyl chloride is one plastic commonly used for electrical conductor insulation and piping. Hydrogen chloride is
colorless gas with pungent, very irritating odor.

g. Hydrogen Cyanide. Relatively large quantities of hydrogen cyanide may be produced by the incomplete
combustion of materials such as wool, silk, urethane, polymide and acryline. Hydrogen cyanide is a colorless gas
which is highly toxic.

h. Nitrogen Dioxide. The reddish-brown gas nitrogen dioxide is produced during the decomposition and
combustion of cellulose nitrate, ammonium nitrate and other inorganic nitrates. It is also formed when nitric acid comes
in contact with metals or combustible materials.

i. Acrolein. It is highly irritating and toxic gas produced when petroleum products, fats, oils and other common
substances undergo combustion.

j. Phosgene. When a chlorinated compound comes in contact with flames, phosgene is one of the products of
combustion. Fires involving polyvinyl chloride plastics will produce phosgene.

Chapter 2
Fire Fighting Equipment and Extinguishing Agents

Lesson 2.1. Fire Fighting Equipment

The most important equipment of a fire department includes (1) communication systems, (2) fire trucks, and
(3) special fire vehicles. In addition, the firefighters themselves require special protective clothing (P.S.B.R.C.).

Fire Trucks

The term “fire truck” usually means any other type of truck used to carry equipment or people to a fire or
emergency. When a firefighter says “truck” though, they usually mean a “hook and ladder” or “aerial ladder” truck.

A truck that pumps water to the fire is called a “fire engine” or a “pumper”. Today, most fire engines also carry
hose in a large storage area in the rear of the truck.

Ladder Trucks

There are two kinds of ladder trucks – aerial ladder trucks and elevating platform trucks. An aerial ladder truck
has a metal extension ladder mounted on a turntable. The ladder can be raised as high as 100 feet (30 meters), or
about eight stories. An elevating-platform truck has a cage like platform that can hold several people. The platform is
attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable.

Rescue Ladders

Rescue ladders are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same kinds of forcible entry tools that ladder
truck carry. But rescue trucks also carry additional equipment for unusual rescues. They have such tools as
oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal, and hydraulic jacks, for lifting heavy objects.

Special Fire Vehicles

Special fire vehicles include airport crash trucks and hazardous material trucks. Airport crash trucks are engines
that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water is ineffective against many aircraft fires, such as those that
involve jet fuel, gasoline, or certain metals.

Protective Clothing
Firefighters require special clothing for protection against flames, falling objects, heat, toxic gases or lack of
oxygen, loss of vision, loss of communication, and physical damage.

Ladder

Ladder is a portable piece of equipment with rungs attached to sides made of metal, wood, or rope, used for
climbing up or down (Microsoft Encarta Dictionary, 2002).
Types of Ladder

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1. Single or Straight Ladder. A type of ladder that is non-adjustable in length and consists only of one
section; sometimes called a wall ladder, used for quick access to windows and roofs of one and two-story buildings.
(12’, 14’, 16’, 18’, and 24’).

2. Extension Ladder. A type of ladder that is adjustable in length. It consists of two or more section, which
travels in guides or brackets to permit length adjustment.

3. Roof Ladders. These are single ladders equipped with folding hooks at the top end which provides means
to anchor the ladder over the roof ridge or other roof parts. Roof ladders are generally used to lie flat on the roof
surface, so that firefighters may stand on the ladder for roof work and the ladder will distribute their weights and help
prevent slipping. It may be used as single ladder wall.

4. Folding Ladders. These are single ladders that have hinges rungs, allowing them to be folded up so that
one beam rests against the other. It provides a means of reaching through opening into attics and lofts and other areas
which are somewhat difficult to reach without a special ladder

5. Aerial Ladder. It is power operated metal ladder mounted on specially build chassis. The aerial ladder is
hydraulically powered and may be mounted on a single chassis or three-axle tractor drawn vehicle. It consists of a
continuous walkway for the purpose of fire and rescue operations.

6. Tower Ladders. It combines some features of both aerial ladder equipment and elevating platforms. A
telescoping boom has a ladder mounted on it, but the top working area is a partially enclosed platform. Various
ground ladders are also carried.

7. Elevating Platforms. Although elevating platforms are not considered to be ladders, some elevating
platform apparatus carry ground ladders. This apparatus has some features, which is similar to aerial ladders, but they
are primarily a portable elevator controlled by an operator.

8. Pompier Ladders. It consists of a large gooseneck hook at the tip, with a single bed through which the
rungs project. At one time the pompier ladder was used by firefighters to reach the upper stories of tall buildings,
beyond the reach of ground or aerial ladders but their use has diminished greatly.

9. Pole Ladders. These are extension ladders that have stay poles for added stability. The lengths vary from
35-65 feet (11-20 meters). They are of truss constructions and have one up to three fly sections.

10. Combination Ladders. These are designed so that they may be used as single extension or “A” frame
ladder. Lengths of this type of ladder vary from 8-14 feet (2-4.3 meters).

11. Articulating Aerial Tower. It is an apparatus consisting of two or more boom sections within enclosed
platform attached to the top of the boom. The platform provides a stable base to carry out both fire and rescue
operations. They are equipped with built in piping and nozzles to provide elevated streams and ranges in lengths from
50-150 feet (15-46 meters).

Uses of Ladders

1. Climbing
2. Ventilating
3. Constructing drains
4. Bracing of other ladders
5. Bridging between buildings
6. Serve as platform where firefighters stand
7. Rescue
8. Provide elevated streams

Parts of an Extension Ladder

1. Base Section/Bed Section/Main Section. It refers to the lower section of an extension ladder.

2. Beam. It refers to the side rail (bar) of a ladder.

3. Dogs/Locks/Pawls. These are metal devices used to hold the fly section in place after it has been raised.

4. Fly Section. It refers to the upper section or top portion of an extension ladder.
5. Guides. These are woods or metal strips on an extension ladder which guide the fly section while being
raised.

