Flow Chart of Yarn Dyeing

Preparatory process

Soft winding
↓
Batching
↓
Batch loaded
↓
Demineralization (50˚C, 20 min; PH=4.5)
↓
Scouring & bleaching (100˚C×40 min.)
↓
Drain
↓
Rinse
↓
Drain
↓
Neutralization with acid (50°C ×20 min)
↓
Hot Wash with peroxide killer (60˚C,20 min.)
↓
Drain

↓
Dyeing
↓
Leveling agent & Salt (60° × 20 min; PH=6)
↓
Color dosing (60°C×20 min.)
↓
Run time = 10 min. (60°C)
↓
Color migration (80°C × 20 min.)
↓
Cooling (60°C)
↓
Level Check
↓
Soda dosing (60°C×30 min.)
↓
Dyeing run (Dark-60°C×60 min;Medium-60°C×40 min;Light-60°C×
30 min)
↓
Dyeing sample check
↓
(If Ok)
↓
Drain
↓
After-treatment
↓
Rinse (with cold Water)
↓
Neutralization after dyeing (50°C×20 min.)
↓
Drain
↓
Soaping (Hot wash)
↓
Drain
↓
Rinse
↓
Add finishing chemical(60°C×20 min)
↓
Drain
↓
Unload

Vat dyes:

Vat dyes can't be directly applied and required vatting because it is insoluble in water. But vat dyes fastness properties is good
among the all dyes. The word "vat" means vessels. The dye takes their generic name from vatting. The vat dyes are naturally
obtained coloring materials from the ancient time and kept into wooden vat and make soluble in vat by the process of fermentation-
so it is called vat dyes.

Vat dyeing process:

Vat dyeing is complex from other dyeing. Its dyeing process are given below:

The required water for dyeing is taken in the dye bath and it is maintain at proper temperature (50º- 60 ºC) the reducing and dyeing
temperatures vary from dyestuffs to dyestuff. The vatted dye solution may than be added to the dye bath containing the required
amount of caustic soda sodium hydro sulphate, kept at recommended temperature.

The well scoured wet yarn is entered in the dye bath and turned several times, so that the affinity of the color may be uniform. The
yarn is then kept completely immersed under the dye liquor and the dyeing is continued for one hour. The yarn is turned from time to
time… Care should be taken to keep the bath at required temperature and also to keep the yarn thoroughly immersed under the
liquor.
 Fig: Vat dyeing (Image courtesy: www.britannica.com)

The exhaustion agents or retarding agents are added to the dye bath depending upon the dyestuffs taken, during the entire dyeing
period. Excess quantities of both sodium hydroxide (NaoH) and sodium hydro sulphate (Na2s2O4) should be present in the dye
bath in order to keep the dye in the soluble form. At the end of the dyeing the partly or completely exhausted dye bath must be kept
in a distinctly reduced condition; otherwise oxidation of the residual vatted dye takes place in the dye bath itself leading to the
appearance of turbidity. This is ensured by adding sufficient sodium hydro sulphate. The dyed goods may then be removed from the
dye bath and excess liquor which contains the unexhausted vat dye, sodium hydroxide, sodium hydro sulphate is removed as for as
possible from the goods.

The dyed goods are rinsed with cold water and then subjected to an oxidation treatment by exposure to atmospheric oxygen. This is
called “air oxidation” or “airing” but the oxidation may be accelerated by using stronger oxidizing agent such as sodium per borate or
hydrogen peroxide or sodium dichromate in the presence of acetic acid. This process is usually referred to as chemical oxidation.

During the oxidation step the sodium salt of leuco vat dye absorbed by the fiber is oxidized and converted into insoluble dye in the
fiber. At the same time the vatted dye contained in the residual liquor in the goods being dyed also gets converted into the insoluble
form which is loosely deposited on the fibre surface. This loosely deposited dye on the surface of the fiber has to be removed for
achieving optimum fastness properties especially rubbing and washing fastness properties. This is achieved by soaping process.
The dyed material is treated in hot soap solution or a synthetic detergent solution for 15 – 30 minutes. After the soaping treatment
the dyed goods should be rinsed thoroughly and finally the dyed material is dried.

