CHAPTER 7

DEEP FOUNDATIONS – Pile Foundations

ULTIMATE PILE CAPACITY

Beacause of the non-homogeneity of soil and the unlimited variables that affecting pile behaviour,
different methods of approach are, therefore, existed. Among these methods are:-
a. The static methods,
b. The load-transfer methods,
c. The empirical methods
d. The dynamic methods, and
e. Field tests methods.

A. STATIC APPROACH
• Piles in Compression:
L
Q ult = ∫ P( α.C u + K s .σ′v . tan δ).dz + A b (C.N c + σ′vb .N q + 0.5γ.d..N γ ) − WP …………….......... (1)
0
Q ult = ∑ Qs + .Q b − Wp ..….……..………….………..…………………………..….……........(2)
Qall = ∑ Qs / S.Ff + .Q b / S.Fb − Wp ……….....……………….……………….…..…..………….(3)
Qall = Qult / S.F …..………….…….………………………………………………....………... (4)
where:
SF = Safety factor =2.5 for driven piles, and S.Fp = 2.0 or S.Ff =1.0 and S.Fb =3.0 for bored piles.

FACTOR OF SAFETY OF SINGLE PILE IN CLAY

Type of Pile Factor of Safety Qall.

Driven piles S.F. = 2.5 Qall. = QP / 2.5
Bored piles (i) S.F. = 2.0 Qall. = QP / 2.0
(Take the smaller value) (ii) F1 = 1.0, F2 = 3.0 Q all. = Q s / 1.0 + Q b / 3.0

• Piles in Tension:
Tult = ∑ Qs + W .……..……………...….………………………………………...……….…. (5)
Tall = ∑ Qs / S.Ff + W ……...………..………………………………………………………… (6)
where:
Qult =Ultimate pile capacity, Tult = Ultimate tension or pullout capacity, Qb = End bearing
resistance, Qs = Frictional resistance, Qall = Allowable bearing capacity, WP = Weight of pile
≈ Weight of removed soil, d = (Diameter) or least dimension of pile, L = Length of pile.
• End bearing ≈ 10%B (for driven piles) and ≈ 30%B (for bored piles and caissons), and
• Friction =<< 10%B .

Foundation for Civil Engineers

Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations
1 Dr. Farouk Majeed Muhauwiss
o For Piles in Clay; Equation (1) will be:
Since for piles in normally consolidated clay the undrained condition is control, φu = 0 and δ = 0

∴ ks .σ′v . tan δ = 0 and c = c u = q u / 2 . Also, for φu = 0 : Nc = 9 (from Skempton chart for

[
circular or square), N q = 1.0 and N γ = 0.0 . In addition to, the difference between A b .q − Wp is ]
only in (γ conc. − γsoil ) which is very small, that can be neglected, therefore: -
L
QP = ∫ π.d(α.cu ).dL + A b (cu .N c ) ...…………………………………….….…............. (1-a)
0
where,
L
Qs = ∫ π.d(α.cu ).dL = α.cu .As = Ca .As ;
0

Qb = A b .(cu .Nc ) ,
α = adhesion factor, and
Ca = adhesion between pile and soil; obtained by one of the following methods:-
(1) Tomlinson (1971) α − method,
(2) Meyerhof (1976) β − method,
(3) Vijayvergia and Focht (1972) λ − method.

o For Piles in Sand; Equation (1) will be:

[ ]
Since c = 0, then c.Nc = 0 and due to the term A b .(0.5.d.γ.N γ ) − Wp is very small, that can be

neglected, therefore:-
L
QP = ∫ π.d(k s .σ′v . tan δ).dL + A b (q′.N′q ) …….…….…………………….….…............. (1-b)
0
where,
L
Qs = ∫ π.d(k s .σ′v(avg.) . tan δ).dL = τs .As ,
0

Q b = A b (q′.N′q ) ,

q′ = σ′v = γ′.L = Overburden pressure at the base of pile,

N′q = Meyerhof's bearing capacity factor for deep foundations,

τs = Interaction between sand and pile = k s .σ′v avg. . tan δ which should be ≤ 100 .kN / m 2 , and

L
As = Surface area of pile = ∫ π.d.dL .
0

2
 Meyerhof 's (1976) N′i Bearing Capacity Factors (from penetration test data)
• For φu = 0 : Q b = A b .q′.N′q ≤ Ab (9.Su )
• For φ > 0 :
1. Use R1 = L / B ; obtain R 2 = Lc / B for the given angle φ from Fig.(1),
2. Enter the curves with φ :
o If R1 > 0.5.R 2 and φ ≤ 30° ; obtain factors from the upper N′i curves, and
o If R1 < 0.5.R 2 and φ ≤ 30° ; use a linear ratio between the lower and upper N′i curves;
from
R1
N′q′ = N q + ( N′q − N q ) , and Q b = A b .q′.N′q′ …..………………...…..(7)
0.5R 2
o If φ > 30° and depending on L / B ; project to the reduced curves shown in the upper right
part of Fig.(1) and interpolate as necessary. ((loose or dense sand, soils with varying degess of
compressibility and for overconsolidated (O.C.) clays)).