6. Halyard. A rope used for hoisting (raising) fly sections.

7. Heat Sensor Label. A level affixed to the ladder beam near the tip used to provide warning that the ladder
has been subjected to excessive heat.

8. Heel (Butt). It is the bottom or ground end of a ladder.

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9. Heel Plates. These are metal safety plates attached to the heel of a ground ladder to stabilize the ladder
and protect the beam.

10. Hooks. A curved, sharp metal device (two in number) which folds outward from each beam at the top end of
a roof ladder.

11. Protective Plates. These are plates fastened to a ladder designed to prevent wear at point where it comes
in contact with mounting brackets.

12. Pulley. It refers to the small grooved wheel through which the halyard is drawn.

13. Rails. The two lengthwise members of a trussed ladder beam which are separated by truss or separation
blocks.

14. Rungs. These are cross members (usually round) between the beams on which people climb.

15. Safety Shoes or Shoes. These are rubber or neoprene spike plates, usually of the swivel type, attached to
the heel of ground ladders.

16. Spurs. These are metal points at the lower end of tormentor’s poles.

17. Stay Poles. These are poles which are attached to the long extension ladder to assist in raising and
steadying the ladder, some of which are permanently attached and some are not.

18. Stops. These are woods or metal pieces which prevent the fly section from being extended too far.

19. Top or Tip. It is the extreme top of the ladder.

20. Truss Block. It is the separated pieces between the rails of a trussed ladder used to support the rungs.

Fire Hose

Fire hose is a type of flexible tube used by firefighters to carry water under pressure from the source of supply to
a point where it is discharged to extinguish fire.

Parts of a Fire Hose

1.Hose Hoist. It is a device over which rope or hose may be pulled to hoist or lower equipment when
firefighters are operating in buildings above the ground level. It consists of a metal frame, curved so that it will fit over
a windowsill or the edge of the roof. It contains two or more rollers over which rope or hose may be drawn. This
device reduce the possibility of cutting the hose on the sharp edge of the wall, cornice, or roof while it is being raised or
lowered.

2.Hose Clamp. It is a tool to shut off the water in hose lines when other control valves are not applicable. It is
used to replace a burst section of hose, to extend lines, or to hold water back for line advancement without shutting off
the source of supply.

3.Hose Jacket. It is used to seal small cuts or breaks which may occur in fire hose or to connect damaged
couplings of the same size.

4.Hose Spanner Wrench. It is used to tighten or loosen hose couplings, but this versatile tool can be used to
close utility cocks, pry, and hammer.

5.Fire Hose Ramps and Bridges. It protects hose from injuries from vehicles crossing hose lines.
Firefighters at the nozzles will receive sudden jerks each time a wheel cuts off the water momentarily.

6.Nozzle. A piece of firefighting equipment used to direct and control a stream of water. The characteristics of
the stream of water or fire stream are determined mainly by the nozzle.

Fire Extinguisher

Fire extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metals, containing chemicals, fluids, or gases for
stopping a fire (Abaygar, 2000).

Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers.

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1. Water Fire Extinguishers. These are extinguishers that use water or a water solution as the extinguishing
agent and is suitable only for class A fires.

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguisher. These are used primarily on class B and class C fires. The range
varies between 3 – 8 feet and the duration between 8 – 30 seconds depending on the size.

3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher. It is available in several sizes, with any of five different extinguishing agents.
All have at least a BC rating; the mono-ammonium phosphate extinguisher carries an ABC rating.

4. Dry Powder Extinguisher. It is the only extinguisher that may be used on combustible metal (class D
fires). It has a range of 6 – 8 feet. The extinguishing agent is sodium chloride, which forms a crust on the burning
metal.

5. Halon Extinguishers

a. Halon 1211 (Bromochlorodifluoromethane). It has a horizontal range of 9 – 15 feet and they discharge
their contents in 9 – 15 seconds. Halon 1211 is more effective than CO 2; it leaves no residue and is virtually non-
corrosive. However, it can be toxic, and its vapors should not be inhaled.

b. Halon 1301 (Bromotrifluoromethane). It has a horizontal range of from 4 – 6 feet and the discharge time is
8 – 10 seconds.

B . Semi-Portable Fire Extinguishers. Semi-portable extinguishers are one from which a hose can be run out to
the fire. The other components of the system are fixed in place, usually because they are too heavy to move easily.

Types of Semi-Portable Fire Extinguishers

1. Carbon Dioxide Hose – Reel System. It is employed in engine rooms and in spaces containing electrical
equipment. The system is consists of one or two CO2 cylinders, a 1.27 cm diameter hose that is 50 – 75 feet in length.

2. .Dry Chemical Hose System. It consists of a storage tank containing the agent; pressurized cylinders
containing nitrogen gas, a rubber hose and a nozzle with a control valve. The nitrogen is used as the propellant for the
dry chemical. System employing sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate or potassium chloride can be located
where class B and Class C fires may be expected.

3. Halon Hose – Reel System. This system is very similar to the carbon dioxide system and is employed to
combat class B and class C fires. Most semi-portable system use Halon 1301. The system consists of one or two
pressurized cylinders containing the extinguishing agent, a hoseline and nozzle with an “On and Off” control valve.

C. Fixed Fire – Extinguishing System. Most of the components of this system are fixed in place.

The primary objective of firefighting is quick control and extinguishments. This objective can be achieved only if
the extinguishing agent is brought to the fire rapidly and in sufficient quantity. Fixed fire – extinguishing systems can do
exactly that. In addition, some of these systems are also capable of applying the agent directly to the fire without the
assistance of a person.

