46492_04_p58-86.

qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 58

4 Motion in Two and

Three Dimensions

Source: Rob Tringali/Sports Chrome Inc.

ED: word "Source" and colon to be delet

When a high fly ball is hit to the outfield, how does the outfielder in the Not marked.

area know where to be in order to catch it? Often the outfielder will jog What clue is
or run at a measured pace to the catch site, arriving just as the ball
does. Playing experience surely helps, but some other factor seems to
hidden in the
be involved. ball’s motion?
The answer is in this chapter.

58
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 59

4-1 | What is Physics? 59

4-1 WHAT IS PHYSICS?

In this chapter we continue looking at the aspect of physics that analyzes motion,
but now the motion can be in two or three dimensions. For example, medical
researchers and aeronautical engineers might concentrate on the physics of the
two- and three-dimensional turns taken by fighter pilots in dogfights because a
modern high-performance jet can take a tight turn so quickly that the pilot
immediately loses consciousness. A sports engineer might focus on the physics of
basketball. For example, in a free throw (where a player gets an uncontested shot
at the basket from about 4.3 m), a player might employ the overhand push shot,
in which the ball is pushed away from about shoulder height and then released.
Or the player might use an underhand loop shot, in which the ball is brought
upward from about the belt-line level and released. The first technique is the
overwhelming choice among professional players, but the legendary Rick Barry
set the record for free-throw shooting with the underhand technique.
Motion in three dimensions is not easy to understand. For example, you are
probably good at driving a car along a freeway (one-dimensional motion) but
would probably have a difficult time in landing an airplane on a runway (three-
dimensional motion) without a lot of training.
In our study of two- and three-dimensional motion, we start with position
and displacement.

4-2 | Position and Displacement

One general way of locating a particle (or particle-like object) is with a position
vector :r , which is a vector that extends from a reference point (usually the ori-
gin) to the particle. In the unit-vector notation of Section 3-5, :
r can be written
:
r  xî  yĵ  zk̂, (4-1)

where x î , y ĵ, and z k̂ are the vector components of :

r and the coefficients x, y, and
z are its scalar components.
The coefficients x, y, and z give the particle’s location along the coordinate
axes and relative to the origin; that is, the particle has the rectangular coordinates
(x, y, z). For instance, Fig. 4-1 shows a particle with position vector
:
r  (
3 m)î  (2 m)ĵ  (5 m)k̂
and rectangular coordinates (
3 m, 2 m, 5 m). Along the x axis the particle is 3 m
from the origin, in the
î direction. Along the y axis it is 2 m from the origin, in
the  ĵ direction. Along the z axis it is 5 m from the origin, in the  k̂ direction.
As a particle moves, its position vector changes in such a way that the vector
always extends to the particle from the reference point (the origin). If the posi-
tion vector changes — say, from : r 1 to :r 2 during a certain time interval — then the y
:
particle’s displacement  r during that time interval is

:
r :
r2
:
r 1. (4-2) (2 m)jˆ
ˆ
(5 m)k
(–3 m)iˆ
Using the unit-vector notation of Eq. 4-1, we can rewrite this displacement as x
O
:
 r  (x2 î  y2 ĵ  z2 k̂)
(x1î  y1 ĵ  z1 k̂) r

or as :
r  (x2
x1)î  (y2
y1)ĵ  (z2
z1)k̂, (4-3)

where coordinates (x1, y1, z1) correspond to position vector : r 1 and coordinates
z
(x2, y2, z2) correspond to position vector :
r 2. We can also rewrite the displacement
by substituting x for (x2
x1), y for (y2
y1), and z for (z2
z1): FIG. 4-1 The position vector :r for a
particle is the vector sum of its vector
:
r  xî  yĵ  zk̂. (4-4) components.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 60

60 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Sample Problem 4-1

y
In Fig. 4-2, the position vector for a particle initially is
:
r1  (
3.0 m)î  (2.0 m)ĵ  (5.0 m)k̂
and then later is
O
r 2  (9.0 m)î  (2.0 m)ĵ  (8.0 m)k̂ .
: Initial
x
position r1
What is the particle’s displacement  r from r 1 to r 2?
: : : r2

Later
KEY IDEA Path of particle ∆r position
The displacement  r is obtained by sub-
:

tracting the initial :

r 1 from the later :
r 2. z
FIG. 4-2 The displacement  r  r 2
r 1 extends from the
: : :

Calculation: The subtraction gives us :

head of the initial position vector r 1 to the head of the later
:
r  :
r2
r1: position vector :r 2.

 [9.0
(
3.0)]î  [2.0
2.0]ĵ  [8.0
5.0]k̂ This displacement vector is parallel to the xz plane
 (12 m)î  (3.0 m)k̂ . (Answer) because it lacks a y component.

Sample Problem 4-2

A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of y (m)

coordinate axes has, strangely enough, been drawn. The
40
coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as func-
tions of time t (seconds) are given by
20
x 
0.31t 2  7.2t  28 (4-5)
–41°
and y  0.22t 2
9.1t  30. (4-6) x (m)
0 20 40 60 80
(a) At t  15 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector r in :

unit-vector notation and in magnitude-angle notation? –20

–40
KEY IDEA r
The x and y coordinates of the rabbit’s
position, as given by Eqs. 4-5 and 4-6, are the scalar –60
components of the rabbit’s position vector :
r. (a)

Calculations: We can write

:
r (t)  x(t)î  y(t)ĵ. (4-7) y (m)
: :
(We write r (t) rather than r because the components 40
:
are functions of t, and thus r is also.) t=0s
At t  15 s, the scalar components are
20
x  (
0.31)(15)2  (7.2)(15)  28  66 m
and y  (0.22)(15)2
(9.1)(15)  30 
57 m, x (m)
0 20 40 60 80
:
so r  (66 m)î
(57 m)ĵ, (Answer) 5s
–20
which is drawn in Fig. 4-3a. To get the magnitude and
angle of :
r , we use Eq. 3-6: –40 10 s

r  √x  y  √(66 m)  (
57 m)
2 2 2 2

 87 m, (Answer) –60
25 s
15 s
(b) 20 s
and   tan
1
y
x
 tan
1


57 m
66 m  
41. FIG. 4-3 (a) A rabbit’s position vector :
scalar components of :
r at time t  15 s. The
r are shown along the axes. (b) The rab-
(Answer) bit’s path and its position at five values of t.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 61

4-3 | Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity 61

Check: Although   139° has the same tangent as Graphing: We can repeat part (a) for several values of t

41°, the components of :
r indicate that the desired an- and then plot the results. Figure 4-3b shows the plots for
gle is 139°
180° 
41°. five values of t and the path connecting them. We can
also plot Eqs. 4-5 and 4-6 on a calculator.
(b) Graph the rabbit’s path for t  0 to t  25 s.

4-3 | Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

If a particle moves from one point to another, we might need to know how fast it
moves. Just as in Chapter 2, we can define two quantities that deal with “how
fast”: average velocity and instantaneous velocity. However, here we must con-
sider these quantities as vectors and use vector notation.
If a particle moves through a displacement : r in a time interval t, then its
average velocity : v avg is
displacement
average velocity  ,
time interval

: :
r
or v avg  . (4-8)
t
This tells us that the direction of :
v avg (the vector on the left side of Eq. 4-8) must
be the same as that of the displacement : r (the vector on the right side). Using
Eq. 4-4, we can write Eq. 4-8 in vector components as
: xî  yĵ  zk̂ x y z
v avg   î  ĵ  k̂. (4-9)
t t t t
For example, if the particle in Sample Problem 4-1 moves from its initial position
to its later position in 2.0 s, then its average velocity during that move is
: :
r (12 m)î  (3.0 m)k̂
v avg    (6.0 m/s)î  (1.5 m/s)k̂.
t 2.0 s
That is, the average velocity (a vector quantity) has a component of 6.0 m/s along
the x axis and a component of 1.5 m/s along the z axis.
When we speak of the velocity of a particle, we usually mean the particle’s in-
stantaneous velocity : : :
v at some instant. This v is the value that v avg approaches in
the limit as we shrink the time interval t to 0 about that instant. Using the lan-
guage of calculus, we may write : v as the derivative

: d:
r
v . (4-10)
dt

Figure 4-4 shows the path of a particle that is restricted to the xy plane. As y
the particle travels to the right along the curve, its position vector sweeps to the Tangent
right. During time interval t, the position vector changes from : :
r 1 to r 2 and the
:
particle’s displacement is  r . 1
To find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at, say, instant t1 (when the ∆r
2
particle is at position 1), we shrink interval t to 0 about t1. Three things happen
r1
as we do so. (1) Position vector : r 2 in Fig. 4-4 moves toward : r 1 so that : r shrinks r2
: :
toward zero. (2) The direction of  r /t (and thus of v avg ) approaches the Path
x
direction of the line tangent to the particle’s path at position 1. (3) The average O
velocity : v avg approaches the instantaneous velocity : v at t1. FIG. 4-4 The displacement  r of :

In the limit as t : 0, we have : v avg : :

v and, most important here, a particle during a time interval t,
:
v avg takes on the direction of the tangent line. Thus, : v has that direction as well: from position 1 with position vector
:
r 1 at time t1 to position 2 with
position vector : r 2 at time t2. The
The direction of the instantaneous velocity :
v of a particle is always tangent to the
tangent to the particle’s path at
particle’s path at the particle’s position.
position 1 is shown.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 62

62 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

:
The result is the same in three dimensions: v is always tangent to the particle’s path.
:
To write Eq. 4-10 in unit-vector form, we substitute for r from Eq. 4-1:
: d dx dy dz
v (xî  yĵ  zk̂)  î  ĵ  k̂.
dt dt dt dt
This equation can be simplified somewhat by writing it as
:
v  vx î  vy ĵ  vz k̂, (4-11)
:
where the scalar components of v are

y dx dy dz
vx  , vy  , and vz  . (4-12)
dt dt dt
Tangent
:
For example, dx/dt is the scalar component of v along the x axis. Thus, we can find
vy v : :
the scalar components of v by differentiating the scalar components of r .
vx :
Figure 4-5 shows a velocity vector v and its scalar x and y components. Note
:
that v is tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position. Caution: When a
position vector is drawn, as in Figs. 4-1 through 4-4, it is an arrow that extends
Path
from one point (a “here”) to another point (a “there”). However, when a velocity
x
O vector is drawn, as in Fig. 4-5, it does not extend from one point to another.
:
FIG. 4-5 The velocity v of a particle, Rather, it shows the instantaneous direction of travel of a particle at the tail, and
along with the scalar components of :
v. its length (representing the velocity magnitude) can be drawn to any scale.

CHECKPOINT 1 The figure shows a circular y

path taken by a particle. If the instantaneous velocity of
the particle is :v  (2 m /s)î
(2 m /s)ĵ , through which
quadrant is the particle moving at that instant if it is trav-
eling (a) clockwise and (b) counterclockwise around the x
circle? For both cases, draw :
v on the figure.

Sample Problem 4-3

For the rabbit in Sample Problem 4-2 find the velocity :

v y (m)
at time t  15 s.
40

KEY IDEA
We can find : v by taking derivatives of the 20
components of the rabbit’s position vector.
x (m)
Calculations: Applying the vx part of Eq. 4-12 to 0 20 40 60 80
Eq. 4-5, we find the x component of :
v to be
–20
dx d
vx   (
0.31t 2  7.2t  28)
dt dt –40

0.62t  7.2. (4-13)
x
–60
At t  15 s, this gives vx 
2.1 m/s. Similarly, applying
the vy part of Eq. 4-12 to Eq. 4-6, we find v –130°

dy d The rabbit’s velocity :

v at t  15 s.
vy   (0.22t 2
9.1t  30) FIG. 4-6
dt dt
 0.44t
9.1. (4-14) :
v  (
2.1 m /s)î  (
2.5 m /s)ĵ , (Answer)
At t  15 s, this gives vy 
2.5 m/s. Equation 4-11 then which is shown in Fig. 4-6, tangent to the rabbit’s path
yields and in the direction the rabbit is running at t  15 s.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 63

4-4 | Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration 63

To get the magnitude and angle of :

2.5

2.1 m /s 
v , either we use a vy m /s
vector-capable calculator or we follow Eq. 3-6 to write and   tan
1  tan
1
vx
v  √   √(
2.1 m /s)  (
2.5 m /s)
v 2x v 2y 2 2  tan
1
1.19 
130. (Answer)
 3.3 m /s (Answer) Check: Is the angle
130° or
130°  180°  50°?