Fig.(1): Bearing capacity factors for deep foundations (after Meyerhof, 1976).

End Bearing ( Q b ) For Driven Piles

• For Clay Soils (in undrained condition, φu = 0 ):

In this case; c = Su , N′c = 9 (from Skempton chart for circular or square) and N′q =1.0, then the
end bearing becomes:
For constant cross-sectional piles:
Qb = A b (9.Su ) …...………..……………………………………..……… (8-a)

3
 For tapered piles (from Skempton, 1966):
Qb = A b (9.Su ).ω …....……………….…………………………..………. (8-b)
where, ω = 0.80 for B ≤ 1m , and 0.75 for B > 1m.

Using Cone Penetration Test (CPT) Results:

Qb = Ab .q c .....(units....of ....qc ) ….….…………...………..…………..…. (8-c)
where, qc = average CPT value in a zone of 8B above to 3B below the pile point.

• For Sand Soils ( φ > 0 ):

If L/B < Lc / B ⇒ Q b = A b .q′.N′q ……….……………….…………………..…………...…(9-a)

Provided that q′.N′q ≤ 10 .7 MN / m
2
or 10700 .kN / m 2 .
If L/B ≥ Lc / B ⇒ Q b = A b .q′.N′q ≤ A b (50.N′q . tan φ) …… (kN) ….….….………………… (9-b)
B
Provided that q′.N′q ≤ 10.7 MN / m or 10700 .kN / m 2 .
2

where, N′q = Meyerhof's bearing capacity factor for

deep foundations obtained from Fig.(1).
L

Lc Bearing stratum

Using Standard Penetration Test (SPT) Results (Meyerhof's, 1956, 1976):

Qb = A b (40.N).Lb / B. ≤ .400.N.A b ........(kN) ….…..….……………..…. (9-c)

where,
A b = Cross sectional area of pile, N= N55 = Corrected average SPT value in a zone of 8B above to
3B below the pile point, Lb = Length of the pile embedded in sand, B = Width or diameter of pile,
and Lb / B = Average depth ratio of the corresponding point into point bearing stratum.

• For c − φ Soils:
Q b = A b (c.N′c + η.q′.N′q ) .…….….………...…………….…..……..…..…(10)

where,
A b = Cross sectional area of pile, c = Cohesion, q′ = Effective vertical stress at pile point, η = 1

for all bearing capacity factors except the Vesic (1975) N ′i factors since η = (1 + 2k o ) / 3 , k o = At

rest earth pressure coefficient = 1 − sin φ OCR ; where OCR = Overconsolidation ratio, N′c =
Author 's bearing capacity factor for cohesion adjusted for shape and depth, N′q = Author 's
bearing capacity factor adjusted for L/B > 1 and depends on initial (undisturbed soil) angle of
internal friction φ , L = Length of pile, and B = Diameter or least dimension of pile.

Foundation for Civil Engineers

Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations
Dr. Farouk Majeed Muhauwiss
4
End Bearing ( Qb ) For Bored Piles

Q b = 1 / 3.(Q b )driven ≤ A b ( 20.N′q . tan φ) …………………………..…………………..…(11)

(a) Frictional Resistance ( Qs ) For Piles In Clay

• For driven piles, the side friction C a was obtained using one of the following methods:
Ca = α.C u (avg.) or Ca = β..σ′v (avg.) or [
Ca = λ σ′v(avg.) + 2.C u (avg.) ]
Provided that (C a ≤ 100.kN / m 2 ) due to several factors which affect the adhesion; such as:

(i) Smear effect that occurs due to drag down of pile during installation,
(ii) The presence of soft layer overlying a stiff layer, and
(iii) Shrinkage that occurs in case of stiff clay and leads to separation between pile and soil.
• Annular cracking around the top of pile occurs and B
therefore (Ca ≤ 0.4Cu to a depth = 20 B) provided that

(C a ≤ 100.kN / m 2 ) . Soft clay

Stiff clay

Ca ≤ 0.4Cu (to a depth = 20 B)

• For bored piles, Qs can be calculated using either Tomlinson or Meyerhof methods that used

for driven piles provided that (C a ≤ 100.kN / m 2 ) .