Water Sprinkler System. They are generally used to protect living quarters, adjacent and passageways. The
system may extinguish fire in these places. However, their primary function is to protect the building structure, limit the
spread of fire and control the amount of heat produced. They also protect the people in these areas and maintain
escape routes.

Using the Right Firefighting Tools

Each class of fire requires the appropriate firefighting tools in order to put them out. Table 1 shows the basic
guidelines in extinguishing the classes of fire (Abaygar, 2000).

Table 1. Basic guidelines in extinguishing the classes of fire

Fire Burning Class Method Agent

Cate- Material Symbol
gory
Ordinary
Class combustible Green Cool below Water
A Materials Triangle Flash point
(wood, cloth,
paper etc.)

Class Flammable/ Red Square Cut oxygen Foam

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B Combustible supply
Liquids

Class Electrical Blue Circle Cut oxygen Dry chemical

C Equipment supply Powder

Class Combustible Yellow Cut oxygen Dry powder

D Metal Star supply, cool
below flash
point

Specific Tactics in Fire Safety Construction

1. Prevention. To ensure that the fire do not start by controlling ignition sources. Among the five tactics, fire
prevention shall be one to be given much attention by the designer. It is only if this fails need the other tactics be
attempted. The following are the five components:
a. Management
b. Training
c. Housekeeping
d. Fire safety installation
e. Signs and fire notices

2. Communication. To ensure that, if ignition occurs, the occupants are informed and any active fire systems
are triggered. Communication by itself, even if totally successful, cannot save lives or property, but its key role in
ensuring fire safety means that it must be considered as one of the five tactics. If communication is successful then
escape and extinguishments can be attempted; but if it is unsuccessful, then only containment remains as an available
tactic. The following are the components:
a. Alarm and detection system
b. Observation

3. Escape. To ensure that the occupants of the building and the surrounding areas are able to move to
places of safety before they are threatened by the heat and smoke.

Since life safety is the most important among the two objectives of fire safety construction, then sufficient
provision for fire escapes shall be incorporated in the design of buildings.

Escape is the last available tactic that can be attempted in case all the other fails. Escape requirements varies
with respect to the type of building occupancy.

4. Containment. To ensure that the fire is contained to the smallest possible area, limiting the amount of
property likely to be damaged and the threat to life safety. The following are the objectives of containment:

a.Limiting the risk to occupants.

b.Protecting essential areas such as escape routes.
c. Cost-effective use of escapes provisions.
d.Reducing the damage potential of a fire.
e.Facilitating the control of fire.
f. Reducing the capacity of conflagration.

5. Extinguishments. To insure that the fire can be extinguished quickly and with minimum consequential
damage to the building.

Fire Safety Design in Building

Section 701 (Occupancy classifications) of PD 1096 provides that “a building proposed for construction shall be
identified according to their use or the character of its occupancy and shall be classified as follows”: (Official Gazette,
Vol. 73, No. 22).

1. Places of Assembly. A building in which 50 or more persons gather together for purposes such as
deliberation, worship, entertainment, amusement, or awaiting transportation. It is classified into:

a.Class A – capacity of 1000 persons or more.

b.Class B – capacity of 300 to 1000 persons.
c. Class C – capacity of 50 to 300 persons

2. Educational Occupancy. A building where six (6) or more persons gather for purposes of instruction, the
occupant load is not less than 1.8 sq. m./person, or 4.6 sq.m./person for laboratories, shops and similar vocational
rooms.

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3. Institutional Occupancy. A Building used for purposes such as treatment or care of persons suffering
from physical or mental illness, diseases or infirmity, care of infants or aged persons, and for penal or correctional
purposes.

Occupants are mostly incapable of self-preservation because of age, physical or mental disability, or because of
security measures not under the occupants’ control.

4. Residential Occupancy. A building with sleeping and/or sleeping accommodation provided for residential
purposes, except those classified under institutional occupancies.

5. Mercantile Occupancy. A building used for the purpose of selling merchandise or goods. It is classified
into:

Class A. Stores having more than 2787 sq.m. aggregate gross area or three (3) floor levels for sales purposes.

Class B. Less than 2787 sq.m. aggregate area but over 287 sq.m., or utilizing any balcony, mezzanine or floor
above or below the street level for sales purposes.

Class C. 287 sq.m. or less gross area for sales purposes on the street floor only.

6. Business Occupancy. Buildings used for transaction of business other than that covered under
Mercantile (e.g. office of lawyers, doctors, dentists, city/town halls/ court houses, libraries, etc.)

7. Industrial Occupancy. Buildings that are designed for making products of all kinds and properties
developed to operations such as processing, assembling, mixing, packaging, etc.

8. Storage Occupancy. These are buildings or structures utilized primarily for the storage or sheltering of
goods, merchandize, products, vehicles or animals.

9. Mixed Occupancy. Buildings or structures in which two or more classes of occupancies are present and
that separate safeguards are impracticable. Each space shall be considered individually.

10. Miscellaneous. These are buildings or structures that cannot be properly classified in any of the
preceding occupancy group.

Lesson 2.2. Fire Safety Inspection

Concept

Fire safety inspection is the first line of defense against fire. It involves the examination of building, structure or
facility for defects, deficiencies or violation on fire safety and protection requirements (P.S.B.R.C.).

Importance of Conducting Inspection

1. It is a pre-requisite before granting a Business Permit by LGU.

2. It is a pre-requisite before granting a Building Permit by the Building Official or City/Municipal Engineer and
other government agency concerned in the granting of permits and licenses.

Responsibility in Conducting a Fire Safety Inspection

1. City/Municipal Fire Marshal. Responsible for the conduct of annual/periodic/regular fire safety inspection.

2. NCR District/Provincial Fire Marshal. Verification/re-inspection as delegated authority from provincial

Police Superintendent.