Flow Chart of Fabric Dyeing

Fabric received from batching section

↓
Grey fabric inspection

↓
Batching

↓
Turning

↓
Sewing

↓
Fabric loading

↓
Pretreatment (Scouring & Bleaching)

↓
Enzyme (Antipilling)

↓
Dyeing

↓
Washing

↓
Fixing

↓
Softening/Finishing

↓
Unloading the dyed fabric
 Cotton Dyeing Steps:

Required amount of water was taken into the machine

↓
The fabric was loaded and run for 5-10 minutes in normal temperature
↓
BOS, FE,CF,H-53 (Scouring Chemicals) were added at a time for 5 minutes
↓
Caustic was added at normal temperature for 5 minutes
↓
Temperature increased at 60 oC
↓
Hydrogen per Oxide(H2O2)was added for 5 minutes
↓
Temperature increased at 95 oC and continue for 1 hrs
↓
Sample check
↓
Cold wash at 40 oC for 5-10 minutes
↓
Hot wash at 95 oC for 5-10 minutes
↓
Required amount of water was loaded
↓
Acetic acid was added
↓
Temperature increased at 80 oC for 15-20 minutes
↓
Cold wash at 40 oC and drain
↓
Water filled and Acetic acid was added
↓
PH check at 4.5
↓
Leveling agent at 60 oC for 5-10 minutes
↓
Salt at 60 oC for 5-10 minutes
↓
Run time 10 minutes
↓
Dyes at 60 oC for 30 minutes
↓
Run time 10 minutes
↓
Check the sample
↓
 Soda ash at 60 oC for 40 minutes
↓
Run time 10 minute
↓
check the sample
↓
Colour steam
↓
B D (Bathe Drain)
↓
Wash
↓
Hot wash
↓
Acetic Acid
↓
Run for 20 min
↓
Then unload the garments

Enzyme: 

Enzymes are protein catalysts produced by living cells that catalyze specific chemical or
biochemical reactions. The use of enzymes in textile processes has gained increased interest due
to the advantages of enzymes being non-toxic, biodegradable, and environmentally friendly.
Enzymes can be safely used in textile wet processing like desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing,
and finishing, while traditional chemicals can cause many problems including pollution of
effluents when disposed into the environment. Advances in enzyme technology use in the textile
industry have made it possible to explore the potential of single enzymes or enzyme mixtures for
specific applications. Hydrolases (e.g., amylases, cellulases, pectinases, proteases) and
oxidoreductases have been employed for fabric preparation and finishing.

Enzymes are large high-molecular weight protein structures with highly specific active sites
within the molecule that perform the catalytic reaction. Replacing enzymes with simpler
compounds that mimic the behavior of these biocatalysts could significantly increase the reaction
rate, facilitate the enzymatic process and decrease costs.

Introduction to Enzymes:
Enzymes are a Greek word ‘Enzymos’ meaning ‘in the cell’ or ‘from the cell’. They are the
protein substances made up of more than 250 amino acids. Based on specificity they are
grouped. The concept of treating fabrics with enzymes to improve their surface properties was
first developed in Japan in 1989. The treatment has assumed more important due present concern
of clean and eco-friendly environment under the following group:

1. Oxidoreductases- oxidation, reduction reaction

2. Transference- transfer of functional group
3. Hydrolases- hydrolysis reaction
4. Lyases- addition to double bond or its reverse
5. Isomerses- isomerisation
6. Ligases- formation of bonds with ATP clevags
Enzymes have bright future in wet processing of textile industry. Enzymes do not produce toxic
effluent as they can easily deactivated disposal off. Enzymes are high-molecular weight proteins
that consist of intertwined chains of amino acids. Enzymes act as catalysts for chemical or
biological reactions. Compared with common chemical catalysts, enzymes are more efficient and
increase the reaction rate by 107 – 1013. Compared to general chemical catalysts, enzymes have
the added advantage to make a reaction occur under mild conditions such as fairly low
temperature, normal pressure, and in neutral aqueous solution. They also have the advantage of
being non-toxic, bio-degradable, and environmentally-friendly. Enzymes are highly substrate
specific.

They react with their substrates at a region within the protein molecule which is called active
site. The active site of the enzyme must have the necessary structure characteristics to recognize
the right substrate and the proper chemical environment to make the reaction happen.