• For expanded bored piles, the following should be taken into consideration:-
(i) If a fissured clay is present at base of pile, then
C u ( used ) = 0.75.C u ( triaxial)

(ii) If expansion of bored pile exists, neglect the d

surface area of the shaft side above the expansion
to a distance of (2 x diameter of the shaft); i.e., Qs (L − 2.d)
L
As = π..d.(L − 2.d) .
Ca = 0 for this zone. 2.d

Qb

5
(1) Tomlinson (1971) α − method:
• For c − φ Soils:
( )
Qs = α.c u + k s .σ′v (avg.) . tan δ .A s …...………………………...……………………….(12-a)
where,
α = adhesion factor ; obtained as before from [Table (2) or Fig.(2-a) ].

α -Values of Some Typical Soils (Skempton, 1966).

α - Value
Type of Clay
Driven Piles Bored Piles
Londen clay 0.25 - 0.7
Sensitive clay 1.0
0.45
Highly expansive clay 0.5
Soft clay 1.0

Table (2): Values of adhesion factors for piles driven into stiff to very stiff cohesive soils
for design (after Tomlinson, 1971).
Penetration Adhesion factor
Case Soil conditions
ratio+ α
Sands or sandy gravels overlying stiff to < 20 1.25
1
very stiff cohesive soil > 20 Figure (2-a)
Soft clays or silts overlying stiff to 8< PR ≤ 20 0.40
2
very stiff cohesive soil > 20 Figure (2-a)
Stiff to very stiff cohesive soils without 8< PR ≤ 20 0.40
3
overlying strata > 20 Figure (2-a)
Depth.of .Pentration .int o.Cohesive .Soil
+ Penetration.Ratio .( PR ) =
Diameter .of .Pile

The α − Method.

Fig.(2-a): Relationship between soil and adhesion factor

(after Tomlinson, 1971, and API, 1984).

• For Clayey Soils ( φu = 0 in undrained condition):

Qs = (α.cu ).As ……………………….………………………...……………………….(12-b)

Provided that [ Ca = (α.c u ).. ≤ .100.kN / m 2 ].

6
(2) Meyerhof (1976) β − method: This method is widely used for soft and medium clays.
( )
Qs = k s .σ′v(avg.) . tan δ .A s = β.σ′v(avg.) .As ……......………..…...……………………….(13)

where,
k s = lateral earth pressure coefficient obtained as follows:-

For Driven piles:

soft to medium clays where Cu ≤ 100 kN/m2 ks = (1 − sin φ)
stiff clays where Cu > 100 kN/m2 k s = (1 − sin φ) OCR
For Bored piles:
soft to medium clays where Cu ≤ 100 kN/m2 ks = (1 − sin φ)
stiff clays where Cu > 100 kN/m 2
k s = 0.8
γ′.L
σ′avg. = average effective overburden pressure = ,
2
δ = soil to pile friction angle, and
β = skin friction factor = ks . tan δ ; obtained from Fig.(2-b).

0
Depth of penetration , z (m)

5
10
15
20
25
30
The β − Method. 35
40
45
50
55
60
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Skin friction factor,

Fig.(2-b): Skin friction factor, β , for piles driven into soft and medium clays
(after Meyerhof, 1976).

(3) Vijayvergia and Focht (1972) λ − method: This method is essentialy used for steel piles as
well as driven piles in stiff clay.
( )
Qs = λ σ′v(avg.) + 2.C u (avg.) .As …….....…….....…………….....……….……………….(14)

where,
λ = dimensionless coefficient; obtained from Fig.(2-c),
γ′.L
σ′avg. = average effective overburden pressure = , and
2
C u (avg.) = average undrained shear strength.

7
 The λ − Method.

Fig.(2-c): λ - coefficients as a function of depth of penetration

(after Vijayvergia and Focht, 1972).

(4) Burland method (1973) for bored piles:

Qs = (s.α.cu ).As …….....………….………..……...…………….....…………………….(15)
where,
s = shape factor = 1.0 (for plain shaft-constant cross-sectional pile), and 1.2 (for tapered shaft),
α = adhesion factor between soil and pile; obtained as before [from Table (2) or Fig.(2-a) ].
cu = cohesion.