3. ARD/Regional Fire Marshal. Validation/re-inspection and imposition of administrative fine up to P6, 000.00.

4. Chief, BFP. Fire Safety Inspection and imposition of administrative fine up to P12, 000.00.

Three (3) E’s of Fire Prevention

1. Engineering
2. Education
3. Enforcement
Lesson 2.3. Extinguishing Agents
Extinguishing agent is a substance that will put out a fire. Every extinguishing agent operates by attacking one
or more sides of the fire tetrahedron. The specific actions involved are the following: (Aguado, 2000)

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Cooling: to reduce the temperature. This is a direct attack on the heat side of the fire tetrahedron.

Smothering: to separate the fuel from oxygen. This can be considered as an attack on the edge of the fire
tetrahedron where the fuel and oxygen meet (Aguado, 2000).

Oxygen dilution: to reduce the amount of available oxygen needed to sustain combustion. This is an attack on
the oxygen side of the tetrahedron.

Chain breaking: to disrupt the chemical process that sustains the fire (the chain reaction side of the
tetrahedron) (Aguado, 2000).

Classification of Extinguishing Agents

Extinguishing agents are classified as:

a. Solids – examples of solids extinguishing agents are 1) monoammonium phosphate, 2) liquid bicarbonate,
and 3) potassium chloride.
b. Liquids – examples of liquids extinguishing agents are 1) water spray and 2) foam.
c. Gases - examples of gases extinguishing agents are 1) carbon dioxide, 2) halon 1211
and 3) Halon 1301.

Water Extinguishing Agent

Water is a liquid between the temperatures of 0 *C and 100 *C (32 *F and 212 *F); at 100 *C (212 *F) it boils and
turns to steam. Water weighs about 1 Kg/liter (8.5lbs/gal); fresh water weighs slightly less, and seawater slightly more.
Being fluid and relatively heavy, water is easily transported through fire mains and hoses when it is placed under
pressure. The velocity of the water is increased by forcing it through a restricted nozzle at the working end of the hose.
The water stream can be thrown a fairly good distance if sufficient pressure is available.

Extinguishing Capabilities of Water

Water is primarily a cooling agent. It absorbs heat and cools burning materials more effectively than any of the
commonly used extinguishing agents

Foam Extinguishing Agent

Foam is a blanket of bubbles that extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. The bubbles are formed by mixing
water and foam-making agent (foam concentrate). The result is called a foam solution. The various foam solutions are
lighter than the lightest flammable oils. Consequently, when applied to burning oils, they float on the surface of the oil.

Extinguishing Effects of Foam

Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids, including oils. The blanket prevents
flammable vapors from reaching the fuel. Fire cannot exist when the fuel and oxygen are separated. The water in the
foam also has a cooling effect, which gives foam its class A extinguishing capability.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Agent

Carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishing system has, for a long time, been approved for building installation as well
as industrial occupancies. Inside the building, carbon dioxide has been approved for spaces containing internal
combustion or gas turbine propulsion machinery and other spaces.

Extinguishing Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until the oxygen
content is too low to support combustion. For this reason it is effective on class B fires, where the main consideration is
to keep the flammable vapors separated from oxygen in the air.

Dry Chemical Extinguishing Agent

Dry chemical extinguishing agents are chemicals in powder form. Again this should not be confused with dry
powders, which are intended only for combustible metal fires

Dry Powder Extinguishing Agent

Dry powders were developed to control and extinguish fires in combustible metal, i.e., class D Fires.

Chapter 3
Legal Aspects of Fire

Lesson 3.1. Laws on Arson

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Concept

Under Philippine laws, the crime of arson is punishable under article 320 – 326b of the Revised Penal Code
(RPC), which took effect in January 1, 1932. However, after forty-seven (47) years, Presidential Decree no. 1613 was
passed which repealed the provisions of the RPC. Thus, it is immaterial on the part of the author to include the
provisions of the RPC in this chapter.

Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Laws on Arson

Section 1. Arson – Any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be punished by Prision
Mayor (Reyes, 1999).

The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own property under circumstances which
expose danger the life or property of another.

Sec. 2. Destructive Arson – The penalty of Reclusion Temporal in its maximum period to Reclusion Perpetua
shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:

1. Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible materials
are stored.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice devoted to culture, education or social
services.
3. Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or watercraft, or conveyance for transportation of persons or
property.
5. Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other official
proceeding.
6. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or private market,
theater or movie house or any similar place or building.
7. Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.

Sec. 3. Other Cases of Arson – The penalty of Reclusion Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if
the property burned is any of the following:

1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies;

2. Any inhabited house or dwelling;

3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel;
4. Any plantation, farm, pasture land, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest;

5. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central; and
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.

Sec. 4. Special Aggravating Circumstances in Arson – The penalty in any case of arson shall be imposed in its
maximum period:

1. If committed with intent to gain;

2. If committed for the benefit of another;
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property burned;
4. If committed by a syndicate.

The offense is committed by a syndicate if it is planned or carried out by a group of three (3) or more persons.

Sec. 5. Where Death Results From Arson – If by reason of or on the occasion of arson death results, the penalty
of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall be imposed.

Sec. 6. Prima Facie Evidence of Arson – Any of the following circumstances shall constitute prima-facie
evidence of arson:

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment.

2. If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the building not necessary in
the business of the offender or for household use.

3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other flammable or combustible substances or materials soaked

therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic contrivance designed to start a
fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found in the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.

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4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of the issuance
of the policy.

5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have occurred in the
same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and/or insured.

6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building or property had
been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.

7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made in exchange for the desistance of the
offender or for the safety of the person or property of the victim.