4-4 | Average Acceleration and Instantaneous

Acceleration
: :
When a particle’s velocity changes from v 1 to v 2 in a time interval t, its average
:
acceleration a avg during t is
average change in velocity
 ,
acceleration time interval
:
v2
: :
: v1 v
or a avg   . (4-15)
t t
:
If we shrink t to zero about some instant, then in the limit a avg approaches the
:
instantaneous acceleration (or acceleration) a at that instant; that is,
:
: dv
a . (4-16)
dt

If the velocity changes in either magnitude or direction (or both), the particle
must have an acceleration.
:
We can write Eq. 4-16 in unit-vector form by substituting Eq. 4-11 for v to
obtain
: d
a (v î  vy ĵ  vz k̂)
dt x
dvx dvy dvz
 î  ĵ  k̂.
dt dt dt
We can rewrite this as
:
a  ax î  ay ĵ  az k̂, (4-17)

:
where the scalar components of a are

dvx dvy dvz

ax  , ay  , and az  . (4-18)
dt dt dt
: :
To find the scalar components of a , we differentiate the scalar components of v .
:
Figure 4-7 shows an acceleration vector a and its scalar components for a
particle moving in two dimensions. Caution: When an acceleration vector is
y
drawn, as in Fig. 4-7, it does not extend from one position to another. Rather, it
shows the direction of acceleration for a particle located at its tail, and its length
ax
(representing the acceleration magnitude) can be drawn to any scale.
ay
a
CHECKPOINT 2 Here are four descriptions of the position (in meters) of
a puck as it moves in an xy plane: Path
(1) x 
3t  4t
2 and y  6t
4t
2 2 :
(3) r  2t î
(4t  3)ĵ
2 x
O
:
(2) x 
3t 3
4t and y 
5t 2  6 (4) :
r  (4t 3
2t)î  3ĵ FIG. 4-7 The acceleration a of a
Are the x and y acceleration components constant? Is acceleration a constant? : particle and the scalar components
of :
a.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 64

64 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Sample Problem 4-4

For the rabbit in Sample Problems 4-2 and 4-3, find the y (m)
acceleration :
a at time t  15 s.
40

KEY IDEA 20
We can find :
a by taking derivatives of the
rabbit’s velocity components.
x (m)
0 20 40 60 80
Calculations: Applying the ax part of Eq. 4-18 to Eq.
FIG. 4-8 The accel-
4-13, we find the x component of :
a to be eration :
a of the
–20

dvx d rabbit at t  15 s.
ax   (
0.62t  7.2) 
0.62 m /s2. The rabbit happens –40
145°
dt dt a
to have this same
x
Similarly, applying the ay part of Eq. 4-18 to Eq. 4-14 acceleration at all –60
yields the y component as points on its path.

dvy d For the angle we have

ay   (0.44t
9.1)  0.44 m /s2.
dt dt

 
35.
ay 0.44 m/s2
We see that the acceleration does not vary with time (it   tan
1  tan
1
ax
0.62 m/s2
is a constant) because the time variable t does not ap-
pear in the expression for either acceleration compo- However, this angle, which is the one displayed on a cal-
nent. Equation 4-17 then yields culator, indicates that :a is directed to the right and
:
downward in Fig. 4-8. Yet, we know from the compo-
a  (
0.62 m /s2)î  (0.44 m /s2)ĵ , (Answer) nents that :a must be directed to the left and upward. To
which is superimposed on the rabbit’s path in Fig. 4-8. find the other angle that has the same tangent as
35°
To get the magnitude and angle of :a , either we use a but is not displayed on a calculator, we add 180°:
vector-capable calculator or we follow Eq. 3-6. For the
35°  180°  145°. (Answer)
magnitude we have
This is consistent with the components of a . Note that :
:
a
a  √a 2x  a 2y  √(
0.62 m /s2)2  (0.44 m /s2)2 has the same magnitude and direction throughout the
 0.76 m/s2. (Answer) rabbit’s run because the acceleration is constant.

Sample Problem 4-5

A particle with velocity :v 0 
2.0î  4.0ĵ (in meters ax  a cos   (3.0 m/s2)(cos 130°) 
1.93 m/s2,
per second) at t  0 undergoes a constant acceleration :a ay  a sin   (3.0 m/s2)(sin 130°)  2.30 m/s2.
of magnitude a  3.0 m/s2 at an angle   130° from the
positive direction of the x axis. What is the particle’s When these values are inserted into the equations for vx
v at t  5.0 s?
velocity : and vy, we find that, at time t  5.0 s,
vx 
2.0 m/s  (
1.93 m/s2)(5.0 s) 
11.65 m/s,
KEY IDEA vy  4.0 m/s  (2.30 m/s2)(5.0 s)  15.50 m/s.
Because the acceleration is constant, Eq. 2-
11 (v  v0  at) applies, but we must use it separately Thus, at t  5.0 s, we have, after rounding,
for motion parallel to the x axis and motion parallel to :
v  (
12 m /s)î  (16 m /s)ĵ. (Answer)
the y axis.
Either using a vector-capable calculator or following
Calculations: We find the velocity components vx and vy Eq. 3-6, we find that the magnitude and angle of :
v are
from the equations
v  √v 2x  v 2y  19.4  19 m /s (Answer)
vx  v0x  ax t and vy  v0y  ay t.
vy
In these equations, v0x (
2.0 m /s) and v0y ( 4.0 m /s) and   tan
1  127  130. (Answer)
vx
are the x and y components of : v 0, and ax and ay are the
x and y components of : a . To find ax and ay, we resolve Check: Does 127° appear on your calculator’s display,
:
a either with a vector-capable calculator or with or does
53° appear? Now sketch the vector : v with its
Eq. 3-5: components to see which angle is reasonable.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 65

4-5 4-1
| Projectile
| Last H1Motion
Head 65

4-5 | Projectile Motion

We next consider a special case of two-dimensional motion: A particle moves in a
vertical plane with some initial velocity :v 0 but its acceleration is always the free-
fall acceleration :g , which is downward. Such a particle is called a projectile (mean-
ing that it is projected or launched), and its motion is called projectile motion. A
projectile might be a tennis ball (Fig. 4-9) or baseball in flight, but it is not an air-
plane or a duck in flight. Many sports (from golf and football to lacrosse and rac-
quetball) involve the projectile motion of a ball, and much effort is spent in trying
to control that motion for an advantage. For example, the racquetball player who
discovered the Z-shot in the 1970s easily won his games because the ball’s peculiar
flight to the rear of the court always perplexed his opponents.
Our goal here is to analyze projectile motion using the tools for two-
dimensional motion described in Sections 4-2 through 4-4 and making the
assumption that air has no effect on the projectile. Figure 4-10, which is analyzed
in the next section, shows the path followed by a projectile when the air has no FIG. 4-9 A stroboscopic photograph
effect. The projectile is launched with an initial velocity : v 0 that can be written as of a yellow tennis ball bouncing off a
: hard surface. Between impacts, the
v 0  v0x î  v0y ĵ. (4-19)
ball has projectile motion. Source:
The components v0x and v0y can then be found if we know the angle 0 between :
v0 Richard Megna/Fundamental
and the positive x direction: Photographs.

v0x  v0 cos 0 and v0y  v0 sin 0. (4-20)

:
During its two-dimensional motion, the projectile’s position vector r and velocity
vector :
v change continuously, but its acceleration vector :a is constant and always
directed vertically downward. The projectile has no horizontal acceleration.
Projectile motion, like that in Figs. 4-9 and 4-10, looks complicated, but we
have the following simplifying feature (known from experiment):

In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent
of each other; that is, neither motion affects the other.

This feature allows us to break up a problem involving two-dimensional motion

into two separate and easier one-dimensional problems, one for the horizontal
motion (with zero acceleration) and one for the vertical motion (with constant
downward acceleration). Here are two experiments that show that the horizontal
motion and the vertical motion are independent.

y
v
FIG. 4-10 The path of a vy v vy = 0
projectile that is launched at vx
x0  0 and y0  0, with an vx vy v
initial velocity :
v 0.The initial v0
velocity and the velocities at v0y
various points along its path θ0 vx
are shown, along with their v0x
x
components. Note that the O vy θ
horizontal velocity compo- R
v
nent remains constant but
the vertical velocity compo-
vx
nent changes continuously.
The range R is the
horizontal distance the pro- vy
jectile has traveled when it v
returns to its launch height.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 66

66 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Two Golf Balls

Figure 4-11 is a stroboscopic photograph of two golf balls, one simply released
and the other shot horizontally by a spring. The golf balls have the same vertical
motion, both falling through the same vertical distance in the same interval of
time. The fact that one ball is moving horizontally while it is falling has no effect on
its vertical motion; that is, the horizontal and vertical motions are independent of
each other.

A Great Student Rouser

Figure 4-12 shows a demonstration that has enlivened many a physics lecture. It
involves a blowgun G, using a ball as a projectile. The target is a can suspended
from a magnet M, and the tube of the blowgun is aimed directly at the can. The
experiment is arranged so that the magnet releases the can just as the ball leaves
the blowgun.
If g (the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration) were zero, the ball would
follow the straight-line path shown in Fig. 4-12 and the can would float in place
FIG. 4-11 One ball is released from
rest at the same instant that another
after the magnet released it. The ball would certainly hit the can.
ball is shot horizontally to the right. However, g is not zero, but the ball still hits the can! As Fig. 4-12 shows,
Their vertical motions are identical. during the time of flight of the ball, both ball and can fall the same distance h
Source: Richard Megna/ Fundamental from their zero-g locations. The harder the demonstrator blows, the greater is the
Photographs. ball’s initial speed, the shorter the flight time, and the smaller the value of h.

CHECKPOINT 3 At a certain instant, a fly ball has velocity :

v  25î
4.9ĵ
(the x axis is horizontal, the y axis is upward, and :v is in meters per second). Has the
ball passed its highest point?

4-6 | Projectile Motion Analyzed

Now we are ready to analyze projectile motion, horizontally and vertically.

The Horizontal Motion

Because there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, the horizontal
component vx of the projectile’s velocity remains unchanged from its initial value
v0x throughout the motion, as demonstrated in Fig. 4-13. At any time t, the projec-
tile’s horizontal displacement x
x0 from an initial position x0 is given by Eq.
2-15 with a  0, which we write as
x
x0  v0x t.
Because v0x  v0 cos 0, this becomes
x
x0  (v0 cos 0)t. (4-21)
M The Vertical Motion
h Can
pat The vertical motion is the motion we discussed in Section 2-9 for a particle in free
g h
ro- fall. Most important is that the acceleration is constant. Thus, the equations of
Ze
Table 2-1 apply, provided we substitute
g for a and switch to y notation. Then,
for example, Eq. 2-15 becomes
y
y0  v0yt
12gt 2
G
 (v0 sin 0)t
12gt 2, (4-22)
where the initial vertical velocity component v0y is replaced with the equivalent
FIG. 4-12 The projectile ball always v0 sin 0. Similarly, Eqs. 2-11 and 2-16 become
hits the falling can. Each falls a dis- vy  v0 sin 0
gt (4-23)
tance h from where it would be were
there no free-fall acceleration. and v 2y  (v0 sin 0)2
2g(y
y0). (4-24)
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 67

4-6 | Projectile Motion Analyzed 67

As is illustrated in Fig. 4-10 and Eq. 4-23, the vertical velocity component be-
haves just as for a ball thrown vertically upward. It is directed upward initially,
and its magnitude steadily decreases to zero, which marks the maximum height of
the path. The vertical velocity component then reverses direction, and its magni-
tude becomes larger with time.

The Equation of the Path

We can find the equation of the projectile’s path (its trajectory) by eliminating
time t between Eqs. 4-21 and 4-22. Solving Eq. 4-21 for t and substituting into Eq.
4-22, we obtain, after a little rearrangement,
gx 2
y  (tan 0)x
(trajectory). (4-25)
2(v0 cos 0)2
This is the equation of the path shown in Fig. 4-10. In deriving it, for simplicity we
let x0  0 and y0  0 in Eqs. 4-21 and 4-22, respectively. Because g, 0, and v0 are
constants, Eq. 4-25 is of the form y  ax  bx2, in which a and b are constants. FIG. 4-13 The vertical component
of this skateboarder’s velocity is
This is the equation of a parabola, so the path is parabolic.
changing but not the horizontal
component, which matches the
The Horizontal Range skateboard’s velocity. As a result, the
skateboard stays underneath him,
The horizontal range R of the projectile, as Fig. 4-10 shows, is the horizontal
allowing him to land on it. Source:
distance the projectile has traveled when it returns to its initial (launch) height.
Jamie Budge/Liaison/ Getty Images, Inc.
To find range R, let us put x
x0  R in Eq. 4-21 and y
y0  0 in Eq. 4-22,
obtaining
R  (v0 cos 0)t
y
and 0  (v0 sin 0)t
12gt 2.
v0 II
Eliminating t between these two equations yields
I
2v20
R sin 0 cos 0. 60° x
g
FIG. 4-14 (I) The path of a fly ball
Using the identity sin 20  2 sin 0 cos 0 (see Appendix E), we obtain
calculated by taking air resistance
v20 into account. (II) The path the ball
R sin 20. (4-26) would follow in a vacuum, calculated
g
by the methods of this chapter. See
Caution: This equation does not give the horizontal distance traveled by a projec- Table 4-1 for corresponding data.
tile when the final height is not the launch height. (Adapted from “The Trajectory of
Note that R in Eq. 4-26 has its maximum value when sin 20  1, which a Fly Ball,” by Peter J. Brancazio, The
Physics Teacher, January 1985.)
corresponds to 20  90° or 0  45°.
The horizontal range R is maximum for a launch angle of 45°.