(b) Frictional Resistance ( Qs ) For Piles In Sand

Many methods are avialable, however, Broom's and Nurdlund's methods are most widely used.
o Broom's method (1965); for short piles; i.e. PR = L / B ≤ 20
Qs = τs .A s = ( k s .σ′v avg. . tan δ).A s ……………………………...…..……………………... (16)
where:
τs = interaction between sand and pile = k s .σ′v avg. . tan δ which should be ≤ 100.kN / m2 ,
k s = Lateral earth pressure coefficient depends on pile material, angle of contact δ between sand
and pile, and the relative density of sand; obtained from Table (3-a).

Table (3-a): Values of k s and δ for piles in granular soil.

ks
Type of Pile δ°
Loose sand Dense sand
Steel 20 0.5 1.0
Concrete 3 / 4..φ 1.0 2.0
Timber 2 / 3..φ 1.5 4.0

8
 σ′v avg. = average effective vertical stress on pile segment/segment,

γ .L L1., γ1
σ′avg.(1) = 1 1
2
γ.L γ .L
σ′avg. = L
σ′avg.(2) = γ1.L1 + 2 2
2 2 L 2 ., γ 2

QP = Qs + Qb QP = Qs1 + Qs 2 + Qb
B B
Example (1) Example (2)

δ = angle of contact between sand and pile, φ must be known and can be obtained from SPT
results or the static cone test (CPT) results using Table (3-b).

Table (3-b): φ° -values from SPT or CPT results for piles in granular soil.

ks φ° q c .( kN / m 2 )
Low relative density 28 – 30 0 – 5000
Medium relative density 30 - 36 5000 – 10000
High relative density >36 > 10000

o Nurdlund's method (1965); for layered soil and lengthy piles; i.e. PR = L / B > 20
Qs = τs .As
L
For tapered pile: Qs = ∑ (ks .σ′vavg. .sin .δ).Cd ..d ….………..……..….…………………..… (17-a)
d =0
For uniform pile: Qs = (k s .σ′v avg. . sin .δ).A s …......……………..….………………………... (17-b)
where,
τs = k s .σ′v avg. . sin δ which should be ≤ .107.MN / m2 or 10700.kN / m2 ,
d
k s ,...σ′v avg. ,..and....δ as previously determined. Cd
Cd = minimum perimeter of element at depth d.
d = depth of element (length of segment). 1

9
 Steps of Solution by Nurdlund's Method

1. Divide the pile into several segements with respect to soil profile or property. Qs1

2. Calculate V.( m 3 / m ) ; the volume of the pile material for each segement per unit length.
Qs2
3. Obtaine (δ / φ) using Fig.(3) with V(m / m) = ? and the type of the pile material
3

(concrete, steel,……etc..). Qs3

4. Find ( φ ) from penetration tests; either Dynamic Penetration Test (S.P.T.) or Static Cone Test

(C.P.T.): N φ , or qc φ

5. Find (ks ) using Fig.(4) and assuming that δ = φ .

6. Find (k s )correction.factor using Fig.(5) when δ / φ ≠ 1.0 .

7. Qs = [ k s .σ′v (avg.) . sin .δ].A s = τs .A s . ≤ 10700 kN/m2 ; for successive sections, the process is

repeated, such that: ∑ Qs = Qs1 + Qs2 + .........

8. Q b = (q ′.N ′q ).A b ≤ 10.7 MN / m 2 ...or...10700.kN / m 2

9. QP = ∑ Qs + Qb

0.25
Raymond 2.50
Steper or monotype step taper
0.20
Precast concrete
2.00
Wood
m3/ m , V

0.15
ft3/ ft , V

1.50
Pipe
0.10
1.00
Raymond
standard
0.05
0.50
Steel H
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

Fig.(3): Relationship between δ / φ and volum displacement of driven pile

(after Nordlund, 1965).

10
 F
Fig.(4): Values of coeffiicient of late pressure k s
eral earth p
(after N
Nordlund, 1965).
1.50
/ = 14 / = 12

1.00 / = 1.0
/ = 0.8
Ks

/ = 0.6

0.50 / = 0.4
/ = 0.2

0.00
0 10 20
0 30
0 4
40 5
50
in degrees
s

Figure
F (5): Correction
C f
fator for k s (after Nord
dlund, 1965)..
PIL
LE FOUN
NDATIO
ONS GRO
OUP
Pile foundation is rarrely consistss of a s singgle pile. In general, pilees are used in a groupss. The
min
nimum numbber of piless in each grroup shouldd be not less than two or three piles. The Chhicago
Building Code states
s that “ A column or
o pier suppoorted by pilees shall rest on not less than three piles”.
p
poses only, ssince the designer must make
Fig.(6) presentss some typiccal pile clustters for illusstrative purp
up the
t group geeometry to saatisfy any given problem
m.