Sec. 7. Sec. 7. Conspiracy to commit Arson. Conspiracy to commit arson shall be punished by Prision Mayor
in its minimum period.

Sec. 8. Confiscation of Object of Arson – The building which is the object of arson including the land on which it
is situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the State, unless the owner thereof can prove that he has no
participation in nor knowledge of such arson despite the exercise of due diligence on his part.

Sec. 9. Repealing Clause – The provisions of Articles 320 to 326b of the Revised Penal Code and all laws,
executive orders, rules and regulations, or parts thereof, inconsistent with the provisions of this Decree are hereby
repealed or amended accordingly.

Sec. 10. Effectivity – This Decree shall take effect immediately upon publication thereof at least once in a
newspaper of general publication.

Done in the City of Manila, this 7th day of March nineteen hundred and seventy-nine.

Republic Act No. 7659

RA 7659 is “An Act Defining Heinous Crimes and Re-imposing the Death Penalty Law”. Article 320 of the RPC
is hereby amended to read as follows:

Art. 320. Destructive Arson – The penalty of reclusion perpetua to death shall be imposed upon any person who
shall burn:

1. One or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of burning, or as a result of simultaneous
burning, or committed on several or different occasions;
2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in general or where people usually gather
or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not limited to official government function or business, private
transaction, commerce, trade worship, meetings and conference, or merely incidental to as definite purpose such as
but not limited to hotels, motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stop terminals, regardless of whether the
offender had knowledge that there are persons in the said buildings or edifices at the time it is set on fire and
regardless also of whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel or airplane, devoted to transportation or conveyance, or for public
use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse, installation and any appurtenances thereto, which are devoted to the
service of public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or destroying evidence of another
violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing bankruptcy or defrauding creditors or to collect from insurance.

Irrespective of the application of the above-mentioned qualifying circumstances, the penalty of reclusion
perpetua to death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or committed by two or more persons or by
a group of persons, regardless of whether their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building or burning merely
constitutes an overt act in the commission of another violation of law.

The penalty of reclusion perpetua to death shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn:

1. Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military powder or fireworks factory, ordnance storehouse, archives
or general museum of the government.

2. In an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosive material.

If as a consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized under this articles, death results the
mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed.

Chapter 4
Fire Investigation

Lesson 4.1. Agency in Charge for Fire Investigation

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Concept

The Bureau of Fire Protection, referred to as the Fire Bureau, was created under Rule VIII, Section 49 of
Republic Act no. 6975 otherwise known as the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) Code of 1990.
Section 50 of the same act provides that “the Fire Bureau is responsible for the prevention and suppression of all
destructive fires on buildings, houses, and other structures, forests, land transportation vehicles and equipment, ships
or vessels docked at piers or wharves or anchored in major seaports, petroleum industry installations, plane crashes
and other similar incidents, as well as the enforcement of the Fire Code and other related laws” (Tradio, 1997).

The Fire Bureau is a community-oriented government agency that provides assistance to the citizenry not only
during fire but also in times of typhoons, floods, earthquakes, vehicular accidents, and various other calamities. While
its primary mission is to serve the fire safety needs of the country, the Fire Bureau is also active in rescue, evacuation,
paramedic and relief operation in any life-threatening situation.

BFP Vision. A modern, effective and responsive National Fire Protection agency working towards a public
safety conscious society (P.S.B.R.C).

BFP Mission. To protect life and property thru the prevention and suppression of destructive fires, investigation
of their causes, and the provision of emergency medical and rescue services with the active support of the community.

Lesson 4.2. Causes of Fire

The cause of a fire usually can be determined from a detailed inspection of the charred debris, combustibles,
devices, and residues located at the point of (or within the area of origin. Theoretically, the cause of a fire can be
categorized into three classifications: (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997)

I. Natural
II. Accidental
III. Incendiary

With regard to criminal prosecution, only two classifications are relevant: accidental and incendiary.
I. Natural Causes of Fire

A. Lightning.
B. Spontaneous Ignition
C. Rays of the Sun
.
II. Accidental Fire Causes

A .Smoking. One of the most common accidental causes of fire, according to statistics, is related to smoking.
Cigarette fire is mostly due to carelessness of the smoker or careless disposal of smoking materials (Abis, 1986).

B. Electrical Fire Causes. The source of almost all electrical fires can be classified as originating from three
conditions: (P.S.B.R.C.)
 Arcing
 Sparking
 Overheating

III. Incendiary Fire Causes

In searching the fire scene for evidence, the investigator should be looking for “plants”, “trailers”, and
“accelerants”.

A plant, sometimes referred to as a “booster”, is either a pool of liquid accelerant or a pile of combustibles (oily
rages, newspapers, painting supplies, etc.) that is used by an arsonist to enhance the quality of fire in a selected
location. A plant is meant to boost the progress of a fire by producing a large body of fire.

A trailer, sometimes referred to as a “streamer”, is an arrangement or configuration of flammable or

combustible materials that is intended to carry fire from one location to another (or from one plant to another).
Commonly used trailers include gasoline-soaked towels tied from end-to-end, liquid accelerant splashed across the
floor, lengths of safety fuse, or accelerant-soaked newspaper.

An accelerant is a substance that is used to accelerate (and sometimes direct) the spread of a fire. The most
commonly used liquid accelerants include gasoline, lighter fluids, kerosene, and turpentine.

Lesson 4.3. Fireman’s Responsibility in Arson Detection

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The responsibility of the fireman is “arson detection” rather than arson investigation. The fact that every trained
fireman cannot also be a trained investigator does not mean that he cannot play a highly important part in detecting
many arson cases. On the fireman, to a great extent, will rest the responsibility for performing certain important
detection duties without which the trained investigator will always be seriously handicapped. In fact, the case can be
won or lost on what the fireman may see, hear or do.