However, when the launch and landing heights differ, as in shot put, hammer
throw, and basketball, a launch angle of 45° does not yield the maximum horizon- TA B L E 4 - 1
tal distance. Two Fly Ballsa

Path I Path II
The Effects of the Air (Air) (Vacuum)
We have assumed that the air through which the projectile moves has no effect on
Range 98.5 m 177 m
its motion. However, in many situations, the disagreement between our calcula-
Maximum
tions and the actual motion of the projectile can be large because the air resists
height 53.0 m 76.8 m
(opposes) the motion. Figure 4-14, for example, shows two paths for a fly ball that
Time
leaves the bat at an angle of 60° with the horizontal and an initial speed of 44.7
of flight 6.6 s 7.9 s
m/s. Path I (the baseball player’s fly ball) is a calculated path that approximates
normal conditions of play, in air. Path II (the physics professor’s fly ball) is the a
See Fig. 4-14. The launch angle is 60° and
path the ball would follow in a vacuum. the launch speed is 44.7 m/s.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 68

68 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

CHECKPOINT 4 A fly ball is hit to the outfield. During its flight (ignore the
effects of the air), what happens to its (a) horizontal and (b) vertical components of ve-
locity? What are the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical components of its acceleration dur-
ing ascent, during descent, and at the topmost point of its flight?

Sample Problem 4-6 Build your skill

y
In Fig. 4-15, a rescue plane flies at 198 km/h ( 55.0 m/s)
v0
and constant height h  500 m toward a point directly x
over a victim, where a rescue capsule is to land. O
φ Tr
aje
(a) What should be the angle  of the pilot’s line of sight cto
ry
to the victim when the capsule release is made? h Lin
eo
f si
gh
t
KEY IDEAS
Once released, the capsule is a projectile,
so its horizontal and vertical motions can be considered θ
v
separately (we need not consider the actual curved path
of the capsule). FIG. 4-15 A plane drops a rescue capsule while moving at
constant velocity in level flight. While falling, the capsule
Calculations: In Fig. 4-15, we see that  is given by remains under the plane.

x Then Eq. 4-27 gives us

  tan
1 , (4-27)
h
555.5 m
where x is the horizontal coordinate of the victim (and   tan
1  48.0. (Answer)
500 m
of the capsule when it hits the water) and h  500 m. We
should be able to find x with Eq. 4-21: (b) As the capsule reaches the water, what is its velocity :
v
in unit-vector notation and in magnitude-angle notation?
x
x0  (v0 cos 0)t. (4-28)
Here we know that x0  0 because the origin is placed KEY IDEAS
(1) The horizontal and vertical components
at the point of release. Because the capsule is released
of the capsule’s velocity are independent. (2) Component
and not shot from the plane, its initial velocity : v 0 is
vx does not change from its initial value v0x  v0 cos 0 be-
equal to the plane’s velocity. Thus, we know also that
cause there is no horizontal acceleration. (3) Component
the initial velocity has magnitude v0  55.0 m/s and
vy changes from its initial value v0y  v0 sin 0 because
angle 0  0° (measured relative to the positive
there is a vertical acceleration.
direction of the x axis). However, we do not know
the time t the capsule takes to move from the plane to Calculations: When the capsule reaches the water,
the victim.
To find t, we next consider the vertical motion and vx  v0 cos 0  (55.0 m/s)(cos 0°)  55.0 m/s.
specifically Eq. 4-22: Using Eq. 4-23 and the capsule’s time of fall t  10.1 s,
y
y0  (v0 sin 0)t
1 2 we also find that when the capsule reaches the water,
2 gt . (4-29)
vy  v0 sin 0
gt (4-30)
Here the vertical displacement y
y0 of the capsule is

500 m (the negative value indicates that the capsule  (55.0 m/s)(sin 0°)
(9.8 m/s )(10.1 s)
2

moves downward). So, 
99.0 m/s.

500 m  (55.0 m/s)(sin 0)t
12 (9.8 m/s2)t 2. Thus, at the water
Solving for t, we find t  10.1 s. Using that value in Eq. :
v  (55.0 m /s)î
(99.0 m /s)ĵ. (Answer)
4-28 yields
Using Eq. 3-6 as a guide, we find that the magnitude and
x
0  (55.0 m/s)(cos 0°)(10.1 s), the angle of :
v are
or x  555.5 m. v  113 m/s and  
60.9°. (Answer)
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 69

4-6 | Projectile Motion Analyzed 69

Sample Problem 4-7

Figure 4-16 shows a pirate ship 560 m from a fort de- y

fending a harbor entrance. A defense cannon, located at
sea level, fires balls at initial speed v0  82 m/s.
(a) At what angle 0 from the horizontal must a ball be
fired to hit the ship?
63°

KEY IDEAS 27°

(1) A fired cannonball is a projectile. We x
want an equation that relates the launch angle 0 to the
ball’s horizontal displacement as it moves from cannon
R = 560 m
to ship. (2) Because the cannon and the ship are at the
same height, the horizontal displacement is the range. FIG. 4-16 A pirate ship under fire.

Calculations: We can relate the launch angle 0 to the

range R with Eq. 4-26 (R  (v 20/g) sin 20), which, after
(b) What is the maximum range of the cannonballs?
rearrangement, gives
Calculations: We have seen that maximum range corre-
1 gR 1 (9.8 m /s2)(560 m)
0  sin
1 2  sin
1 sponds to an elevation angle 0 of 45°. Thus,
2 v0 2 (82 m /s)2
v20 (82 m /s)2
1 R sin 20  sin (2  45)
 sin
1 0.816. (4-31) g 9.8 m /s2
2
 686 m  690 m. (Answer)
One solution of sin
1 (54.7°) is displayed by a calcula-
tor; we subtract it from 180° to get the other solution As the pirate ship sails away, the two elevation angles at
(125.3°). Thus, Eq. 4-31 gives us which the ship can be hit draw together, eventually merging
at 0  45° when the ship is 690 m away. Beyond that dis-
0  27 and 0  63. (Answer) tance the ship is safe.

Sample Problem 4-8

Suppose a baseball batter B hits a high fly ball to the 90

outfield, directly toward an outfielder F and with a
launch speed of v0  40 m/s and a launch angle of
0  35°. During the flight, a line from the outfielder to 60
φ (deg)

the ball makes an angle  with the ground. Plot eleva-

tion angle  versus time t, assuming that the outfielder is y Too close
already positioned to catch the ball, is 6.0 m too close to 30
the batter, and is 6.0 m too far away. Too far
y F
B φ
x
KEY IDEAS
(1) If we neglect air drag, the ball is a pro- x R–x 0 1 2 3 4 5
jectile for which the vertical motion and the horizontal R t (s)
motion can be analyzed separately. (2) Assuming the (a) (b)
ball is caught at approximately the height it is hit, the FIG. 4-17 The elevation angle  for a ball hit toward an out-
horizontal distance traveled by the ball is the range R, fielder is (a) defined and (b) plotted versus time t.
given by Eq. 4-26 (R  (v20 /g) sin 20).

Calculations: The ball can be caught if the outfielder’s Figure 4-17a shows a snapshot of the ball in flight when
distance from the batter is equal to the range R of the the ball is at height y and horizontal distance x from the
ball. Using Eq. 4-26, we find batter (who is at the origin). The horizontal distance of
the ball from the outfielder is R
x, and the elevation
v 20 (40 m/s)2 angle  of the ball in the outfielder’s view is given by
R sin 20  sin (70)  153.42 m.
g 9.8 m/s2 tan   y/(R
x). For the height y, we use Eq. 4-22
(4-32) (y
y0  (v0 sin 0)t
12 gt2), setting y0  0. For the
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 70

70 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

horizontal distance x, we substitute with Eq. 4-21 153.42 m
6.0 m  147.42 m. Regraphing the function
(x
x0  (v0 cos 0)t), setting x0  0. Thus, using gives the “Too close” plot in Fig. 4-17b. Now the eleva-
v0  40 m/s and 0  35°, we have tion angle of the ball rapidly increases toward the end
of the flight as the ball soars over the outfielder’s head.
(40 sin 35)t
4.9t 2
  tan
1 . (4-33) If the outfielder is 6.0 m too far away from the batter,
153.42
(40 cos 35)t we replace the distance of 153.42 m in Eq. 4-33 with
Graphing this function versus t gives the middle 159.42 m. The resulting plot is labeled “Too far” in the
plot in Fig. 4-17b. We see that the ball’s angle in the figure: The angle first increases and then rapidly
outfielder’s view increases at an almost steady rate decreases. Thus, if a ball is hit directly toward an
throughout the flight. outfielder, the player can tell from the change in the
If the outfielder is 6.0 m too close to the batter, ball’s elevation angle  whether to stay put, run toward
we replace the distance of 153.42 m in Eq. 4-33 with the batter, or back away from the batter.

Sample Problem 4-9 Build your skill

At time t  0, a golf ball is shot from ground level into 80

the air, as indicated in Fig. 4-18a. The angle  between 40

θ (deg)
the ball’s direction of travel and the positive direction y
of the x axis is given in Fig. 4-18b as a function of time t. 0
2 4 6
The ball lands at t  6.00 s. What is the magnitude v0 of –40
the ball’s launch velocity, at what height (y
y0) above
–80
the launch level does the ball land, and what is the ball’s x
t (s)
direction of travel just as it lands? (a) (b)
FIG. 4-18 (a) Path of a golf ball shot onto a plateau. (b) The
KEY IDEAS angle  that gives the ball’s direction of motion during the
(1) The ball is a projectile, and so its hori- flight is plotted versus time t.
zontal and vertical motions can be considered sepa-
rately. (2) The horizontal component vx ( v0 cos 0) of
the ball’s velocity does not change during the flight. v0  39.80  40 m/s. (Answer)
(3) The vertical component vy of its velocity does The ball lands at t  6.00 s. Using Eq. 4-22 (y
y0 
change and is zero when the ball reaches maximum (v0 sin 0)t
12 gt2) with t  6.00 s, we obtain
height. (4) The ball’s direction of travel at any time dur-
ing the flight is at the angle of its velocity vector :
v just y
y0  58.77 m  59 m. (Answer)
then. That angle is given by tan   vy /vx, with the veloc- Just as the ball lands, its horizontal velocity vx is still
ity components evaluated at that time. v0 cos 0; substituting for v0 and 0 gives us vx  6.911 m/s.
We find its vertical velocity just then by using Eq. 4-23
Calculations: When the ball reaches its maximum height, (vy  v0 sin 0
gt) with t  6.00 s, which yields
vy  0. So, the direction of the velocity : v is horizontal, at vy 
19.60 m/s. Thus, the angle of the ball’s direction of
angle   0°. From the graph, we see that this condition travel at landing is
occurs at t  4.0 s. We also see that the launch angle 0 (at
t  0) is 80°. Using Eq. 4-23 (vy  v0 sin 0
gt), with t  vy
19.60 m/s
  tan
1  tan
1 
71. (Answer)
4.0 s, g  9.8 m/s2, 0  80°, and vy  0, we find vx 6.911 m/s

4-7 | Uniform Circular Motion

A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle or a circular
arc at constant (uniform) speed. Although the speed does not vary, the particle is
accelerating because the velocity changes in direction.
Figure 4-19 shows the relationship between the velocity and acceleration
vectors at various stages during uniform circular motion. Both vectors have
constant magnitude, but their directions change continuously. The velocity is
always directed tangent to the circle in the direction of motion. The acceleration
is always directed radially inward. Because of this, the acceleration associated
with uniform circular motion is called a centripetal (meaning “center seeking”)
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 71

4-7 | Uniform Circular Motion 71

:
acceleration. As we prove next, the magnitude of this acceleration a is
v
v2
a (centripetal acceleration), (4-34) v a
r

where r is the radius of the circle and v is the speed of the particle. a
a
In addition, during this acceleration at constant speed, the particle travels the
circumference of the circle (a distance of 2 r) in time

2 r v
T (period). (4-35)
v
FIG. 4-19 Velocity and acceleration
T is called the period of revolution, or simply the period, of the motion. It is, in vectors for uniform circular motion.
general, the time for a particle to go around a closed path exactly once.