Fig.(6
6): Typical pile-group
p p
patterns: a) for isolateed pile caps; (b) for foun
(a ndation wallls.
SPACING OF PILES
When several piles are clustered, the soil pressures produced from either side friction or point
bearing will overlap as idealized in Fig.(7) depending upon piles loads and their number and spacings. If
these pressures sufficiently are large, the soil will fail in shear or excessive settlement. However, large
spacings between piles are often impractical since a pile cap is to be cast over the pile group for the
column base and/ or to spread the load to the several piles in the group.
Suggested minimum center-to-center piles spacing by several building codes are as follows:

Pile type NBC, 1976 BOCA, 1993 Chicago, 1994

Friction 2D or 1.75H > 760 mm 2D or 1.75H > 760 mm 2D or 2H > 760 mm

Point bearing 2D or 1.75H > 610 mm 2D or 1.75H > 610 mm

Fig.(7): Stresses surrounding a friction pile and the summing effects of a pile group.

where: D = pile diameter; H = diagonal of rectangular shape or HP pile.

The BOCA code also stipulates that spacing for friction piles in loose sand or loose sand-gravels
shall be increased 10 percent for each interior pile to a maximum of 40 percent. Optimum spacing seems
to be on the order of 2.5D to 3.5D or 2H to 3H for vertical loads; for groups carrying lateral and/ or
dynamic loads, larger pile spacing are usually more efficient. Maximum pile spacing are not given in
building codes, but spacing as high as 8D or 10D have been used on occasion.

13
EFFICIENCY OF PILE GROUP
The ultimate load capacity of pile group is defined as:
Q P (group ) = ∑ Q P (sin gle) * η

where: ∑ QP = QP(sin gle) .( N) ; N = No. of piles group, and η = efficiency of pile group.

(a) PILE GROUP EFFICIENCY IN CLAY

Several methods are available to calculate the efficirency of piles groups in clay; these are:
1. Convers-Labarre Method:
θ (n − 1)m + (m − 1) n
η = 1− ……………..…………………………..…..… (18-a)
90 m.n
Pile Cap
where:
G.S.
the parameters are as defined in Figure;
η = efficiency,
m = no. of rows, L

n = no. of piles in each row,

d
θ.(deg .) = tan −1 , n Piles
s
S S S
where: d = diameter of pile, and
s = spacing between piles. S
m Piles a
S
2. Poules and Davis (1980) Method:
b
1 N 2 .QP 2(sin gle)
= 1+ …………..………..…………………………..…..… (18-b)
η QP 2(group)

where: N = total number of piles,

Q P (sin gle) = ultimate load capacity of single pile calculated by any of α, or λ, or β methods.

Q P(group) = 2(a + b)L.Cu (avg.) + a.b.Cu (at.base) .N c

where: a and b = short and long outside dimensions of the group, respectively.
⎡ a⎤
Nc = bearing capacity factor from Skempton for Df / B = 0 ; or N c = 5.2(strip ) ⎢1 + 0.2 ⎥ .
⎣ b⎦
Note:- If η ≥ 1.0 ; Use η = 1.0
Allowable load capacity of pile group:
Qall.(group ) = Q ult.(group ) / S.F. where: 2.5 ≤ S.F. ≤ 4.5

14
(b) PILE GROUP EFFICIENCY IN SAND
Usually piles used for sand are driven piles, therefore, driving of the pile is a difficult process even
though leads to densify the sand at deeper stratum.
The pile group efficiency in sand is calculated by the same equations that used for efficiency of
piles groups in clay, but with Q P ( group ) , ultimate load capacity of piles group, calculated according to

Kezedi (1975) suggestion as follows:

1. If S < d..K P / K o …………. The group action is control, and for this case:

Q P (group ) = 2(a + b).L.( k s .σ′v . tan φu ) + a.b.q ( base ) N q

where:
S = spacing between the piles c/c,
d = diameter of pile,
1 + sin φ
K P = tan 2 (45 + φ / 2) = ; the passive earth pressure coefficient,
1 − sin φ
K o = 1 − sin φ ; the at rest earth pressure coefficient;
1
Knowing that K a < K o < K P , and Ka = ; the active earth pressure coefficient.
KP

2. If S > d..K P / K o …………. The single action is control, and for this case:

Q P (group ) = Q P (sin gle) .( N )

where:
Q P (sin gle) is calculated from Broom's or Nurdlund's methods, and

N = total number of piles.

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

It is a side fricition between the pile and the surrounding soil (fill or fill + compressible stratum)
acting in a direction such that is to increase the load on the pile (Drag Force) and therefore should be
subtracted from the design load.

h − Qs Fill h − Qs1 Fill

G.S. G.S.