Observing General Conditions at the Scene of the Fire.

There are two phases in observing general conditions in connection with a fire: (a) During the approach made
to the fire; and (b) upon arrival at the scene of the fire.

A. Upon Approaching the Fire

1. Observing the elements. The record of a fire should include weather conditions. Record such
observations as: (a) heavy rains; (b) winds; (c) closed roads or streets; (d) visibility; (e) relative humidity.

2. Observe persons and automobiles. As the fire is approached, members of the Fire Service should
observe any persons or automobiles hurrying away from the scene of a fire. If possible, get the license number of such
automobile; quick but careful mental notes of identifying characteristics of persons and vehicles should be made;
compare such observations with similar observations which may be made by other firemen.
3. Observe color of smoke and flame. Many times the color of smoke is a rather reliable indication of the
type of fire to be extinguished. The same is true, to some extent, with regard to color of flame, substances or materials
burning are responsible for both color of smoke and color of flame.

The following are the meaning of color of smoke and flames (Abis, 1986).

a. Black Smoke with deep red flames. Petroleum products, tar, rubber.
b. Heavy brown smoke with bright red flame. Nitrogen Products.
c. White smoke with bright white flames. Magnesium products.
d. Black Smoke with red and blue-green flames. Asphalt shingles.
e. Purple, violet or lavender flames. Burning of potassium.
f. Greenish-yellow flames. Burning of Chlorine or manganese
g. Bright reddish-yellow flames. Burning of calcium.
h. Smoke of the usual color found in most fires that changes to yellow or grayish yellow. Usually indicate a
backdraft condition.

B. Upon Arrival at the Fire Scene

1. Observe number of separate fires, intensity and rapidity of spread. Was there more than one fire
burning in different parts of the building? Was there any difficulty in extinguishing the fire, which might indicate the
presence of flammable liquids? Were doors fastened in an open position to allow the fire to spread from one room to
another?
2. Observe odors and methods required to extinguish flames. Odors detected at fire are often of value in
determining what flammable substances were present.

Observing Condition of Building Openings at the Time of a Fire.

Find out whether doors and windows are locked. Prosecution of arson cases has often been unsuccessful
because of the fact that men testify they entered a building, but forgot during the stress of excitement how they got
there, what door or window they used, and other pertinent details which may be decidedly important in the prosecution
of the case. Before any forcible entry tools are used to break open doors, it is obviously good sense to try them to find
out whether or not they may be locked. The fact that the doors are locked, or padlocked, may have a direct bearing
upon the case later. The first fireman in the building should ascertain, if possible, whether he is actually the first person
to enter, or whether someone else has entered the building ahead of him. The possibility of outsiders having gained
entrance before the arrival of the fire department is often very important.

Determine condition of doors, windows and locks. The condition of the doors, doorjambs and windows
sills, as well as the kind of locks is often very important items of information. The presence of “jimmy” marks on jambs
might be indicative of robbery followed by arson to cover the crime. However, it is to question such evidence, as smart
arson “torches” sometimes attempt to cover up their crime by leaving visible evidence where it will be found by
investigators.

Observing owners, occupants and bystanders at the time of a fire.

Observe dress and manner of persons at the fire. Many times when firemen arrived at the scene of the
fire, owners, occupants and other persons are present. Make a mental note of the way in which such persons are
dressed, their mental attitude, undue nervousness and other pertinent details which might be of value later on.

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Look for familiar faces. Pyromaniacs and “fire-bugs” frequently remain at, or near the scene of their crime
and await the arrival of the fire department. These mentally deranged persons will even assist the fire department in
extinguishing the fire. They are sometimes quite prominent in their efforts to assist and draw attention to themselves.
The fact that familiar faces, “repeater”, are observed at a series of fires in any one district, in itself, warrants a careful
checking and study of such individuals.

3. Locating Evidence of Fire Causes

The importance of attempting to determine the true cause of a fire cannot be over-emphasized. In general,
fires are assumed to be accidental until proven to be otherwise. It is always well, however, to be watching for certain
things, the presence of which may arouse suspicion as to the real origin of the fire.

Look for indications of arson intent.

Among the items to look for in the process of determining arson intent are:

Multiple Fires. Separate fires, burning in different locations at the same time, are frequently an indication of a
fire of incendiary origin. They may be within the walls of one room or in widely separated parts of a building.

Odors. There is a wide variety of odors. Many of them are very difficult to distinguish. Odors remain in rags
and can be removed from the debris and identified even after being wet. While the choking odor of sulphur might
indicate that a candle was used to fumigate premises, such a candle could also have been used to start a fire. Sulphur
candles leave a coal black glistening mass of molten residue which can readily be identified

Ammonia has a very pungent odor readily recognizable by firemen. It is generally used by the arsonist to keep
firemen out of a building, or in an attempt to “kill” the odor of gasoline. Turpentine, paint thinners, lacquers, and linseed
oil, all have odors peculiar to themselves, which the firemen should be in a position to distinguish.

Undue Wood Charring and Uneven Wood Burning. The application of petroleum products to wood causes
a deep unnatural burning. Char marks resulting from petroleum products poured on a wood floor will burn in the
pattern formed by the liquid which sometimes runs into the cracks causing burns underneath the floor upon which it
was applied. Fallen window drapes, curtains, and clothing sometimes create the impression of “plants” upon discovery,
and the observer will generally have to be very careful about disturbing such articles.

Holes Made in Walls and Floors. Watch for holes in plaster to expose raw wood for a quicker “catch” or to
increase draft once the fire is started. Holes for similar purposes are occasionally found in floors.