Proof of Eq. 4-34

y
To find the magnitude and direction of the acceleration for uniform circular
v
motion, we consider Fig. 4-20. In Fig. 4-20a, particle p moves at constant speed θ
v around a circle of radius r. At the instant shown, p has coordinates xp and yp. p
:
Recall from Section 4-3 that the velocity v of a moving particle is always tan-
: r
gent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position. In Fig. 4-20a, that means v is yp
perpendicular to a radius r drawn to the particle’s position. Then the angle  that θ
x
v makes with a vertical at p equals the angle  that radius r makes with the x axis.
: xp
:
The scalar components of v are shown in Fig. 4-20b. With them, we can write
:
the velocity v as
v  vx î  vy ĵ  (
v sin )î  (v cos )ĵ.
:
(4-36)
(a)
Now, using the right triangle in Fig. 4-20a, we can replace sin  with yp /r and
cos  with xp /r to write
y



: vyp vxp
v
î  ĵ . (4-37) v
r r θ vy
:
To find the acceleration a of particle p, we must take the time derivative of vx
this equation. Noting that speed v and radius r do not change with time, we obtain
:


vr 
: dv v dyp dxp
a 
î  ĵ. (4-38) x
dt r dt dt
Now note that the rate dyp /dt at which yp changes is equal to the velocity
component vy. Similarly, dxp /dt  vx, and, again from Fig. 4-20b, we see that vx 

v sin  and vy  v cos . Making these substitutions in Eq. 4-38, we find (b)

:
a

v2
r 

cos  î 

v2
r
sin  ĵ.  (4-39) y

This vector and its components are shown in Fig. 4-20c. Following Eq. 3-6, we find
ax
v2 v2 v2
a√ a 2x  a 2y  √(cos )  (sin )  r √1  r ,
2 2
a
r φ
ay

a , we find the angle  shown in Fig. 4-20c:

as we wanted to prove. To orient : x
ay
(v2/r) sin 
tan     tan .
ax
(v 2/r) cos 
Thus,   , which means that a is directed along the radius r of Fig. 4-20a,
:
(c)
toward the circle’s center, as we wanted to prove.
FIG. 4-20 Particle p moves in coun-
terclockwise uniform circular mo-
CHECKPOINT 5 An object moves at constant speed along a circular path in
tion. (a) Its position and velocity :
v at
a horizontal xy plane, with the center at the origin. When the object is at x 
2 m, its
a certain instant. (b) Velocity :
v.
velocity is
(4 m/s) ĵ. Give the object’s (a) velocity and (b) acceleration at y  2 m.
(c) Acceleration : a.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 72

72 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Sample Problem 4-10

“Top gun” pilots have long worried about taking a turn required to complete a full circle is the period given by
too tightly. As a pilot’s body undergoes centripetal Eq. 4-35 (T  2 R/v).
acceleration, with the head toward the center of curva-
ture, the blood pressure in the brain decreases, leading Calculations: Because we do not know radius R, let’s
to loss of brain function. solve Eq. 4-35 for R and substitute into Eq. 4-34. We find
There are several warning signs. When the cen-
2 v
tripetal acceleration is 2g or 3g, the pilot feels heavy. At a .
about 4g, the pilot’s vision switches to black and white T
and narrows to “tunnel vision.” If that acceleration is Speed v here is the (constant) magnitude of the velocity
sustained or increased, vision ceases and, soon after, the during the turning. Let’s substitute the components of
pilot is unconscious — a condition known as g-LOC for the initial velocity into Eq. 3-6:
“g-induced loss of consciousness.”
What is the magnitude of the acceleration, in v  √(400 m/s)2  (500 m/s)2  640.31 m/s.
g units, of a pilot whose aircraft enters a horizontal cir- To find the period T of the motion, first note that the fi-
cular turn with a velocity of : vi  (400î  500ĵ) m/s nal velocity is the reverse of the initial velocity. This
and 24.0 s later leaves the turn with a velocity of means the aircraft leaves on the opposite side of the cir-
v f  (
400î
500 ĵ) m/s?
:
cle from the initial point and must have completed half
a circle in the given 24.0 s. Thus a full circle would have
KEY IDEAS taken T  48.0 s. Substituting these values into our
We assume the turn is made with uniform equation for a, we find
circular motion. Then the pilot’s acceleration is
centripetal and has magnitude a given by Eq. 4-34 2 (640.31 m/s)
a  83.81 m/s2  8.6g. (Answer)
(a  v2/R), where R is the circle’s radius. Also, the time 48.0 s

4-8 | Relative Motion in One Dimension

Suppose you see a duck flying north at 30 km/h. To another duck flying alongside,
the first duck seems to be stationary. In other words, the velocity of a particle de-
pends on the reference frame of whoever is observing or measuring the velocity.
For our purposes, a reference frame is the physical object to which we attach our
coordinate system. In everyday life, that object is the ground. For example, the
speed listed on a speeding ticket is always measured relative to the ground. The
speed relative to the police officer would be different if the officer were moving
while making the speed measurement.
Suppose that Alex (at the origin of frame A in Fig. 4-21) is parked by the side
of a highway, watching car P (the “particle”) speed past. Barbara (at the origin of
frame B) is driving along the highway at constant speed and is also watching car
P. Suppose that they both measure the position of the car at a given moment.
From Fig. 4-21 we see that
y y
xPA  xPB  xBA. (4-40)
Frame A Frame B
P The equation is read: “The coordinate xPA of P as measured by A is equal to the
xPB
coordinate xPB of P as measured by B plus the coordinate xBA of B as measured
vBA
by A.” Note how this reading is supported by the sequence of the subscripts.
x x
xBA xPA = xPB + xBA Taking the time derivative of Eq. 4-40, we obtain

FIG. 4-21 Alex (frame A) and d d d

(xPA)  (xPB)  (x ).
Barbara (frame B) watch car P, as dt dt dt BA
both B and P move at different Thus, the velocity components are related by
velocities along the common x axis of
the two frames. At the instant shown, vPA  vPB  vBA. (4-41)
xBA is the coordinate of B in the A
frame. Also, P is at coordinate xPB in This equation is read: “The velocity vPA of P as measured by A is equal to the
the B frame and coordinate xPA  velocity vPB of P as measured by B plus the velocity vBA of B as measured by A.”
xPB  xBA in the A frame. The term vBA is the velocity of frame B relative to frame A.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 73

4-9 | Relative Motion in Two Dimensions 73

Here we consider only frames that move at constant velocity relative to each
other. In our example, this means that Barbara (frame B) drives always at con-
stant velocity vBA relative to Alex (frame A). Car P (the moving particle), how-
ever, can change speed and direction (that is, it can accelerate).
To relate an acceleration of P as measured by Barbara and by Alex, we take
the time derivative of Eq. 4-41:
d d d
(vPA)  (vPB)  (v ).
dt dt dt BA
Because vBA is constant, the last term is zero and we have
aPA  aPB. (4-42)
In other words,

Observers on different frames of reference that move at constant velocity relative to

each other will measure the same acceleration for a moving particle.

Sample Problem 4-11

In Fig. 4-21, suppose that Barbara’s velocity relative to Eq. 2-11 (v  v0  at) to relate the acceleration to the
Alex is a constant vBA  52 km/h and car P is moving in initial and final velocities of P.
the negative direction of the x axis.
Calculation: The initial velocity of P relative to Alex is
(a) If Alex measures a constant vPA 
78 km/h for car vPA 
78 km/h and the final velocity is 0. Thus,
P, what velocity vPB will Barbara measure?
v
v0 0
(
78 km/h) 1 m/s
a PA  
t 10 s 3.6 km/h
KEY IDEAS
We can attach a frame of reference A to  2.2 m/s .
2
(Answer)
Alex and a frame of reference B to Barbara. Because
the frames move at constant velocity relative to each other (c) What is the acceleration aPB of car P relative to
along one axis, we can use Eq. 4-41 (vPA  vPB  vBA) to Barbara during the braking?
relate vPB to vPA and vBA.
Calculation: We find KEY IDEA
To calculate the acceleration of car P rela-

78 km/h  vPB  52 km/h. tive to Barbara, we must use the car’s velocities relative
to Barbara.
Thus, vPB 
130 km/h. (Answer)
Calculation: We know the initial velocity of P relative to
Comment: If car P were connected to Barbara’s car by Barbara from part (a) (vPB 
130 km/h). The final veloc-
a cord wound on a spool, the cord would be unwinding ity of P relative to Barbara is
52 km/h (this is the velocity
at a speed of 130 km/h as the two cars separated. of the stopped car relative to the moving Barbara). Thus,
(b) If car P brakes to a stop relative to Alex (and thus v
v0
52 km/h
(
130 km/h) 1 m/s
relative to the ground) in time t  10 s at constant ac- a PB  
t 10 s 3.6 km/h
celeration, what is its acceleration aPA relative to Alex?  2.2 m/s2. (Answer)
Comment: We should have foreseen this result:
KEY IDEAS
To calculate the acceleration of car P rela- Because Alex and Barbara have a constant relative
tive to Alex, we must use the car’s velocities relative to velocity, they must measure the same acceleration for
Alex. Because the acceleration is constant, we can use the car.

4-9 | Relative Motion in Two Dimensions

Our two observers are again watching a moving particle P from the origins of refer-
:
ence frames A and B, while B moves at a constant velocity v BA relative to A. (The
corresponding axes of these two frames remain parallel.) Figure 4-22 shows a cer-
tain instant during the motion. At that instant, the position vector of the origin of B
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 74

74 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

: :
y relative to the origin of A is r BA.Also, the position vectors of particle P are r PA rel-
:
P ative to the origin of A and r PB relative to the origin of B. From the arrangement of
y heads and tails of those three position vectors, we can relate the vectors with
:
rPB r PA  :
r PB  :
r BA. (4-43)
rPA
:
vBA By taking the time derivative of this equation, we can relate the velocities v PA
:
and v PB of particle P relative to our observers:
x
Frame B
:
rBA
x v PA  :
v PB  :
v BA. (4-44)
Frame A
:
FIG. 4-22 Frame B has the constant By taking the time derivative of this relation, we can relate the accelerations a PA
:
two-dimensional velocity : v BA rela- and a PB of the particle P relative to our observers. However, note that because
:
tive to frame A. The position vector v BA is constant, its time derivative is zero. Thus, we get
of B relative to A is :r BA. The position
:
vectors of particle P are : r PA relative a PA  :
a PB. (4-45)
to A and : r PB relative to B.
As for one-dimensional motion, we have the following rule: Observers on differ-
ent frames of reference that move at constant velocity relative to each other will
measure the same acceleration for a moving particle.

Sample Problem 4-12

In Fig. 4-23a, a plane moves due east while the pilot N

points the plane somewhat south of east, toward a
steady wind that blows to the northeast. The plane has vPG
velocity :v PW relative to the wind, with an airspeed E
(speed relative to the wind) of 215 km/h, directed at θ N
angle  south of east. The wind has velocity :
v WG relative 20°
to the ground with speed 65.0 km/h, directed 20.0° east vPW vWG
of north. What is the magnitude of the velocity : v PG of
(a)
the plane relative to the ground, and what is ?

y vPG
KEY IDEAS θ
The situation is like the one in Fig. 4-22.
Here the moving particle P is the plane, frame A is at- vPW vWG
tached to the ground (call it G), and frame B is (b) x
“attached” to the wind (call it W). We need a vector dia-
FIG. 4-23 A plane flying in a wind.
gram like Fig. 4-22 but with three velocity vectors.

Calculations: First we construct a sentence that relates

the three vectors shown in Fig. 4-23b:
Solving for  gives us
velocity of plane velocity of plane velocity of wind
  (65.0 km/h)(cos 20.0)
relative to ground relative to wind relative to ground.   sin
1  16.5. (Answer)
(PG) (PW) (WG) 215 km/h
This relation is written in vector notation as Similarly, for the x components we find
:
v PG  :
v PW  :
v WG. (4-46) vPG,x  vPW,x  vWG,x.
:
We need to resolve the vectors into components on the Here, because v PG is parallel to the x axis, the compo-
coordinate system of Fig. 4-23b and then solve Eq. 4-46 nent vPG,x is equal to the magnitude vPG. Substituting
axis by axis. For the y components, we find this notation and the value   16.5°, we find
vPG,y  vPW,y  vWG,y vPG  (215 km/h)(cos 16.5°)  (65.0 km/h)(sin 20.0°)
or 0 
(215 km/h) sin   (65.0 km/h)(cos 20.0°).  228 km/h. (Answer)
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 75

Review & Summary 75

REVIEW & SUMMARY

Position Vector The location of a particle relative to the Projectile Motion Projectile motion is the motion of a
origin of a coordinate system is given by a position vector :
r, particle that is launched with an initial velocity :v 0. During its
which in unit-vector notation is flight, the particle’s horizontal acceleration is zero and its
: vertical acceleration is the free-fall acceleration
g. (Upward
r  xî  yĵ  zk̂. (4-1) is taken to be a positive direction.) If : v 0 is expressed as a
Here x î , y ĵ, and z k̂ are the vector components of position vec- magnitude (the speed v0) and an angle 0 (measured from the
tor :
r , and x, y, and z are its scalar components (as well as the horizontal), the particle’s equations of motion along the hori-
coordinates of the particle). A position vector is described zontal x axis and vertical y axis are
either by a magnitude and one or two angles for orientation, x
x0  (v0 cos 0)t, (4-21)
or by its vector or scalar components.
y
y0  (v0 sin 0)t
12gt 2, (4-22)
Displacement If a particle moves so that its position vec-
tor changes from :
r 1 to :
r 2, the particle’s displacement :
r is vy  v0 sin 0
gt, (4-23)

:
r :
r2
:
r 1. (4-2) v2y  (v0 sin 0)2
2g(y
y0). (4-24)