H − Qs2 Compressible stratum

+ Qs Incompressible
Incompressible
stratum + Qs
stratum

Qb Qb
Case (1) Case (2)

15
NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ESTIMATION
1. Cohesive Soil:
For this type of soil, the negative unit skin friction = α.Cu

α is obtained using Tomlinson's method chart for driven piles,

α = 0.45 for bored piles,
Cu = Cu of the compressible layer (case 2).
2. Cohesionless Soil:
For this type of soil, the negative unit skin friction = k s .σ′v . tan δ .

Case (1): Fill over bearing incompressible stratum:

(a) Normally placed piles (single action) h − Qs Fill
G.S.
Q neg. = π.d.h.N.(k s .σ′v . tan δ) ;
+ Qs Incompressible
where: N = no. of piles. stratum

(b) Closely placed piles (group action) Qb

Q neg. = Q1 .( wt..of .fill) + Q 2 .(drag.down.force)

= a.b.h.γ fill + 2(a + b).h.(ks .σ′v tan φfill )

where: a and b = short and long outside dimensions of the group, respectively.
Case (2): Fill over compressible stratum and bearing incompressible stratum:
(a) Normally placed piles (single action)
Q neg. = π.d.h.N.(k s .σ′v(avg.) . tan δ) + π.d.H.N.(α.C u ) h − Qs1 Fill
G.S.

H − Qs2 Compressible
stratum

+ Qs Incompressible
stratum

(b) Closely placed piles (group action) Qb

Q neg. = a.b.h.γ fill + a.b.H.γ clay + 2(a + b).h.(k s .σ′v tan φfill ) + 2(a + b).H.(α.Cu clay )

16
 NOTE: From each case, for design, the lesser of the two values should be taken.

The values of k s and the unit negative skin friction in clay, can be determined from the following table
as suggested by Bjerrum ?:-

Values of k s and unit negative skin friction for clay soil

Type of clay φ′ ks unit negative skin friction

Silt 30° 0.45 0.25 σ′v

Low plasticity 20° 0.50 0.20 σ′v
Plastic 15° 0.55 0.15 σ′v
High plasticity 10° 0.60 0.10 σ′v

17
PILES GROUP SUBJECTED TO MOMENT

When the pile group was subjected to moment, the reaction on each pile mainly due to two parts:-
(a) Central axial load, and
(b) Moment.
∑ Mu yy
∑ Pu

Pile Cap
Since, pressure is linearly distributed:- G.S

R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
∴ = = = (By interpolation)
x1 x2 x3 x4 P1 P2 P3 P4

or

x .R ⎫
R2 = 2 1⎪ P/4 P/4 P/4 P/4
x1 ⎪
Compression +
x 3.R1 ⎪
R3 = ⎬ …………..…..… (24)
x1 ⎪ x4
x1
x .R ⎪ x3
R4 = 4 1 ⎪ x2
x1 ⎭ _ Tension

Compression + R3 R4
R2
Taking moment about the ceneter of gravity of group:- R1

∑ Mu yy = 0 ; Applying moment = Resisting moment

∑ Mu yy = x1.R1 + x 2 .R 2 + x 3.R 3 + x 4 .R 4 P4
Substituting R 2 , R 3 , R 4 from Eq.(11.28) gives:- P3

x .R x .R x .R P2
∑ Mu yy = x1.R1 + x 2 2 1 + x 3 3 1 + x 4 4 1
x1 x1 x1 P1

x12 .R1 x 22 .R1 x 32 .R1 x 24 .R1

∑ Mu yy = + + +
x1 x1 x1 x1

R1 ⎡ 2 R n
∑ Mu yy = x1 + x 2 + x 32 + x 2 + .............................⎤ = 1 ∑ x i2
x1 ⎢⎣ 2 4 ⎥⎦ x1
i =1
∴ Moment reaction on piles (1), (2), (3), and (4) can be determined, respectively as:

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 x1 . ∑ Mu yy x 2 . ∑ Mu yy x 3 .∑ Mu yy x 4 . ∑ Mu yy
R1 = ; R2 = ; R3 = ; R4 =
n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2
∑ xi ∑ xi ∑ xi ∑ xi
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1
Similarly; Moment reaction on pile (n):
x n . ∑ Mu yy
Rn =
n 2
∑ xi
i =1
Assuming a sign convention as: compression (+) positive and tension (−) negative, then the full
reaction on each pile due to central axial load and moment will be written as:-
∑ Pu ∑ Pu ∑ Pu ∑ Pu
P1 = + R1 ; P2 = + R 2 ; P3 = − R 3 ; P4 = − R4
n n n n
In general:
∑ Pu x n .∑ M uyy
Pn = ± (for moment in one-direction) .……….………………… (25-a)
n n 2
∑ x
i
i =1
and