The enzymes most commonly involved in textile applications are hydrolases and
oxidoreductases. They can be safely used in the textile industry in fabric preparation and
finishing processes.

The silent features of enzymes application in textile processing:

1. Extremely specific nature of reaction involved, with practically no side effect.
2. Low energy requirement, mild condition of use safe to handle, non-corrosive in their
applications.
3. On account of lesser quantities of chemical used in process as well as ease of
biodegradability of enzymes result in reduced loads on ETP plants.
4. Enzymes under unfavorable condition of pH or temperature, chemically remain in same
form but their physical configuration may get altered i.e. they get “denature” and lose their
activity, for this reason live steam must never be injected in a bath containing enzyme bath
must done in pre-diluted form.
5. Compatibility with ionic surfactant is limited and must be checked before use. Nonionic
wetting agents with appropriate cloud point must be selected for high working efficiency as
well as for uniformity of end result.
6. High sensitivity to pH, heavy metal contamination and also to effective temperature rang.
Intense cautions are required in use.
Advantages of Enzymes Used in Textiles:
 Lower discharge of chemicals and wastewater and decreased handling of hazardous
chemicals for textile workers.
 Improved fabrics quality.
 More fashion choices longer garment life/wear due to lower damage of original fabric.
 Reduced chemical load, reduced water consumption, lower energy consumption.
 Enzyme is more eco-friendly.
Properties of Enzymes Used in Textiles:

1. Enzyme accelerates the reaction

 An enzyme accelerates the rate of particular reaction by lowering the activation energy of
reaction
 The enzyme remains intact at the end of reaction by acting as catalyst
2. Enzymes operate under milder condition
 Each enzyme have optimum temperature and optimum pH i.e. activity of enzyme at that
pH and temperature is on the peak
 For most of the enzyme activity degrades on the both sides of optimum condition
3. Alternative for polluting chemicals
 Enzymes can be used as best alternative to toxic, hazardous, pollution making chemicals
 Also some pollutant chemicals are even carcinogenic. When we use enzymes there is no
pollution
4. Enzyme acts only on specific substrate
 Most enzymes have high degree of specificity and will catalyse the reaction with one or
few substrates
 One particular enzyme will only catalyse a specific type of reaction. Enzymes used in
desizing do not affect cellulose hence there is no loss of strength of cotton
5. Enzyme is easy to control
 Enzymes are easy to control because their activity depends upon optimum condition
6. Enzymes are biodegradable
 At the end of reaction in which enzymes used we can simly drain the remaining solution
because enzymes are biodegradable and do not produce toxic waste on degradation hence
there is no pollution
Mechanism of Enzyme Action: Lock & Key Theory
Enzymes have active centers, which are the points where substrate molecule can join. Just as a
particular key fits into a lock, a particular substrate molecule fits into the active site of the
enzyme. The substrate forms a complex with the enzyme. Later the substrate molecule is
converted into the product and the enzyme itself is regenerated (Fig.1). 

Fig. 1 Lock & Key model of enzyme specificity

The process continues until the enzyme is poisoned by a chemical bogie (Fig.2) or inactivated by
extremes of temperature, pH or by other negative conditions in the processing environment.

Fig. 2 Active site of enzyme blocked by poison molecule

Enzyme Treatments of Textiles Textile Use and Effects:

Types of Textile Use and Effects

Enzyme

Cellulases Biofinishing, biopolishing, anti-pilling, softness,

smoothness, lustreimprovement and stone-washed
Effects on denim

Amylases Standard procedure for the removal of starch warp

size

Proteases In household washing agents better removal of

protein containing soil orstains. Anti-felting of
 wool, accompanied by high loss of weight,
tearstrength and of the typical handle, degumming
of silk with the problem ofsilk fibroin damage

Lipases In detergents for the hydrolysis of lipids

Pectinases Hydrolysis of pectins, for example in cotton

'preparation' and retting offlax and hemp

Catalases Catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,

important beforereactive dyeing of printing of
peroxide bleaching fabrics and yarn