The displacement can also be written as The trajectory (path) of a particle in projectile motion is
parabolic and is given by
:
r  (x2
x1)î  ( y2
y1)ĵ  (z2
z1)k̂ (4-3)
gx2
 xî  y ĵ  zk̂. (4-4) y  (tan 0)x
, (4-25)
2(v0 cos 0)2
Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity If a if x0 and y0 of Eqs. 4-21 to 4-24 are zero. The particle’s
particle undergoes a displacement : r in time interval t, its horizontal range R, which is the horizontal distance from the
average velocity :
v avg for that time interval is launch point to the point at which the particle returns to
the launch height, is
: :
r
v avg  . (4-8)
t v20
R sin 20. (4-26)
g
:
As t in Eq. 4-8 is shrunk to 0, v avg reaches a limit called either
the velocity or the instantaneous velocity :v:
Uniform Circular Motion If a particle travels along a cir-
: d:
r cle or circular arc of radius r at constant speed v, it is said to be
v , (4-10) in uniform circular motion and has an acceleration : a of con-
dt
stant magnitude
which can be rewritten in unit-vector notation as
v2
:
v  vx î  vy ĵ  vzk̂, (4-11) a . (4-34)
r
where vx  dx /dt, vy  dy /dt, and vz  dz /dt. The instanta- The direction of :a is toward the center of the circle or circular
neous velocity :v of a particle is always directed along the arc, and :
a is said to be centripetal. The time for the particle to
tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position. complete a circle is

Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Accele- 2 r

T . (4-35)
ration If a particle’s velocity changes from :
v 1 to :
v 2 in time v
interval t, its average acceleration during t is
T is called the period of revolution, or simply the period, of the
:
v
: v1 :
v motion.
a avg  2
:
 . (4-15)
t t
Relative Motion When two frames of reference A and B
As t in Eq. 4-15 is shrunk to 0, :
a avg reaches a limiting value are moving relative to each other at constant velocity, the
called either the acceleration or the instantaneous accel- velocity of a particle P as measured by an observer in frame A
eration :
a: usually differs from that measured from frame B. The two
: d:v measured velocities are related by
a . (4-16)
dt :
v PA  :
v PB  :
v BA, (4-44)
In unit-vector notation, :
where is the velocity of B with respect to A. Both
v BA
:
a  ax î  ay ĵ  azk̂, (4-17) observers measure the same acceleration for the particle:
:
where ax  dvx /dt, ay  dvy /dt, and az  dvz /dt. a PA  :
a PB. (4-45)
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 76

76 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

QUESTIONS
1 Figure 4-24 shows the initial position i and the final posi- vertically. Rank those three windows according to (a) the time
tion f of a particle. What are the (a) initial position vector :
ri the cream tangerine takes to pass them and (b) the average
and (b) final position vector :
rf , both in unit-vector notation? speed of the cream tangerine during the passage, greatest first.
(c) What is the x component of displacement : r? The cream tangerine then moves down past windows 4, 5,
and 6, which are identical in size and irregularly spaced hori-
y zontally. Rank those three windows according to (c) the time
the cream tangerine takes to pass them and (d) the average
3m
i speed of the cream tangerine during the passage, greatest first.
2m

1m
x
4m
4m
3
4

3m f
5m 2
5
3m
z

FIG. 4-24 Question 1.

1
6
2 Figure 4-25 shows the path
taken by a skunk foraging
FIG. 4-27 Question 6.
for trash food, from initial point i.
The skunk took the same time T 7 Figure 4-28 shows three
to go from each labeled point to a i b c
paths for a football kicked from
the next along its path. Rank ground level. Ignoring the ef-
points a, b, and c according to the fects of air, rank the paths
magnitude of the average veloc- according to (a) time of flight, 1 2 3
ity of the skunk to reach them FIG. 4-25 Question 2. (b) initial vertical velocity com-
from initial point i, greatest first. ponent, (c) initial horizontal ve- FIG. 4-28 Question 7.
3 You are to launch a rocket, from just above the ground, locity component, and (d) ini-
y
with one of the following initial velocity vectors: (1) : v0  tial speed, greatest first.
20î  70ĵ , (2) :
v 0 
20î  70ĵ , (3) :
v 0  20î
70ĵ , (4) :
v0  8 The only good use of a 2

20î
70ĵ . In your coordinate system, x runs along level ground fruitcake is in catapult prac-
and y increases upward. (a) Rank the vectors according to the tice. Curve 1 in Fig. 4-29 gives
launch speed of the projectile, greatest first. (b) Rank the vectors 1
the height y of a catapulted
according to the time of flight of the projectile, greatest first. fruitcake versus the angle 
4 Figure 4-26 shows three situations in which identical pro- between its velocity vector and θ
A B
jectiles are launched (at the same level) at identical initial its acceleration vector during
speeds and angles. The projectiles do not land on the same ter- flight. (a) Which of the lettered FIG. 4-29 Question 8.
rain, however. Rank the situations according to the final points on that curve corre-
speeds of the projectiles just before they land, greatest first. sponds to the landing of the fruitcake on the ground? (b)
Curve 2 is a similar plot for the same launch speed but for a
different launch angle. Does the fruitcake now land farther
away or closer to the launch point?
9 An airplane flying horizontally at a constant speed of
350 km/h over level ground releases a bundle of food supplies.
(a) (b) (c) Ignore the effect of the air on the bundle. What are the bundle’s
FIG. 4-26 Question 4. initial (a) vertical and (b) horizontal components of velocity? (c)
What is its horizontal component of velocity just before hitting
5 When Paris was shelled from 100 km away with the WWI the ground? (d) If the airplane’s
long-range artillery piece “Big Bertha,” the shells were fired speed were, instead, 450 km/h, R
at an angle greater than 45º to give them a greater range, pos- would the time of fall be longer, b
a
sibly even twice as long as at 45º. Does that result mean that shorter, or the same?
the air density at high altitudes increases with altitude or 10 A ball is shot from c
decreases? ground level over level ground
θ0
6 In Fig. 4-27, a cream tangerine is thrown up past windows at a certain initial speed.
1, 2, and 3, which are identical in size and regularly spaced Figure 4-30 gives the range R FIG. 4-30 Question 10.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 77

Problems 77
of the ball versus its launch angle y ay of the particle’s acceleration 1
0. Rank the three lettered points greatest in magnitude?
on the plot according to (a) the 12 (a) Is it possible to be acceler- 2
total flight time of the ball and P
ating while traveling at constant
(b) the ball’s speed at maximum r
θ x speed? Is it possible to round a curve
height, greatest first. 3
with (b) zero acceleration and (c) a
11 In Fig. 4-31, particle P is in constant magnitude of acceleration? 4
uniform circular motion, cen- 13 Figure 4-32 shows four tracks
tered on the origin of an xy coor- (either half- or quarter-circles)
dinate system. (a) At what values FIG. 4-31 Question 11. that can be taken by a train, which
of  is the vertical component ry of moves at a constant speed. Rank
the position vector greatest in magnitude? (b) At what values of the tracks according to the magni- FIG. 4-32 Question 13.
 is the vertical component vy of the particle’s velocity greatest tude of a train’s acceleration on
in magnitude? (c) At what values of  is the vertical component the curved portion, greatest first.

PROBLEMS

Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS and WebAssign

SSM Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual WWW Worked-out solution is at
http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday
• – ••• Number of dots indicates level of problem difficulty ILW Interactive solution is at
Additional information available in The Flying Circus of Physics and at flyingcircusofphysics.com

sec. 4-2 Position and Displacement then west for 50.0 min. What are the (a) magnitude and
•1 A positron undergoes a displacement : r  2.0î
(b) angle of its average velocity during this trip?
3.0ĵ  6.0k̂ , ending with the position vector :
r  3.0ĵ
4.0k̂ , ••8 A plane flies 483 km east from city A to city B in
in meters. What was the positron’s initial position vector? 45.0 min and then 966 km south from city B to city C in 1.50 h.
•2 A watermelon seed has the following coordinates: x  For the total trip, what
y (m)

5.0 m, y  8.0 m, and z  0 m. Find its position vector (a) in are the (a) magnitude 50
unit-vector notation and as (b) a magnitude and (c) an angle and (b) direction of the D
relative to the positive direction of the x axis. (d) Sketch the plane’s displacement,
vector on a right-handed coordinate system. If the seed is the (c) magnitude and 25
moved to the xyz coordinates (3.00 m, 0 m, 0 m), what is its (d) direction of its aver-
displacement (e) in unit-vector notation and as (f) a magni- age velocity, and (e) its
tude and (g) an angle relative to the positive x direction? average speed? 0 x (m)
25 50
•3 The position vector for an electron is : r  (5.0 m)î
••9 Figure 4-33 gives
A C
(3.0 m)ĵ  (2.0 m)k̂ . (a) Find the magnitude of :
r . (b) Sketch the path of a squirrel
–25
the vector on a right-handed coordinate system. moving about on level
ground, from point A
••4 The minute hand of a wall clock measures 10 cm from (at time t  0), to B
its tip to the axis about which it rotates. The magnitude and –50
points B (at t  5.00
angle of the displacement vector of the tip are to be deter- min), C (at t  10.0 FIG. 4-33 Problem 9.
mined for three time intervals. What are the (a) magnitude min), and finally D (at t
and (b) angle from a quarter after the hour to half past, the (c)  15.0 min). Consider the average velocities of the squirrel
magnitude and (d) angle for the next half hour, and the (e) from point A to each of the other three points. Of them, what
magnitude and (f) angle for the hour after that? are the (a) magnitude and (b) angle of the one with the least
sec. 4-3 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity magnitude and the (c) magnitude and (d) angle of the one
•5 An ion’s position vector is initially : r  5.0î
6.0ĵ  with the greatest magnitude?
2.0k̂ , and 10 s later it is :
r 
2.0î  8.0ĵ
2.0k̂ , all in meters. •••10 The position vector
:
In unit-vector notation, what is its : v avg during the 10 s? r  5.00tî  (et  ft 2)ĵ locates 20°
•6 An electron’s position is given by : r  3.00t î
a particle as a function of time t.
4.00t 2ĵ  2.00k̂ , with t in seconds and :
r in meters. (a) In unit- Vector :r is in meters, t is in sec-
θ

onds, and factors e and f are 0°

vector notation, what is the electron’s velocity : v (t)? At t  10 20
constants. Figure 4-34 gives
2.00 s, what is :v (b) in unit-vector notation and as (c) a magni-
the angle  of the particle’s di-
tude and (d) an angle relative to the positive direction of the x
rection of travel as a function –20°
axis?
of t ( is measured from the
t (s)
•7 A train at a constant 60.0 km/h moves east for 40.0 min, positive x direction). What are
then in a direction 50.0° east of due north for 20.0 min, and (a) e and (b) f, including units? FIG. 4-34 Problem 10.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 78