∑ Pu x n .∑ Mu yy y n .∑ Mu xx
Pn = ± ± (for moments in two directions) ......……..(25-b)
n n 2 n 2
∑ x ∑ y
i i
i =1 i =1

where:

∑ Pu = total ultimate vertical load acting on pile,

n = number of piles in the group,
x n = x-distance from center of the group (c.g.) to the pile (n) in question,
y n = y-distance from center of the group (c.g.) to the pile (n) in question,
∑ Mu yy = sum of ultimate moment in y-direction about center of gravity of group,
∑ Mu xx = sum of ultimate moment in x-direction about center of gravity of group,
2
∑ xi = sum of squares of the x-distances to each pile from (c.g.) of the group, and
2
∑ yi = sum of squares of the y-distances to each pile from (c.g.) of the group.

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DES
SIGN OF
F PILE CAP
C
A reinforcedd concrete slaab which intterconnects a group of ppiles and acts as a mediuum
to traansmit all thhe superstruccture loads tto the piles is called a Pile Cap. The T loads may m
consiist of verticaal and horizzontal loads, soil overlying the cap (if the cap is constructted
beloww the ground d surface), annd moments, in addition n to, the weigght of the capp itself.
T pile cap should norm
The mally be rigiid so as to distribute the loads equallly on the pilles
of a group. In general it is designed likke a footingg on soil buut with the difference
d thhat
insteaad of uniform m reaction from
f the soill, the reactio
ons in this caase are concentrated eithher
pointt loads or disstributed.

Pile Layout Patterns

P
P
Piles or otheer types of deep
d foundaations under pile cap cann layout sym mmetrically in
both directions in n several paatterns as shoown in Fig.((9). In generral, the colum
mn or wall on
the pile cap shou uld be centerred at its geoometric centter in order to
t transfer thhe load evennly
to eacch pile.

Fig.(9): P
Pile layout patterns.
p
Pile Spacing, Edge Distance, and Pile Cap Thickness

¾ Pile Spacing
Spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the piles and the type of
soil. According to the building codes such as CP 2004, the minimum centre to–centre
spacing of piles should be taken as:
y For straight uniform diameter piles, 2.0d to 6.0d (where, d = pile diameter).
y For friction piles, 3.0d
y For end bearing piles
(i) passing through relatively compressible strata, the spacing of piles shall not be
less than 2.5d
(ii) For end bearing piles passing through compressible strata and resting in stiff
clay, 3.5d
y For compaction piles, 2.0d
In general, piles should be spaced at 3d centre to–centre in order to transfer load
effectively to soil. If the spacing is 3d, pile group settlement and bearing capacity
should be checked.

Pile diameter
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
(mm)
Pile spacing
900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800
(mm)

¾ Edge Distance of Piles

The edge distance is normally governed by punching shear capacity of corner piles.

¾ Pile Cap Thickness

Pile cap thickness is normally determined according to the shear strength
requirements.

(i) For smaller pile cap, the thickness is governed by deep beam shear.
(ii) For large pile cap, the thickness is governed by wide beam shear.
(iii) When necessary, shear reinforcement may be used for reducing thickness of
pile cap.

Pile cap thickness is fixed such that it is adequate to resist shear without shear
reinforcement and the bars projecting from the piles and the dowel bars for the column can
be provided adequate bond length. For piles cap to be rigid, its minimum thickness should
not be less than 600 mm. As a guide, the following formulae given for reinforced concrete
may be used:
• For pile diameter (Dp) 550 mm: Pile cap thickness (h) = (2 Dp + 100) mm
• For pile diameter (Dp) > 550 mm: Pile cap thickness (h) = (8 Dp + 600)/3
mm.