Inoperative Sprinkler, and Fire Doors. A rather common procedure used by arsonists in buildings equipped
with sprinkler systems is to tamper with supply valves and to silence the alarms

The same thing is true with regard to fire doors, shutters and similar devices used to close openings between
walls or rooms. Doors that should close automatically are sometimes blocked open.

Look for arson materials and arson equipment.

Among the many materials, devices and equipment used from time to time as “plants” are: “Trailers” between
fires, candles, matches, chemicals, flammable liquids, rags, waste and paper, stoves, timing devices, electrical
equipment and appliances, and miscellaneous devices.

Protecting and Preserving Evidence

Two things should be kept clearly in mind by firemen regarding the protection and preservation of evidence of
fire causes:

Keeping the evidence where it is, untouched and undisturbed, if at all possible.
Properly identifying, removing and safeguarding such evidence as cannot be left at the scene of the fire as it
was discovered.

Points on Protecting and Preserving Evidence

Evidence remaining at the scene of a fire can be protected in various ways:

Use care in the application of hose streams.

Do overhauling and salvage work carefully?
Handle evidence as little as possible.
Move evidence from the scene of the fire only when absolutely necessary.
Don’t allow evidence to be walked over and tramped out.
Place barricades, or rope off area around evidence.
Have someone witness your discoveries.
Record date, location and circumstances by which evidence was discovered.
Notify officer in charge of fire, so that he can place a call for the investigator.
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Have photos taken by a qualified photographer at the scene of the fire when evidence must be removed.

Observing Condition of Contents of a Building Involved in a Fire.

Watch for indications of removal of personal articles. In plotting a fire, persons responsible for it
sometimes remove from the building personal articles which may have either a sentimental or commercial value.
Examples of the latter are jewelry, paintings, fur coats and the like. Look for open dress drawers, disarranged clothes
closets, open strong boxes, pilfered desks, etc., which indicate something quickly picked up and hastily taken away or
damaged.

Watch for indications of removal of valuable merchandise. Many cases have been observed where the
entire contents of stores and residences have been removed to a different location and different contents of lesser
value, or no value whatsoever, have been placed there instead to give the appearance of having been destroyed. If the
fire is a “successful fire”, it is often difficult to positively identify all the pieces of furniture or clothing, or to ascertain its
approximate value when the debris is sifted. However, if the fire is not “successful” from the standpoint of the arsonist,
such contents are readily determined, and the normal contents of the building may well be located and used as
evidence.

Recording and Reporting Observations Made at a Fire

It is recognized that the primary business of a fireman at a fire is to fight the fire. However, he is also expected
to observe and report any unusual circumstances or conditions which may be of a suspicious nature with respect to
the origin of the fire.

A small notebook is a suggested means for the entry of such things. These notes on the fire should be kept all
together and should be retained for several years. Notes that are taken immediately after a fire may be used in court
for the purpose of refreshing the memory. As arson trial is sometimes delayed for a year or more after the actual
occurrence of the fire, the notes that were taken would be of great help in refreshing the memory.

Appearing in Court in an Arson Case.

Firemen called into court as witnesses should always appear in uniform. The appearance of witnesses is
important as appearance often have an influence on the minds of the jury. It should go without saying, that the uniform
should be clean, shoes shined, shirt and tie in good order.

Lesson 4.4. Fire investigator’s responsibility in fire investigation

The fire investigator is a specialist operating in a unique field – a person with the field experience and technical
training necessary to collect and evaluate factual information and identify criminal activity in situations where others
perceive only confusion and chaos (Module on Arson Investigation).

The primary goal of a fire investigator, as of any criminal investigator, is to determine the truth. In seeking the
truth, the investigator must complete a post-fire examination of the structure or vehicle that is the subject of a
suspicious fire and determine the origin and cause of the fire. Interviews must be conducted, evidence collected, and
comprehensive reports of all findings prepared. To complete these tasks, the fire investigator must know and
understand the rules governing proper crime scene techniques, the significance of interviewing strategies, and the
technical requirements of fire science.

If, during the initial stages of inquiry, actions pointing to criminal conduct or evidence of criminality are
uncovered, the fire investigator must automatically shift to his secondary role: to identify and move against those
responsible. A fire investigator who has reason to believe that arson was committed is morally and professionally
obliged to develop the case to its fullest extent.

Determining the Origin and Cause of the Fire

The main reason for conducting a post-fire examination of the fire scene is to determine the fire’s origin and
cause. The factual determination of origin and cause is the principal area of expertise that separates a fire/arson
investigator from other investigator specialists. (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997).

The point of origin of a fire is the location where the fire started – the place of beginning. The term area of
origin is sometimes used when fire originates over a large tract or space, or when the exact point of origin cannot be
determined. Multiple points of origin are said to exist when there is more than one place of beginning, or when several
separates fires burn in the same structure at the same time.

Physical Examination of the Fire Scene

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To improve the likelihood of a successful resolution, an investigator must approach the fire investigation
systemically. It is important to keep in mind the application of the scientific method – a six-step approach to analyzing
the origin and cause of a fire.

Scientific method of Fire Investigation

Step I – Recognizing the problem

Step 2 – Defining the problem
Step 3 – Collecting data
Step 4 – Analyzing data
Step 5 – Developing a hypothesis
Step 6 – Proving the hypothesis

Recognizing the Problem. The first step of recognizing the problem is after the fire or explosion has
occurred, and it is the investigator’s responsibility to determine its origin, cause, and responsibility. It is at this point that
fire investigators must recognize that their determinations may lead to criminal and civil litigation which can affect many
lives.

Defining the Problem and Collecting Data. To define the problem, the investigator must conduct a thorough
investigation with all the information available to him. Step 3 involves the collection of data, including documentation of
the scene with photographs, reports, and collection of physical evidence. It also includes witness accounts, which may
require additional statement taking, notes, and diagrams.