Peroxidases Used as an enzymatic rinse process after reactive

dyeing, oxidativesplitting of hydrolysed reactive
dyes on the fibre and in the liquor,providing better
wet fastness, decolourised waste water and
potentiallytoxic decomposition compounds
(aromatic nitro-compounds)

Removal of burrs and other plant compounds from

Ligninases
raw wool

Collagenases Removal of residual skin parts in wool

In development: polyester finish, removal of 01

Esterases
igomers

In development: polyacrylonitrile preparation for

Nitrilases
better coloration

Various Enzymes Used in Textile Processing:

Amylases: Which convert amylose or amylopectin polymers , commonly referred to as starch in

to water soluble shorter chain sugars (Starch desizing)

Pectinases: Which hydrolyse pectins consisting of linear polymers of galacturonic acid (bio-
scouring replacing caustic)

Lipases: Which hydrolyse fats and oils into alcohol and organic acids.

Proteases: Which catalyse splitting protein molecules, and in the extreme may break the protein
into the component amino acids.
Catalases or Peroxidases: Which catalyse the decomposition of peroxide, also known as
peroxide killer.

Cellulases: Which catalyse the hydrolysis of cellulosic materials (bio-singeing or bio-polishing).

Enzyme Applications in Textile Preparatory Process:

Enzymatic Desizing :
In the textile industry amylases are used to remove starch-based size for improved and uniform
wet processing. Amylase is a hydrolytic enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of dietary starch
to short chain sugars, dextrin and maltose. The advantage of these enzymes is that they are
specific for starch, removing it without damaging to the support fabric. An amylase enzyme can
be used for desizing processes at low-temperature (30-60ºC) and optimum pH is 5,5-6,5.

Enzymatic Scouring (Bio-scouring):

Scouring is removal of non-cellulosic material present on the surface of the cotton. In generally
cellulase and pectinase are combined and used for Bioscouring. In this pectinase destroy the
cotton cuticle structure by digesting the pectin and removing the connection between the cuticle
and the body of cotton fibre whereas cellulase can destroy cuticle structure by digesting the
primary wall cellulose immediately under the cuticle of cotton. Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of enzymatic scouring process are 20-45 % as
compared to alkaline scouring (100 %). Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) of enzymatic scouring
process is 20-50% as compared to alkaline scouring (100%). Handle is very soft in enzymatic
scouring compared to harsh feel in alkaline scouring process. Enzymatic scouring makes it
possible to effectively scour fabric without negatively affecting the fabric or the environment. It
also minimizes health risks hence operators are not exposed to aggressive chemicals.

Enzymatic Bleaching:
The purpose of cotton bleaching is to decolourise natural pigments and to confer a pure white
appearance to the fibres. The most common industrial bleaching agent is hydrogen peroxide.

Conventional preparation of cotton requires high amounts of alkaline chemicals and

consequently, huge quantities of rinse water are generated. However, radical reactions of
bleaching agents with the fibre can lead to a decrease in the degree of polymerisation and, thus,
to severe damage. Therefore, replacement of hydrogen peroxide by an enzymatic bleaching
system would not only lead to better product quality due to less fibre damage but also to
substantial savings on washing water needed for the removal of hydrogen peroxide. An
alternative to this process is to use a combination of suitable enzyme systems.
Amyloglucosidases, pectinases, and glucose oxidases are selected that are compatible concerning
their active pH and temperature range. Tzanov et al. (2003) reported for the first time the
enhancement of the bleaching effect achieved on cotton fabrics using laccases in low
concentrations. In addition, the short time of the enzymatic pre-treatment sufficient to enhance
fabric whiteness makes this bio-process suitable for continuous operations. Also, Pereira et al.
(2005) showed that a laccase from a newly isolated strain of T. hirsuta was responsible for
whiteness improvement of cotton most likely due to oxidation of flavonoids. More recently,
Basto et al. (2006) proposed a combined ultrasound-laccase treatment for cotton bleaching. They
found that the supply of low ultrasound energy(7W) enhanced the bleaching efficiency of laccase
on cotton fabrics. Natural fabrics such as cotton are normally bleached with hydrogen peroxide
before dyeing. Catalase enzyme is used to break down hydrogen peroxide bleaching liquor into
water molecules and less reactive gaseous oxygen. Compared with the traditional clean-up
methods, the enzymatic process results in cleaner waste water or reduced water consumption, a
reduction of energy and time.