78 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

sec. 4-4 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous to the x axis.At the instant particle A passes the y axis, particle B
Acceleration leaves the origin with zero initial speed and constant acceleration
a of magnitude 0.40 m/s2. What angle  between :
:
•11 A particle moves so that its position (in meters) as a and the
a function of time (in seconds) is : r  î  4t2ĵ  tk̂ . Write positive direction of the y axis would result in a collision?
expressions for (a) its velocity and (b) its acceleration as func-
sec. 4-6 Projectile Motion Analyzed
tions of time.
•21 A projectile is fired horizontally from a gun that is
•12 A proton initially has : v  4.0î
2.0ĵ  3.0k̂ and then 45.0 m above flat ground, emerging from the gun with a speed
4.0 s later has :
v 
2.0î
2.0ĵ  5.0k̂ (in meters per second). of 250 m/s. (a) How long does the projectile remain in the air?
For that 4.0 s, what are (a) the proton’s average acceleration (b) At what horizontal distance from the firing point does it
:
a avg in unit-vector notation, (b) the magnitude of : a avg, and (c) strike the ground? (c) What is the magnitude of the vertical
the angle between : a avg and the positive direction of the x axis? component of its velocity as it strikes the ground?
•13 The position : r of a particle moving in an xy plane is •22 In the 1991 World Track and Field Championships in
:
given by r  (2.00t 3
5.00t)î  (6.00
7.00t 4)ĵ , with : r in Tokyo, Mike Powell jumped 8.95 m, breaking by a full 5 cm
meters and t in seconds. In unit-vector notation, calculate (a) the 23-year long-jump record set by Bob Beamon. Assume
:
r , (b) :
v , and (c) :
a for t  2.00 s. (d) What is the angle between that Powell’s speed on takeoff was 9.5 m/s (about equal to that
the positive direction of the x axis and a line tangent to the
of a sprinter) and that g  9.80 m/s2 in Tokyo. How much less
particle’s path at t  2.00 s?
was Powell’s range than the maximum possible range for a
•14 At one instant a bicyclist is 40.0 m due east of a park’s particle launched at the same speed?
flagpole, going due south with a speed of 10.0 m/s. Then 30.0 s
•23 The current world-record motorcycle jump is 77.0 m, set
later, the cyclist is 40.0 m due north of the flagpole, going due
east with a speed of 10.0 m/s. For the cyclist in this 30.0 s by Jason Renie. Assume that he left the take-off ramp at 12.0º to
interval, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the horizontal and that the take-off and landing heights are the
the displacement, the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the same. Neglecting air drag, determine his take-off speed.
average velocity, and the (e) magnitude and (f) direction of •24 A small ball rolls horizontally off the edge of a tabletop
the average acceleration? that is 1.20 m high. It strikes the floor at a point 1.52 m hori-
••15 A cart is propelled over an xy plane with acceleration zontally from the table edge. (a) How long is the ball in the
components ax  4.0 m/s2 and ay 
2.0 m/s2. Its initial air? (b) What is its speed at the instant it leaves the table?
velocity has components v0x  8.0 m/s and v0y  12 m/s. In •25 A dart is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of
unit-vector notation, what is the velocity of the cart when it 10 m/s toward point P, the bull’s-eye on a dart board. It hits at
reaches its greatest y coordinate? point Q on the rim, vertically below P, 0.19 s later. (a) What is
••16 A moderate wind accelerates a pebble over a horizon- the distance PQ? (b) How far away from the dart board is the
tal xy plane with a constant acceleration : a  (5.00 m/s2)î  dart released?
(7.00 m/s )ĵ . At time t  0, the velocity is (4.00 m/s)i.
2
î What are •26 In Fig. 4-36, a stone is projected at a cliff of height h
the (a) magnitude and (b) angle of its velocity when it has with an initial speed of 42.0 m/s directed at angle 0  60.0°
been displaced by 12.0 m parallel to the x axis? above the horizontal. The stone strikes at A, 5.50 s after
••17 A particle leaves the origin with an initial velocity :
v launching. Find (a) the height h of the cliff, (b) the speed of the
(3.00î) m/s and a constant acceleration : a  (
1.00î
stone just before impact at A, and (c) the maximum height H
0.500ĵ) m/s2. When it reaches its maximum x coordinate, what reached above the ground.
are its (a) velocity and (b) position vector?
••18 The velocity : v of a particle moving in the xy plane is
given by : v  (6.0t
4.0t2)î  8.0ĵ , with :
v in meters per
second and t (
0) in seconds. (a) What is the acceleration H A
when t  3.0 s? (b) When (if ever) is the acceleration zero? (c)
When (if ever) is the velocity zero? (d) When (if ever) does h
θ0
the speed equal 10 m/s?
•••19 The acceleration of a particle moving only on a hori-
zontal xy plane is given by : a  3tî  4tĵ , where :
a is in meters FIG. 4-36 Problem 26.
per second-squared and t is in seconds. At t  0, the position
vector : r  (20.0 m)î  (40.0 m)ĵ locates the particle, which •27 A certain airplane has a
then has the velocity vector speed of 290.0 km/h and is
:
y θ
v  (5.00 m/s)î  (2.00 m/s)ĵ . diving at an angle of   30.0°
At t  4.00 s, what are (a) its po- below the horizontal when
v
sition vector in unit-vector nota- A the pilot releases a radar de-
tion and (b) the angle between coy (Fig. 4-37). The horizontal
its direction of travel and the distance between the release
positive direction of the x axis? θ
point and the point where the
•••20 In Fig. 4-35, particle A decoy strikes the ground is d 
moves along the line y  30 m a d
700 m. (a) How long is the de-
: B x
with a constant velocity v of coy in the air? (b) How high
magnitude 3.0 m/s and parallel FIG. 4-35 Problem 20. was the release point? FIG. 4-37 Problem 27.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 79

Problems 79
•28 A stone is catapulted at time t  0, with an initial veloc- angle of 45°, which maximizes the range of projectile motion,
ity of magnitude 20.0 m/s and at an angle of 40.0° above the does not maximize the horizontal distance when the launch
horizontal. What are the magnitudes of the (a) horizontal and and landing are at different heights.
(b) vertical components of its displacement from the catapult ••37 A ball is shot from the ground into the air. At a height
site at t  1.10 s? Repeat for the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical of 9.1 m, its velocity is :
v  (7.6î  6.1ĵ) m/s, with î horizontal
components at t  1.80 s, and for the (e) horizontal and (f) and ĵ upward. (a) To what maximum height does the ball rise?
vertical components at t  5.00 s. (b) What total horizontal distance does the ball travel? What
••29 A lowly high diver pushes off horizontally with a speed are the (c) magnitude and (d) angle (below the horizontal) of
of 2.00 m/s from the platform edge 10.0 m above the surface the ball’s velocity just before it hits the ground?
of the water. (a) At what horizontal distance from the edge is ••38 You throw a ball toward
the diver 0.800 s after pushing off? (b) At what vertical dis- a wall at speed 25.0 m/s and at
tance above the surface of the water is the diver just then? (c) angle 0  40.0° above the hori-
At what horizontal distance from the edge does the diver zontal (Fig. 4-38). The wall is
strike the water? θ0
distance d  22.0 m from the
••30 A trebuchet was a hurling machine built to attack the release point of the ball. d
walls of a castle under siege. A large stone could be hurled (a) How far above the release
point does the ball hit the wall? FIG. 4-38 Problem 38.
against a wall to break apart the wall. The machine was not
placed near the wall because then arrows could reach it from What are the (b) horizontal and
the castle wall. Instead, it was positioned so that the stone hit (c) vertical components of its velocity as it hits the wall? (d)
the wall during the second half of its flight. Suppose a stone is When it hits, has it passed the highest point on its trajectory?
launched with a speed of v0  28.0 m/s and at an angle of 0  ••39 A rifle that shoots bullets at 460 m/s is to be aimed at
40.0°. What is the speed of the stone if it hits the wall (a) just a target 45.7 m away. If the center of the target is level with
as it reaches the top of its parabolic path and (b) when it has the rifle, how high above the target must the rifle barrel be
descended to half that height? (c) As a percentage, how much pointed so that the bullet hits dead center?
faster is it moving in part (b) than in part (a)?
••40 A baseball leaves a pitcher’s hand horizontally at
••31 A plane, diving with constant speed at an angle of
a speed of 161 km/h. The distance to the batter is 18.3 m.
53.0° with the vertical, releases a projectile at an altitude of
(a) How long does the ball take to travel the first half of that
730 m. The projectile hits the ground 5.00 s after release.
distance? (b) The second half? (c) How far does the ball fall
(a) What is the speed of the plane? (b) How far does the
freely during the first half? (d) During the second half?
projectile travel horizontally during its flight? What are the (c)
(e) Why aren’t the quantities in (c) and (d) equal?
horizontal and (d) vertical components of its velocity just be-
fore striking the ground? ••41 In Fig. 4-39, a ball is
thrown leftward from the left h
••32 During a tennis match, a player serves the ball at
edge of the roof, at height h θ
23.6 m/s, with the center of the ball leaving the racquet hori-
above the ground. The ball hits
zontally 2.37 m above the court surface. The net is 12 m away d
the ground 1.50 s later, at dis-
and 0.90 m high. When the ball reaches the net, (a) does the
tance d  25.0 m from the FIG. 4-39 Problem 41.
ball clear it and (b) what is the distance between the center of
building and at angle   60.0°
the ball and the top of the net? Suppose that, instead, the ball
with the horizontal. (a) Find h. (Hint: One way is to reverse the
is served as before but now it leaves the racquet at 5.00° below
motion, as if on videotape.) What are the (b) magnitude and (c)
the horizontal. When the ball reaches the net, (c) does the ball
angle relative to the horizontal of the velocity at which the ball
clear it and (d) what now is the distance between the center of
is thrown? (d) Is the angle above or below the horizontal?
the ball and the top of the net?
••42 A golf ball is struck at 31
••33 In a jump spike, a volleyball player slams the ball from 29
ground level. The speed of the
v (m/s)

overhead and toward the opposite floor. Controlling the angle 27

golf ball as a function of the 25
of the spike is difficult. Suppose a ball is spiked from a height of
time is shown in Fig. 4-40, where 23
2.30 m with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s at a downward angle of
t  0 at the instant the ball is 21
18.00°. How much farther on the opposite floor would it have 19
struck. (a) How far does the golf 0 1 2 3 4 5
landed if the downward angle were, instead, 8.00°? t (s)
ball travel horizontally before
••34 A soccer ball is kicked from the ground with an initial returning to ground level? (b) FIG. 4-40 Problem 42.
speed of 19.5 m/s at an upward angle of 45°. A player 55 m What is the maximum height
away in the direction of the kick starts running to meet the above ground level attained by
ball at that instant. What must be his average speed if he is to the ball? v0 d2
meet the ball just before it hits the ground? Ball
••43 In Fig. 4-41, a ball is
••35 A projectile’s launch speed is five times its speed at launched with a velocity of
d1
maximum height. Find launch angle 0. magnitude 10.0 m/s, at an angle FIG. 4-41 Problem 43.
••36 Suppose that a shot putter can put a shot at the world- of 50.0° to the horizontal. The
class speed v0  15.00 m/s and at a height of 2.160 m. What launch point is at the base of a ramp of horizontal length d1 
horizontal distance would the shot travel if the launch angle 0 6.00 m and height d2  3.60 m. A plateau is located at the top
is (a) 45.00° and (b) 42.00°? The answers indicate that the of the ramp. (a) Does the ball land on the ramp or
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 80

80 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

the plateau? When it lands, what are the (b) magnitude and player travels in the upper part of the jump than in the lower
(c) angle of its displacement from the launch point? part. If a player jumps with an initial speed of v0  7.00 m/s at
an angle of 0  35.0°, what percent of the jump’s range does
••44 In 1939 or 1940, Emanuel Zacchini took his human-
the player spend in the upper half of the jump (between maxi-
cannonball act to an extreme: After being shot from a cannon,
mum height and half maximum height)?
he soared over three Ferris wheels and into a net (Fig. 4-42). (a)
Treating him as a particle, calculate his clearance over the first •••49 A skilled skier knows to jump upward before reach-
wheel. (b) If he reached maximum height over the middle wheel, ing a downward slope. Consider a jump in which the launch
by how much did he clear it? (c) How far from the cannon should speed is v0  10 m/s, the launch angle is 0  9.0°, the initial
the net’s center have been positioned (neglect air drag)? course is approximately flat, and the steeper track has a
slope of 11.3°. Figure 4-45a shows a prejump that allows
the skier to land on the top portion of the steeper track.
v0 = Figure 4-45b shows a jump at the edge of the steeper track. In
26.5 m/s Fig. 4-45a, the skier lands at approximately the launch level.
(a) In the landing, what is the angle  between the skier’s path
3.0 m 18 m 3.0 m Net
and the slope? In Fig. 4- 45b, (b) how far below the launch
θ 0 = 53° level does the skier land and (c) what is ? (The greater fall and
greater  can result in loss of control in the landing.)

23 m 23 m
R
FIG. 4-42 Problem 44.
(a) (b)
••45 Upon spotting an insect Insect FIG. 4-45 Problem 49.
on a twig overhanging water, an on twig
archer fish squirts water drops d •••50 A ball is to be shot from level ground toward a wall at
at the insect to knock it into the distance x (Fig. 4-46a). Figure 4-46b shows the y component vy
water (Fig. 4 -43). Although the φ of the ball’s velocity just as it would reach the wall, as a func-
fish sees the insect along a tion of that distance x. What is the launch angle?
straight-line path at angle  and
Archer fish
distance d, a drop must be 5
launched at a different angle 0 FIG. 4-43 Problem 45. y
if its parabolic path is to inter-
sect the insect. If   36.0°, d  vy (m/s) 0
0.900 m, and the launch speed x 10 20
is 3.56 m/s, what 0 is required
θ (a)
for the drop to be at the top of –5
the parabolic path when it x (m)
h
reaches the insect? (b)
••46 In Fig. 4-44, a ball is FIG. 4-46 Problem 50.
thrown up onto a roof, landing d
4.00 s later at height h  20.0 •••51 A football kicker can give the ball an initial speed of
m above the release level. The FIG. 4-44 Problem 46. 25 m/s. What are the (a) least and (b) greatest elevation
ball’s path just before landing angles at which he can kick the ball to score a field goal
is angled at   60.0° with the roof. (a) Find the horizontal dis- from a point 50 m in front of goalposts whose horizontal bar
tance d it travels. (See the hint to Problem 41.) What are the is 3.44 m above the ground?
(b) magnitude and (c) angle (relative to the horizontal) of the •••52 A ball is to be shot
ball’s initial velocity? from level ground with a cer- 200
••47 A batter hits a pitched ball when the center of the ball tain speed. Figure 4-47 shows
R (m)

is 1.22 m above the ground. The ball leaves the bat at an angle the range R it will have versus
of 45° with the ground. With that launch, the ball should have the launch angle 0. The value 100
a horizontal range (returning to the launch level) of 107 m. (a) of 0 determines the flight time;
Does the ball clear a 7.32-m-high fence that is 97.5 m horizon- let tmax represent the maximum
tally from the launch point? (b) At the fence, what is the dis- flight time. What is the least 0
tance between the fence top and the ball center? speed the ball will have during θ0