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Practical Aspects on Pile Cap Design
1. Pile cap should be perfectly rigid. In addition to, it should be deep enough to
allow the necessary overlap of reinforcements from column and piles.
2. The span to thickness ratio of the cap should not be more than 5.0 so that pile cap
is rigid enough to distribute the load uniformly to all piles.
3. Since the piles are short and elastic columns, the deformations and stress
distribution are planer.
4. Pile heads are hinged to the pile cap and hence no bending moment is transmitted
to piles from pile caps.
5. Pile heads should be embedded at least (150 300) mm into the cap. In addition,
the bottom rebars should loop around the pile to avoid splitting a part of the cap
from pile head moments and shears.
6. For accommodating deviations in driving of piles, pile cap should be extended at
least (150 300) mm beyond the outside faces of exterior piles (i.e., clear
overhang beyond the outermost pile not less than 150mm).
7. Pile cap should be reinforced for both positive and negative bending moments.
The bottom cap reinforcing bars should be 7.5cm above piles heads to control
concrete cracking around them as shown in Fig.(10).
8. The minimum effective depth of the pile cap is (d = 300 mm); (as required by
ACI 318 Code in Art. 15 7). Therefore, referring to Fig.(10), the minimum
cap thickness is: t = 300 + d bar / 2 + 75 + 150 (mm).
9. Tension shear connectors should be used on the pile heads if the piles are
subjected to tension forces.
10. The critical sections for piles cap shear and moment are computed in the same
way as that of spread footings taking into account the criteria shown in Fig.(11).

15cm

15cm

15cm ∑ Pu 15cm

∑ Mu yy

Pile Cap
d Reinforcement

7.5cm
15cm
15cm
On sides cover Cover of penetration
of piles into cap

Fig.(10): Design of pile cap .

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 (a) For punching shear:
critical section is at d/2 from
face of column,
B
(b) For wide-beam shear:
critical section is at d from
face of column,

• If pile is at a distance D/2 from the

critical section, use full pile load.
• If pile is inside the critical section, neglect
the pile load.
• For intermediate locations (between
critical section and D/2) use linear
interpolation.
where, D = pile diameter.

Check Deep Beam Shear

at face of column when
the distance < d

Critical section for

Wide-Beam Shear.
Critical section for
Punching Shear.

Fig. (11): Critical piles cap sections for shear, moment, and bond
computations according to ACI 318.

Design Procedure of Pile Cap

1. Estimate number of piles needed.
2. Select pile layout pattern.
3. Convert the loads into ultimate.

where, P 1.2 DL + 1.6LL

4. Calculate individual pile loads or reactions:
(a) For concentric loaded pile cap (eccentricity = 0); each pile carries an equal
amount of the ultimate load and for n piles carrying a total load ∑ Pu , the load
per pile is:
∑ Pu
Pn =
n
This assumption is correct when all the piles are vertical, the pile cap is in
contact with the ground surface, and the piles cap is rigid.
(b) For eccentric loaded pile cap (eccentricity ≠ 0) in two directions; each pile
carries certain value due to load and moment as:

23
 ∑ Pu x n .∑ Mu yy y n .∑ Mu xx
Pn = ± ±
n n 2 n 2
∑ x ∑ y
i i
i =1 i =1
where,
Pn = pile load or reaction.
∑ Pu = total ultimate load,
∑ Mu xx , ∑ Mu yy = ultimate moments about x and y axes, respectively,
x , y = distances from y and x axes to any pile,
2 2 2
∑ x i , ∑ y i = moment of inertia of the group, computed as: I = Io + A.d but
the pile moment of inertia Io is negligible, thus the A term cancels,

Notice that the maximum pile load shall not exceed allowable pile capacity.

5. Find pile cap thickness:

Calculate factored shear at critical sections. The one way or (wide beam shear) is
checked at a distance of d from the face of the column. The critical section for
two way shear (punching shear) is at a distance d/2 from face of column or
pedestal.

In computing the external shear on any section,

• The entire (100%) reaction of any pile of diameter Dp whose centre is
located Dp/2 or more outside the section shall be taken.
• The pile will produce no shear (0%) if the pile centre is located Dp/2 or
more inside the section.
• For intermediate positions of the pile centre, the pile reaction shall be
based on straight line interpolation between full value at Dp/2 outside the
section and zero value at Dp/2 inside the section.

6. Find pile cap reinforcement:

Pile cap has to be designed either by truss theory or beam theory. Although, the
pile caps are assumed to act as a simply supported beam and are designed for the
usual condition of bending and shear, their tendency is to fail by bursting due to
high principal tension and they will therefore always require a cage of
reinforcement in three dimensions to resist this tendency.
The critical section for bending moments and bond shall be calculated at the
face of column or pedestal. The main reinforcement is usually bended and
extended for full depth of pile cap to fulfill the development length check. For
bursting (horizontal binders) it is suggested that 25 % of the main reinforcement
(usually 12 mm at 150 mm c/c) shall be used. A cover of 75 mm is usually
provided for the pile cap in contact with earth and 60 mm against blinding concrete
of 75 to 100 mm thick. In marine situations the cover should be increased to a
minimum of 80 mm.

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