Bio-polishing:
Bio-polishing, a technique first adopted by the Danish Firm Novo Nordisk for the finishing
treatment of cellulosic fabrics with cellulase enzymes. The main objectives of the bio-polishing
is to upgrade the quality of the fabric by removing the protruded fibres from the surface and
modification of the surface structure of the fibre, thereby making it soft and smooth. In
conventional process protruded fibres are removed by singing process and smoothness imparted
by chemical treatment. The conventional methods are temporary, fibres return on the surface of
the fabric and chemicals are removed after few washing and fuzz is formed. The fuzz on the
surface spoils the fabric appearance and generates customer’s dissatisfaction whereas
biopolishing is permanent and it not only keeps the fabric in good condition after repeated
washing but also enhances feel, colour, drapeability etc consequently products become more
attractive to the customer and fetch better prices. The bio-polishing treatment offers the
following advantages:

 Improved pilling resistance.

 A clearer, lint and fuzz-free surface structure.
 Improved drapeability and softness.
 The effects are durable
 Slight improvement in absorbency
 Fashionable effects on fabric like distressed look of denim
Enzymatic Treatment to Denim:
Denim is heavy grade cotton. In this dye is mainly adsorbed on the surface of the fibre. That is
why fading can be achieved without considerable loss of strength. In traditional process sodium
hypochlorite or potassium permanganate was used called as pumice stones(Pedersen and
Schneider, 1998).

Disadvantage of These Method are as Follows:

 Pumice stones cause large amount of back-staining.
 Pumice stones are required in very large amount.
 They cause considerable wear and tear of machine.
These disadvantages lead to give rise the process of use of enzymes. Cellulase enzyme is used in
denim washing. Cellulase works by loosening the indigo dye on the denim in a process know as
“Bio-Stonewashing”. A small dose of enzyme can replace several kilograms of pumice stones.
The use of less pumice stones results in less damage to garment, machine and less pumice dust in
the laundry environment.

Anti-shrink Treatment for Wool:

A process conventionally used for wool shrink-proofing is chlorination. This process degrades
the exo-cuticle of the wool, forming cysteic acid residues and protein losses.

This process has been replaced by proteinases treatment due to their high specificity and much
lower environmental impact. However, proteinase treatment leads to protein degradation,
resulting in deterioration of fiber strength and limited shrink resistance. A patent application
about the use of laccase from T. versicolor plus a mediator to increase the shrink resistance of
wool was published (Yoon 1998). Also, Lantto et al. (2004) found that wool fibers can be
activated with laccase if a suitable mediator is present. Therefore, the use of laccase for anti-
shrink treatment of wool seems very attractive.

Conclusions:
Enzymes can be used in order to develop environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical
processes in almost all steps of textile fibre processing. There are already some commercially
successful applications, such as amylases for desizing, cellulases and laccases for denim
finishing, and proteases incorporated in detergent formulations. Further research is required for
the implementation of commercial enzyme based processes for the biomodification of synthetic
and natural fibers. There is still considerable potential for new and improved enzyme
applications in future textile processing.

As with all chemicals and products, enzymes too have their own merits and limitations. They
show specific action without undesirable effects on other components and normally operate
under mild temperature and pressure conditions, but at the same time are sensitive to
temperature, pH, humidity and contaminants. They often shorten the process cycle reducing
time, water consumption and wastewater generation. The main hindrance in using enzymes is
their high cost. The textile industry was identified as a key sector where opportunities available
from adapting biotechnology are high but current awareness of biotechnology is low. In textile
processing the enzyme can be successfully used for preparatory process like desizing, scouring
and bleaching. These enzymatic processes are gives the similar results as that of conventional
methods. Though this enzymatic processes we can reduce the water consumption, power energy,
pollution, time, and increasing quality.

Enzymes are emerging in a big way in the field of textile wet processing. If their cost can be
managed, enzymes can be put to use in a much bigger way for textile processing applications.

All over print

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In streetwear fashion, an all over print (also known as all-over-print) is a print composed of a
design that is repeated across the entire surface of a garment. The image is on both the front and
back. Often, such prints are screen-printed. Other processes include dye-diffusion of the fabric
itself.