••48 In basketball, hang is an illusion in which a player its flight if 0 is chosen such that FIG. 4-47 Problem 52.
seems to weaken the gravitational acceleration while in the flight time is 0.500tmax?
midair. The illusion depends much on a skilled player’s ability •••53 A ball rolls horizontally off the top of a stairway with
to rapidly shift the ball between hands during the flight, but it a speed of 1.52 m/s. The steps are 20.3 cm high and 20.3 cm
might also be supported by the longer horizontal distance the wide. Which step does the ball hit first?
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 81

Problems 81
•••54 Two seconds after being projected from ground level, (a) Through what distance does the tip move in one revolu-
a projectile is displaced 40 m horizontally and 53 m vertically tion? What are (b) the tip’s speed and (c) the magnitude of its
above its launch point. What are the (a) horizontal and acceleration? (d) What is the period of the motion?
(b) vertical components of the initial velocity of the projec- ••63 A purse at radius 2.00 m and a wallet at radius 3.00 m
tile? (c) At the instant the projectile achieves its maximum travel in uniform circular motion on the floor of a merry-
height above ground level, how far is it displaced horizontally go-round as the ride turns. They are on the same radial line.
from the launch point? At one instant, the acceleration of the purse is (2.00 m/s2)î 
•••55 In Fig. 4-48, a baseball is hit at a height h  1.00 m (4.00 m/s2) ĵ. At that instant and in unit-vector notation, what
and then caught at the same height. It travels alongside a wall, is the acceleration of the wallet?
moving up past the top of the wall 1.00 s after it is hit and then ••64 A particle moves along a circular path over a hori-
down past the top of the wall 4.00 s later, at distance D  50.0 zontal xy coordinate system, at constant speed. At time t1 
m farther along the wall. (a) What horizontal distance is trav- 4.00 s, it is at point (5.00 m, 6.00 m) with velocity (3.00 m/s) ĵ
eled by the ball from hit to catch? What are the (b) magnitude and acceleration in the positive x direction. At time t2  10.0 s,
and (c) angle (relative to the horizontal) of the ball’s velocity it has velocity (
3.00 m/s)î and acceleration in the positive
just after being hit? (d) How high is the wall? y direction. What are the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of the
center of the circular path if t2
t1 is less than one period?
••65 At t1  2.00 s, the acceleration of a particle in counter-
D
clockwise circular motion is (6.00 m/s2)î  (4.00 m/s2) ĵ. It
moves at constant speed. At time t2  5.00 s, its acceleration is
h h (4.00 m/s2)î  (
6.00 m/s2) ĵ. What is the radius of the path
taken by the particle if t2
t1 is less than one period?
FIG. 4-48 Problem 55. ••66 A particle moves horizontally in uniform circular
motion, over a horizontal xy plane. At one instant, it moves
through the point at coordinates (4.00 m, 4.00 m) with a
sec. 4-7 Uniform Circular Motion
velocity of
5.00î m/s and an acceleration of 12.5 ĵ m/s2.
•56 A centripetal-acceleration addict rides in uniform circu-
What are the (a) x and (b) y coordinates of the center of the
lar motion with period T  2.0 s and radius r  3.00 m. At t1
circular path?
his acceleration is :a  (6.00 m/s2)î  (
4.00 m/s2)ĵ . At that
instant, what are the values of (a) :
v :
a and (b) :
r
:
a? •••67 A boy whirls a stone in a horizontal circle of radius
1.5 m and at height 2.0 m above level ground. The string
•57 A woman rides a carnival Ferris wheel at radius 15 m,
breaks, and the stone flies off horizontally and strikes the
completing five turns about its horizontal axis every minute.
ground after traveling a horizontal distance of 10 m. What is
What are (a) the period of the motion, the (b) magnitude and
the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of the stone dur-
(c) direction of her centripetal acceleration at the highest
ing the circular motion?
point, and the (d) magnitude and (e) direction of her cen-
tripetal acceleration at the lowest point? •••68 A cat rides a merry-go-round turning with uniform
circular motion. At time t1  2.00 s, the cat’s velocity is :v1 
•58 What is the magnitude of the acceleration of a sprinter
(3.00 m/s)î  (4.00 m/s)ĵ , measured on a horizontal xy coordi-
running at 10 m/s when rounding a turn of a radius 25 m?
nate system. At t2  5.00 s, its velocity is :
v 2  (
3.00 m/s)î 
•59 When a large star becomes a supernova, its core may be (
4.00 m/s)ĵ . What are (a) the magnitude of the cat’s cen-
compressed so tightly that it becomes a neutron star, with a ra- tripetal acceleration and (b) the cat’s average acceleration
dius of about 20 km (about the size of the San Francisco area). during the time interval t2
t1, which is less than one period?
If a neutron star rotates once every second, (a) what is the
speed of a particle on the star’s equator and (b) what is the sec. 4-8 Relative Motion in One Dimension
magnitude of the particle’s centripetal acceleration? (c) If the •69 A cameraman on a pickup truck is traveling westward
neutron star rotates faster, do the answers to (a) and (b) in- at 20 km/h while he videotapes a cheetah that is moving west-
crease, decrease, or remain the same? ward 30 km/h faster than the truck. Suddenly, the cheetah
stops, turns, and then runs at 45 km/h eastward, as measured
•60 An Earth satellite moves in a circular orbit 640 km by a suddenly nervous crew member who stands alongside the
above Earth’s surface with a period of 98.0 min. What are the cheetah’s path. The change in the animal’s velocity takes 2.0 s.
(a) speed and (b) magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the animal’s
the satellite? acceleration according to the cameraman and the (c) magni-
•61 A carnival merry-go-round rotates about a vertical axis tude and (d) direction according to the nervous crew member?
at a constant rate. A man standing on the edge has a constant •70 A boat is traveling upstream in the positive direction of
speed of 3.66 m/s and a centripetal acceleration : a of mag- an x axis at 14 km/h with respect to the water of a river. The
nitude 1.83 m/s2. Position vector : r locates him relative to water is flowing at 9.0 km/h with respect to the ground. What
the rotation axis. (a) What is the magnitude of :
r ? What is the are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s velocity
direction of :r when : a is directed (b) due east and (c) due with respect to the ground? A child on the boat walks from
south? front to rear at 6.0 km/h with respect to the boat. What are the
•62 A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every (c) magnitude and (d) direction of the child’s velocity with re-
minute. Consider the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15 m. spect to the ground?
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 82

82 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

••71 A suspicious-looking man runs as fast as he can along cars? (c) If the cars maintain their velocities, do the answers to
a moving sidewalk from one end to the other, taking 2.50 s. (a) and (b) change as the cars move nearer the intersection?
Then security agents appear, and the man runs as fast as he y
can back along the sidewalk to his starting point, taking 10.0 s.
What is the ratio of the man’s running speed to the sidewalk’s
speed? M

sec. 4-9 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions

•72 A rugby player runs with the ball directly toward his
opponent’s goal, along the positive direction of an x axis. He vM
can legally pass the ball to a teammate as long as the ball’s dM
velocity relative to the field does not have a positive x compo-
P
nent. Suppose the player runs at speed 4.0 m/s relative to the
vP
field while he passes the ball with velocity :v BP relative to him- x
self. If :
v BP has magnitude 6.0 m/s, what is the smallest angle it
can have for the pass to be legal? dP
••73 Two ships, A and B, leave port at the same time. Ship A
travels northwest at 24 knots, and ship B travels at 28 knots in FIG. 4-49 Problem 79.
a direction 40° west of south. (1 knot  1 nautical mile per ••80 In the overhead
hour; see Appendix D.) What are the (a) magnitude and view of Fig. 4-50, Jeeps P N
(b) direction of the velocity of ship A relative to B? (c) After and B race along straight
P
what time will the ships be 160 nautical miles apart? (d) What lines, across flat terrain, E
will be the bearing of B (the direction of B’s position) relative and past stationary bor-
θ1 A
to A at that time? der guard A. Relative to
the guard, B travels at a θ2
••74 A light plane attains an airspeed of 500 km/h. The pilot
constant speed of 20.0
sets out for a destination 800 km due north but discovers that
m/s, at the angle 2  B
the plane must be headed 20.0° east of due north to fly there
30.0°. Relative to the
directly. The plane arrives in 2.00 h. What were the (a) magni-
guard, P has accelerated FIG. 4-50 Problem 80.
tude and (b) direction of the wind velocity?
from rest at a constant
••75 Snow is falling vertically at a constant speed of 8.0 m/s. rate of 0.400 m/s2 at the angle 1  60.0°. At a certain time
At what angle from the vertical do the snowflakes appear to during the acceleration, P has a speed of 40.0 m/s. At that
be falling as viewed by the driver of a car traveling on a time, what are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the ve-
straight, level road with a speed of 50 km/h? locity of P relative to B and the (c) magnitude and (d) direc-
••76 After flying for 15 min in a wind blowing 42 km/h at an tion of the acceleration of P relative to B?
angle of 20° south of east, an airplane pilot is over a town that •••81 Ship A is located 4.0 km north and 2.5 km east of ship
is 55 km due north of the starting point. What is the speed of B. Ship A has a velocity of 22 km/h toward the south, and ship
the airplane relative to the air? B has a velocity of 40 km/h in a direction 37° north of east. (a)
••77 A train travels due south at 30 m/s (relative to the What is the velocity of A relative to B in unit-vector notation
ground) in a rain that is blown toward the south by the wind. with î toward the east? (b) Write an expression (in terms of î
The path of each raindrop makes an angle of 70° with the ver- and ĵ) for the position of A relative to B as a function of t,
tical, as measured by an observer stationary on the ground. An where t  0 when the ships are in the positions described
observer on the train, however, sees the drops fall perfectly above. (c) At what time is the separation between the ships
vertically. Determine the speed of the raindrops relative to the least? (d) What is that least separation?
ground. •••82 A 200-m-wide river has a uniform flow speed of
••78 A 200-m-wide river flows due east at a uniform speed 1.1 m/s through a jungle and toward the east. An explorer
of 2.0 m/s. A boat with a speed of 8.0 m/s relative to the water wishes to leave a small clearing on the south bank and
leaves the south bank pointed in a direction 30° west of north. cross the river in a powerboat that moves at a constant speed
What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the boat’s ve- of 4.0 m/s with respect to the water. There is a clearing on
locity relative to the ground? (c) How long does the boat take the north bank 82 m upstream from a point directly opposite
to cross the river? the clearing on the south bank. (a) In what direction must the
boat be pointed in order to travel in a straight line and land in
••79 Two highways intersect as shown in Fig. 4-49. At the the clearing on the north bank? (b) How long will the boat
instant shown, a police car P is distance dP  800 m from the take to cross the river and land in the clearing?
intersection and moving at speed vP  80 km/h. Motorist M
is distance dM  600 m from the intersection and moving Additional Problems
at speed vM  60 km/h. (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the 83 You are kidnapped by political-science majors (who are
velocity of the motorist with respect to the police car? (b) For upset because you told them political science is not a real
the instant shown in Fig. 4-49, what is the angle between the science). Although blindfolded, you can tell the speed of their
velocity found in (a) and the line of sight between the two car (by the whine of the engine), the time of travel (by men-
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 83

Problems 83
tally counting off seconds), and the direction of travel (by ground with a constant speed of
vc
turns along the rectangular street system). From these clues, vc  3.00 m/s. What maximum
you know that you are taken along the following course: height does the ball reach rela-
v0
50 km/h for 2.0 min, turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 4.0 min, tive to (a) the ground and (b)
turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 60 s, turn 90° to the left, the cab floor? At what rate does Ball
50 km/h for 60 s, turn 90° to the right, 20 km/h for 2.0 min, turn the speed of the ball change rel-
90° to the left, 50 km/h for 30 s. At that point, (a) how far are ative to (c) the ground and (d) FIG. 4-53 Problem 87.
you from your starting point, and (b) in what direction relative the cab floor?
to your initial direction of travel are you? 88 In Fig. 4-54a, a sled moves in the negative x direction at
84 Curtain of death. A large metallic asteroid strikes Earth constant speed vs while a ball of ice is shot from the sled with
and quickly digs a crater into the rocky material below ground a velocity :v 0  v0xî  v0yĵ relative to the sled. When the ball
level by launching rocks upward and outward. The following lands, its horizontal displacement xbg relative to the ground
table gives five pairs of launch speeds and angles (from the (from its launch position to its landing position) is measured.
horizontal) for such rocks, based on a model of crater forma- Figure 4-54b gives xbg as a function of vs. Assume the ball
tion. (Other rocks, with intermediate speeds and angles, are lands at approximately its launch height. What are the values
also launched.) Suppose that you are at x  20 km when the of (a) v0x and (b) v0y? The ball’s displacement xbs relative to
asteroid strikes the ground at time t  0 and position x  0 the sled can also be measured. Assume that the sled’s velocity
(Fig. 4-51). (a) At t  20 s, what are the x and y coordinates of is not changed when the ball is shot. What is xbs when vs is (c)
the rocks headed in your direction from launches A through 5.0 m/s and (d) 15 m/s?
40
E? (b) Plot these coordinates and then sketch a curve through
the points to include rocks with intermediate launch speeds
y
and angles. The curve should indicate what you would see as