Analysis of Data. The fourth step is the analysis of the data (inductive reasoning). Here the investigator’s
knowledge, training and experience is put to the test in his analysis of the fire patterns, structural damage, fuel source,
ignition source and any other factors which may affect the correct determination of origin and ultimately the cause. This
is the “fact” portion of the investigation. Your analysis must be confined to those facts which were deduced from your
observation of known scientific results or through experiments and testing of physical evidence collection at the scene.

Developing Hypothesis. The fifth step is the state at which an investigator may express his opinion about the
origin, cause and responsibility of the fire/explosion incident. This opinion is based on the facts and data collected by
the investigator.

Proving the Hypothesis. In the final step, step 6, an investigator’s hypothesis (deductive reasoning) is put to
the test, based on the facts and scientific data that have been developed.

If all other possible origins and causes have been eliminated through deductive reasoning, then the
investigator’s opinion can stand. If not, then the cause of the fire/explosion must be listed as undetermined or unknown
until such time as a logical, scientifically acceptable cause can be determined.

Exterior Examination

The exterior examination begins with interviewing of the fire department officers, firefighters, and police officers
that were first at the scene. As the first-in company, they may have observations relevant to the nature and origin of
the fire.

Interior Examination

With the exterior examination completed, the investigation shifts to the inside of the structure. To the extent
possible, the investigator should attempt to complete a detailed survey of the structure interior, wearing full turnout
gear or its equivalent at all times.

Try to reconstruct mentally what happened during the fire. All observations made during this preliminary survey
should be written down, including answers to the following:

1. Does the fire spread appear natural?

2. Was the extension of the fire natural?
3. Was the intensity of the fire natural?
4. Were the furnishings, clothing, appliances, and so on normal for the type of occupancy?
5. Were personal items removed before the fire? Was there any substitution of the contents (for instance,
cheap or used in place of expensive)?
6. Was there fire in unusual locations (under staircase, in closets and attics, in desk drawers or file
cabinets)?
7. Were the body of fire and the path of heat travel consistent with the type of construction and contents?
8. Is your approximation of the burn time consistent with the combustibility characteristics of the types of
material (fuel) involved?
9. Are there any holes in the floors or walls? If so, are they a natural consequence of the fire or a possible
indication that an accelerant was used?

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Room and Point(s) of Origin. By observing the burn pattern and tracing back the order in which they were
formed, the investigator gradually migrates to the area of the most severe damage. This is usually the area where the
fire burned the longest (except when flammable liquids were involved). A fire generally burns longest at or near its
point of origin because enough oxygen is available there during the early stage. Therefore, the room with the greatest
damage is most apt to be the room of origin. Locating this room is very significant because it contains the point or area
of the fire’s origin as well as clues to its cause.

Lesson 4.5. Documentation and Laboratory Examination

Concept

The proper inspection and accurate documentation of a fire scene is the most important initial step in any
investigation. The notes, photos, and sketches generated to document the scene and the discovered evidence serve
as an aid and ready reference throughout the investigation. More importantly, they provide the foundation for any
criminal prosecution or civil action that follows. Fire scenes have traditionally been one of the most poorly documented
and underrated classification of crime scenes. The chief reason for this lack of documentation has been the
investigator’s traditional reliance on sketchy notes and personal recollections when preparing official reports or
describing the circumstances of the fire to a jury or other judicial body. Other reasons for the lack of the proper
documentation include: (Redsicker and O’connor, 1997).

 Ignorance of proper crime-scene techniques

 Lack of equipment (e.g. camera, film)
 Time constraints
 Shortage of qualified personnel, and
 Lack of motivation (e.g. laziness, poor attitude, apathy)

The fact that the fire scenes are unique and their analysis time-consuming and sometimes arduous (difficult)
does not relieve the investigator of the responsibility to adhere to proper crime-scene techniques

The Crime Scene

In a fire investigation, the crime scene should include the area surrounding the location where a crime (arson)
may have been committed and where evidence pertaining to the investigation of the crime may be found. It should
include all entrances and exits or paths to and from the scene.

“Seat” of the Crime. The “seat” of the crime is the area of the crime scene evincing the greatest impact
between the criminal and the commission of the crime. In an arson investigation, this would be the point of origin. In a
fatal fire, it is the area of greatest impact among the criminal, the victim, and their surroundings. If the fire was set to
conceal a homicide, the seat of the crime is the area around and including the body. If the victim died as a result of the
fire (arson/homicide), the seat of the crime is the point of origin of the fire.

Protecting the Crime Scene. An investigator must realize that mistakes made during certain phases of the
preliminary investigation may be rectifiable (say, by re-interviewing witnesses), but errors made in the processing of
the crime scene can never be corrected. Once the scene has been left unprotected for any length of time or released
to the owner, reentry to the scene must be made with a search warrant or with the consent of the owner unless the
structure has been abandoned and the owner no longer has a reasonable expectation of privacy. In any case, the
admissibility of any evidence found during the later entry is at best questionable, due to the break in the chain of
custody.

Documentation Sequence

There is specific five-step sequence to be followed in documenting a crime scene:

1.Visual inspection
2.Note taking
3.Photographs
4.Sketches
5.Search for evidence

Physical Evidence – Chain of Custody

Chain of Custody. Location and security of an item of evidence from the time it is discovered at the scene
until it is introduced as evidence in court (Module on Arson Investigation)

The following are the written records necessary in maintaining the chain of custody:

1. Must show who found item at the scene.

2. Must show name of all personnel who touch or alter evidence and reason.
3. Must show who obtained, marked and packaged the item.

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4. Must show where item was marked, and how it was packaged.
5. Must show what was done with the item.
6. Must show who used the item for analysis, investigation, etc., date and time.
7. The record must show the location of evidence from (its discovery) to disposition in court of law.

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