Printing Processes:

There are five main methods of printing a fabric, these being the block, roller, screen, heat
transfer and ink-jet methods. The heat transfer method differs from the others in that it involves
the transfer of color from the design printed on paper through the vapour phase into the fibres of
the fabric. With the other methods the dye or pigment is applied to the fabric surface through a
print paste medium. The ink jet printing process however is a comparatively recent innovation
and is referred to as a 'non-impact' method, because the print paste is fired on to the textile from
a jet which is not actually in contact with the fabric.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRINTING METHOD

Block Printing:
The blocks are usually made of wood and the design is hand carved, so that it stands out in relief
against the background surface. The print paste is applied to the design surface on the block and
the block then pressed against the fabric. The process is repeated with different designs and
colours until the pattern is complete.

Block printing is a slow, laborious process and is not suitable for high volume commercial use.
It is a method still practised in the oriental countries where markets exist for the types of printed
fabrics produced.

Roller Printing:
Roller printing has traditionally been preferred for long production runs because of the very
high speeds possible. It is also a versatile technique since up to a dozen different colours can be
printed simultaneously. The basic roller printing equipment, shown in below figure, consists of a
number of copper faced rollers in which the design is etched. There is a separate printing roller
for each colour being printed. Each of the rollers rotates over the fabric under pressure against an
iron pressure roller. A blanket and backing cloth rotate over the pressure roller under the fabric
and provide a flexible support for the fabric being printed. A colour doctor blade removes paste
or fibres adhering to the roller after contact with the fabric. After the impression stage the fabric
passes to the drying and steaming stages.

Roller Printing
Screen Printing :
This type of printing has increased enormously in its use in recent years because of its versatility
and the development of rotary screen printing machines which are capable of very high rates of
production. An additional significant advantage is that heavy depths of shade can be produced by
screen printing, a feature which has always been a limitation of roller printing because of the
restriction to the amount of print paste which can be held in the shallow depth of the engraving
on the print roller. Worldwide, some 61% of all printed textile fabric is produced by the rotary
screen method and 23% by flat screen printing.

There are two basic types of screen printing process, the flat screen printing and the rotary
screen printing methods.

Heat Transfer Printing :

Transfer printing techniques involve the transfer of a design from one medium to another. The
most common form used is heat transfer printing in which the design is printed initially on to a
special paper, using conventional printing machinery. The paper is then placed in close contact
with the fabric and heated, when the dyes sublime and transfer to the fabric through the vapor
phase.

Ink-Jet Printing :
There has been considerable interest in the technology surrounding non-impact printing, mainly
for the graphic market, but the potential benefits of reductions in the time scale from original
design to final production has led to much activity in developing this technology for textile and
carpet printing processes. The types of machines developed fall into two classes, drop-on-
demand (DOD) and continuous stream (CS).
Carpet Printing :
The printing of carpets only really achieved importance after the introduction of tufted carpets in
the late 1950s. Until then the market was dominated by the woven Wilton carpets and Axminster
designs were well established, but by the 1980s tufted carpet production accounted for some
80% (by area) of UK production. Much of this carpet production was printed because the range
of patterns possible to produce using tufting machines was limited and there was a desire to
produce a greater flexibility of design for these types of carpet.

Warp Printing:
The printing of a design on the sheet of warp yarns before weaving. The filling is either white or
a neutral color, and a grayed effect is produced in the areas of the design.

Resist Printing:
A printing method in which the design can be produced: (1) by applying a resist agent in the
desired design, then dyeing the fabric, in which case, the design remains white although the rest
of the fabric is dyed; or (2) by including a resist agent and a dye in the paste which is applied for
the design, in which case, the color of the design is not affected by subsequent dyeing of the
fabric background.

Photographic Printing:
A method of printing from photoengraved rollers. The resultant design looks like a photograph.
The designs may also be photographed on a silk screen which is used in screen printing.

Pigment Printing:
Printing by the use of pigments instead of dyes. The pigments do not penetrate the fiber but are
affixed to the surface of the fabric by means of synthetic resins which are cured after application
to make them insoluble. The pigments are insoluble, and application is in the form of water-in-
oil or oil-in-water emulsions of pigment pastes and resins. The colors produced are bright and
generally fat except to crocking.

Blotch Printing:
A process wherein the background color of a design is printed rather than dyed.

Burn-Out Printing:
A method of printing to obtain a raised design on a sheer ground. The design is applied with a
special chemical onto a fabric woven of pairs of threads of different fibers. One of the fibers is
then destroyed locally by chemical action. Burn-out printing is often used on velvet. The product
of this operation is known as a burnt-out print.

Direct Printing:
A process wherein the colors for the desired designs are applied directly to the white or dyed
cloth, as distinguished from discharge printing and resist printing.

Discharge Printing:
In “white” discharge printing, the fabric is piece dyed, then printed with a paste containing a
chemical that reduces the dye and hence removes the color where the white designs are desired.
 In “colored” discharge printing, a color is added to the discharge paste in order to replace the
discharged color with another shade.

Duplex Printing:
A method of printing a pattern on the face and the back of a fabric with equal clarity.

Oxford cloth

Oxford cloth is a very popular shirting fabric, particularly for more casual or sporty
styles of dress shirts.  It’s a bit thicker than what we’d consider “fine” dress shirt
fabrics, and has a hearty feel that is both durable and naturally resistant to
wrinkles.  Oxford cloths can be found in a variety of qualities.

 40/1×24/2: This is the classic heavier weight oxford cloth. These are
generally much thicker than the average shirt fabric. Make for really great casual
shirts. They are very durable and can be washed/dried with your socks and t-shirts
and worn a bit wrinkly. A good one will be quite soft to the touch and get better
with age.
 80s two-ply: This is the classic pinpoint oxford cloth. It’s a nice quality
oxford cloth weave with a dense enough texture that works well for conservative
business settings. Thicker than broadcloth and relatively opaque, this is the classic
Brooks Brothers style shirt.
 75/2×38/3: This construction comes from Thomas Mason and is what we
like to call a “premium oxford”.  It has a similar thickness and heartiness to the
basic heavy oxford, but it is simultaneously a bit smoother and more refined.  The
result is a shirt that looks great a bit rumpled casually, but can also be ironed up
sharp for a slick suited look.
 50s single-ply: A crisp but lighter weight oxford. Can usually be found in
interesting patterns or colors. In appropriate patterns these can make for great
business shirts or relatively sharp casual shirts.
Overall, a nice casual oxford cloth shirt is a wardrobe essential for its durability
and versatility. Pair it with a button down collar for the low-maintenance OCBD.
Flow Chart of Woven Dyeing 

Steaming
↓
 Washing
↓
Dryeing
↓
Heat setting
↓ 
Finishing (Pre-shrinkage)
↓ 
Finished fabric
↓ 
Package
 
 
Flow Chart & Checking Points
Woven Solid Dyed Fabrics

Checking Points (Yarn): RKM/CSP, IPI, Neps

Checking Points (Fabric):

1. Physicsl : Length, Width, Weight, Density, Composition, Tear Strength. As a result, grade A, B, C will be setted for
2. Appearance : Fabric defects including knots, holes etc. Dyeing or printing or return purpose
Remarks : Better to use same lot of greige fabric from same supplier for one order.

Checking Points (Pre-treatment):

1. Physical : pH, Whiteness, Resin%, Capillarity effect / TEGEWA –Drop Test (Absorbency), TEGEWA-Violet-blue scale
(Degree of desize)
2. Appearance : Fabric Defects
3. Width (especially stretch fabric
* Stretch fabric need test shrinkage after each step of Scouring, bleaching & Mercerization.

Mercerizing checking point : Barium number ,Alkalinity ,width ,pH

Checking Points (Dyeing):

1. Color shade checking

2. Fabric defect
3. pH value
4. Color fastness ( cut some bulk fabric to do production finish and than do physical testing . Once it is OK, bulk fabric can
continious finish )
5. And other offline tests as per risk assessment
Checking Points (Print) 

1. Print effect compared to approved sample

2. Print defect
3. Dry rubbing , formaldehyde
4. Conductivity ( in case of pigment printing )
Steaming Risk : Floating color
Checking point (Washing) 

1. Physical test : color fastness

2. Chemical test : pH value , formaldehyde
Checking point (Heat setting) : Fabric width , shrinkage

Checking point (Finishing) : Compare width approved sample for handfeel, brush or other special treatment as per requirement.
Tear strength ( peach finish ) in case of finishing like Wrinkle free, tear strength, pH, smell

Checking point (Finished fabric): Final fabric inspection according to our fabric inspection guidline.

Checking point (Package) : Label including order no, width, composition, color, bale no.

Flow Chart of Denim Manufacturing Process

Spinning
↓
Yarn in cone
↓
Bale Warping
↓
Scouring, washing, Dyeing, Developing, Drying
↓
Long Chain Beaming
↓
Sizing
↓
Weaving
↓
Singeing
↓
Desizing, washing, Drying
↓
Heat setting for special weft yarn
↓
Starching, drying
↓
Shrinking control
↓
Inspection & Folding
↓
Packing
↓
Delivery

Bottoming and topping

Topping & Bottoming
Bottoming:
In this case another dye is applied before dyeing with indigo. First the warp sheet is dyed with sulfur and then it is washed and
then dyed with indigo.
Topping:
In this case the warp sheet is dyed with indigo in start and then it is washed and then it is dyed with another dye (normally with
sulfur).
Bottoming indigo Topping:
In this case the warp sheet is firstly dyed with some dye and then after washing with indigo and then after washing with other
dye like sulfur.Washing is done after each bath in order to remove unfixed dye. Dyeing of indigo occurs at low temperature and
that of sulfur at high temperature. Firstly the warp sheet is dipped in the dyeing liquor and then airing is done in order to do
fixation as indigo and sulfur dyes are in reduced form in liquor than they are oxidized by giving air. Which is necessary because if
airing is not proper than immature oxidation occurs. For this purpose an airing zone of about 40 m is provided after each bath.
The airing process is also known as dwelling time.

Topping means Black color top (Sulfar) nd Blue color Bottom (Indigo)

Bottoming means Black color Bottom nd blue color top

Waffle Stitch Pattern - Simple Knit And Purl

Stitches
The waffle stitch pattern is simply lovely and creates a nice textured pattern on your fabric. 

And because it is made with knit and purl stitches it's a great stitch pattern for beginner
knitters to practice with.  
 222Save

All you do is alternate the knit and purl stitches which creates the bumps, just like waffles. I
love the textured feel of this too.  Nice and squishy.

Some information about this pretty stitch are:

o It lies flat
o It's very stretchy
o Great for beginning knitters
o You'll have the pattern memorized after a couple of rounds

It's not really reversible but the wrong side doesn't look too bad. You'll have to decide for
yourself when you knit it.

Waffle Stitch Knitting Ideas

Because this pattern lies flat you don't necessarily have to put a border around it. I am
thinking of when you knit dishcloths and tea towels.
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Wouldn't it make a really nice tea towel set? Or even some nice table placemats. What a
great way to add a splash of color to your kitchen.

It's so nice and stretchy too which leads me to another thought.

If you are going to be making any knit gifts like hats, socks, mittens, things like that and you
don't have the exact size, you can use this stitch pattern. 

That way if you do knit something a little small it will stretch. You know what I mean? It's just
a nice thought to keep in mind when the time rolls around for making gifts.

Oh and one more knitting idea

This lovely stitch pattern would make terrific thermal knit under garments. What a great way
to keep your kids, toddlers and babies nice and warm when they're outside. Just don't forget
to make yourself some too.

Scarves, cowls and fingerless mittens are all great ideas as well so go ahead and get
started with this simple stitch pattern and let your imagination flow.

Waffle Stitch Pattern

Skills required: Knit and Purl

Multiple of 3 sts + 1
If you'd like to knit a sample cast on 13, 16, 19 or 22 stitches.

Row 1: (WS) Knit 1, * Purl 2, Knit 1, repeat from * to end

Row 2: P1, *K2, P1 rep from * to end

Row 3: Knit

Row 4: Repeat row 2

This completes the waffle pattern.

Would you like to practice with a cool knitting pattern?  I just happen to have one for you.  
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Waffle Stitch Super Scarf Knitting Pattern 

I used the waffle stitch for my super scarf so you could practice.

Here's the link to my super scarf knitting pattern.