∆xbg (m)
you look up into the approaching rocks and what dinosaurs vs Ball
Sled
must have seen during asteroid strikes long ago. 0
x 10 20
(a)
Launch Speed (m/s) Angle (degrees)

A 520 14.0 –40

vs (m/s)
B 630 16.0
(b)
C 750 18.0
FIG. 4-54 Problem 88.
D 870 20.0
E 1000 22.0 89 A woman who can row a boat at 6.4 km/h in still water
faces a long, straight river with a width of 6.4 km and a current
y of 3.2 km/h. Let î point directly across the river and ĵ point di-
rectly downstream. If she rows in a straight line to a point di-
rectly opposite her starting position, (a) at what angle to î
You must she point the boat and (b) how long will she take? (c)
x (km) How long will she take if, instead, she rows 3.2 km down the
0 10 20 river and then back to her starting point? (d) How long if she
FIG. 4-51 Problem 84. rows 3.2 km up the river and then back to her starting point?
(e) At what angle to iî should she point the boat if she wants to
85 In Fig. 4-52, a lump of wet cross the river in the shortest possible time? (f) How long is
putty moves in uniform circu- Wheel that shortest time?
lar motion as it rides at a radius 90 In Fig. 4-55, a radar station detects an airplane approach-
of 20.0 cm on the rim of a ing directly from the east. At first observation, the airplane is at
Putty h
wheel rotating counterclock- distance d1  360 m from the station and at angle 1  40°
wise with a period of 5.00 ms. d above the horizon. The airplane is tracked through an angular
The lump then happens to fly FIG. 4-52 Problem 85. change   123° in the vertical east – west plane; its distance
off the rim at the 5 o’clock is then d2  790 m. Find the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of
position (as if on a clock face). It leaves the rim at a height of the airplane’s displacement during this period.
h  1.20 m from the floor and at a distance d  2.50 m from
a wall. At what height on the wall does the lump hit?
Airplane
86 A particle is in uniform circular motion about the origin
of an xy coordinate system, moving clockwise with a period
d2 ∆θ d1
of 7.00 s. At one instant, its position vector (from the origin) is
:
r  (2.00 m)î
(3.00 m)ĵ . At that instant, what is its veloc- W θ1 E
ity in unit-vector notation?
Radar dish
87 In Fig. 4-53, a ball is shot directly upward from the
ground with an initial speed of v0  7.00 m/s. Simultaneously,
a construction elevator cab begins to move upward from the FIG. 4-55 Problem 90.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 84

84 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

91 A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30 m away. The passengers through a long corridor. Larry does not use the
bullet hits the target 1.9 cm below the aiming point. What are moving sidewalk; he takes 150 s to walk through the corridor.
(a) the bullet’s time of flight and (b) its speed as it emerges Curly, who simply stands on the moving sidewalk, covers the
from the rifle? same distance in 70 s. Moe boards the sidewalk and walks
92 The fast French train known as the TGV (Train à Grande along it. How long does Moe take to move through the corri-
Vitesse) has a scheduled average speed of 216 km/h. (a) If the dor? Assume that Larry and Moe walk at the same speed.
train goes around a curve at that speed and the magnitude of 101 A football player punts the football so that it will have a
the acceleration experienced by the passengers is to be limited “hang time” (time of flight) of 4.5 s and land 46 m away. If the
to 0.050g, what is the smallest radius of curvature for the ball leaves the player’s foot 150 cm above the ground, what
track that can be tolerated? (b) At what speed must the train must be the (a) magnitude and (b) angle (relative to the hori-
go around a curve with a 1.00 km radius to be at the accelera- zontal) of the ball’s initial velocity?
tion limit? 102 For women’s volleyball the top of the net is 2.24 m
93 A magnetic field can force a charged particle to move above the floor and the court measures 9.0 m by 9.0 m on each
in a circular path. Suppose that an electron moving in side of the net. Using a jump serve, a player strikes the ball at a
a circle experiences a radial acceleration of magnitude point that is 3.0 m above the floor and a horizontal distance of
3.0  10 14 m/s2 in a particular magnetic field. (a) What is the 8.0 m from the net. If the initial velocity of the ball is horizon-
speed of the electron if the radius of its circular path is 15 cm? tal, (a) what minimum magnitude must it have if the ball is to
(b) What is the period of the motion? clear the net and (b) what maximum magnitude can it have if
94 The position vector for a proton is initially : r the ball is to strike the floor inside the back line on the other
5.0î
6.0ĵ  2.0k̂ and then later is :
r 
2.0î  6.0ĵ  2.0k̂ , side of the net?
B
all in meters. (a) What is the proton’s displacement vector, and 103 Figure 4-57 shows the straight path of a
(b) to what plane is that vector parallel? particle across an xy coordinate system as the
y
95 A particle P travels with y particle is accelerated from rest during time in-
constant speed on a circle of terval t1. The acceleration is constant. The xy A
coordinates for point A are (4.00 m, 6.00 m); x
radius r  3.00 m (Fig. 4-56)
and completes one revolution those for point B are (12.0 m, 18.0 m). (a) What FIG. 4-57
in 20.0 s. The particle passes r P is the ratio ay /ax of the acceleration compo- Problem 103.
through O at time t  0. State nents? (b) What are the coordinates of the par-
the following vectors in mag- ticle if the motion is continued for another interval equal to t1?
nitude-angle notation (angle 104 An astronaut is rotated in a horizontal centrifuge at a
relative to the positive direc- radius of 5.0 m. (a) What is the astronaut’s speed if the cen-
tion of x). With respect to O, x tripetal acceleration has a magnitude of 7.0g? (b) How many
find the particle’s position vec- O
revolutions per minute are required to produce this accelera-
tor at the times t of (a) 5.00 s, FIG. 4-56 Problem 95. tion? (c) What is the period of the motion?
(b) 7.50 s, and (c) 10.0 s.
105 (a) What is the magnitude of the centripetal accelera-
(d) For the 5.00 s interval from the end of the fifth second tion of an object on Earth’s equator due to the rotation of
to the end of the tenth second, find the particle’s displace- Earth? (b) What would Earth’s rotation period have to be for
ment. For that interval, find (e) its average velocity and its ve- objects on the equator to have a centripetal acceleration of
locity at the (f) beginning and (g) end. Next, find the magnitude 9.8 m/s2?
acceleration at the (h) beginning and (i) end of that interval.
106 A person walks up a stalled 15-m-long escalator in 90 s.
96 An iceboat sails across the surface of a frozen lake with When standing on the same escalator, now moving, the person
constant acceleration produced by the wind. At a certain is carried up in 60 s. How much time would it take that person
instant the boat’s velocity is (6.30î
8.42 ĵ) m/s. Three seconds to walk up the moving escalator? Does the answer depend on
later, because of a wind shift, the boat is instantaneously at the length of the escalator?
rest. What is its average acceleration for this 3 s interval?
107 A baseball is hit at ground level. The ball reaches its
97 In 3.50 h, a balloon drifts 21.5 km north, 9.70 km east,
maximum height above ground level 3.0 s after being hit. Then
and 2.88 km upward from its release point on the ground. Find
2.5 s after reaching its maximum height, the ball barely clears a
(a) the magnitude of its average velocity and (b) the angle its
fence that is 97.5 m from where it was hit. Assume the ground
average velocity makes with the horizontal.
is level. (a) What maximum height above ground level is
98 A ball is thrown horizontally from a height of 20 m and reached by the ball? (b) How high is the fence? (c) How far
hits the ground with a speed that is three times its initial beyond the fence does the ball strike the ground?
speed. What is the initial speed?
108 The range of a projectile depends not only on v0 and 0
99 A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 30 m/s at but also on the value g of the free-fall acceleration, which
an angle of 60° above the horizontal. What are the (a) magni- varies from place to place. In 1936, Jesse Owens established a
tude and (b) angle of its velocity 2.0 s after launch, and (c) is world’s running broad jump record of 8.09 m at the Olympic
the angle above or below the horizontal? What are the (d) Games at Berlin (where g  9.8128 m/s2). Assuming the same
magnitude and (e) angle of its velocity 5.0 s after launch, and values of v0 and 0, by how much would his record have dif-
(f) is the angle above or below the horizontal? fered if he had competed instead in 1956 at Melbourne (where
100 An airport terminal has a moving sidewalk to speed g  9.7999 m/s2)?
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 85

Problems 85
109 During volcanic eruptions, chunks of solid rock can be 115 Suppose that a space probe can withstand the stresses
blasted out of the volcano; these projectiles are called volcanic of a 20g acceleration. (a) What is the minimum turning radius
bombs. Figure 4-58 shows a cross section of Mt. Fuji, in Japan. of such a craft moving at a speed of one-tenth the speed of
(a) At what initial speed would a bomb have to be ejected, at light? (b) How long would it take to complete a 90° turn at
angle 0  35° to the horizontal, from the vent at A in order to this speed?
fall at the foot of the volcano at B, at vertical distance h  3.30 116 At what initial
km and horizontal distance d  9.40 km? Ignore, for the mo- speed must the basket-
ment, the effects of air on the bomb’s travel. (b) What would ball player in Fig. 4-59 θ0
be the time of flight? (c) Would the effect of the air increase or throw the ball, at angle
decrease your answer in (a)? 0  55° above the hori- d1 h2
zontal, to make the foul h1
shot? The horizontal dis-
A θ0 tances are d1  1.0 ft
and d2  14 ft, and the
d2
heights are h1  7.0 ft
h and h2  10 ft. FIG. 4-59 Problem 116.
117 A wooden boxcar is moving along a straight railroad
d B track at speed v1. A sniper fires a bullet (initial speed v2) at it
from a high-powered rifle. The bullet passes through both
FIG. 4-58 Problem 109. lengthwise walls of the car, its entrance and exit holes being
exactly opposite each other as viewed from within the car.
110 Long flights at midlatitudes in the Northern From what direction, relative to the track, is the bullet fired?
Hemisphere encounter the jet stream, an eastward airflow Assume that the bullet is not deflected upon entering the car,
that can affect a plane’s speed relative to Earth’s surface. If a but that its speed decreases by 20%. Take v1  85 km/h and v2
pilot maintains a certain speed relative to the air (the plane’s  650 m/s. (Why don’t you need to know the width of the box-
airspeed), the speed relative to the surface (the plane’s ground car?)
speed) is more when the flight is in the direction of the jet Target
stream and less when the flight is opposite the jet stream. 118 You are to throw a ball
Suppose a round-trip flight is scheduled between two cities with a speed of 12.0 m/s at a
separated by 4000 km, with the outgoing flight in the direction target that is height h  5.00
h
of the jet stream and the return flight opposite it. The airline m above the level at which you
computer advises an airspeed of 1000 km/h, for which the dif- release the ball (Fig. 4-60). You θ
ference in flight times for the outgoing and return flights is want the ball’s velocity to
70.0 min. What jet-stream speed is the computer using? be horizontal at the instant it
reaches the target. (a) At what FIG. 4-60 Problem 118.
111 A particle starts from the origin at t  0 with a velocity angle  above the horizontal
of 8.0 ĵ m/s and moves in the xy plane with constant accelera- must you throw the ball? (b) What is the horizontal distance
tion (4.0î  2.0 ĵ) m/s2. When the particle’s x coordinate is from the release point to the target? (c) What is the speed of
29 m, what are its (a) y coordinate and (b) speed? the ball just as it reaches the target?
112 A sprinter running on a circular track has a velocity of 119 Figure 4-61 shows the y
constant magnitude 9.2 m/s and a centripetal acceleration of path taken by a drunk skunk
magnitude 3.8 m/s2. What are (a) the track radius and (b) the over level ground, from initial d2
period of the circular motion? point i to final point f. The an- θ3
113 An electron having an initial horizontal velocity of gles are 1  30.0°, 2  50.0°, θ2
d3
magnitude 1.00  10 9 cm/s travels into the region between and 3  80.0°, and the dis- θ1
d1
two horizontal metal plates that are electrically charged. tances are d1  5.00 m, d2  i
x
In that region, the electron travels a horizontal distance of 8.00 m, and d3  12.0 m. What
2.00 cm and has a constant downward acceleration of magni- are the (a) magnitude and (b)
tude 1.00  10 17 cm/s2 due to the charged plates. Find (a) the angle of the skunk’s displace-
time the electron takes to travel the 2.00 cm, (b) the vertical ment from i to f?
distance it travels during that time, and the magnitudes of its 120 A projectile is fired with f
(c) horizontal and (d) vertical velocity components as it an initial speed v0  30.0 m/s FIG. 4-61 Problem 119.
emerges from the region. from level ground at a target
114 An elevator without a ceiling is ascending with a con- that is on the ground, at dis-
High trajectory
stant speed of 10 m/s. A boy on the elevator shoots a ball tance R  20.0 m, as shown in
directly upward, from a height of 2.0 m above the elevator Fig. 4-62. What are the (a)
v0 Low trajectory
floor, just as the elevator floor is 28 m above the ground. The least and (b) greatest launch
initial speed of the ball with respect to the elevator is 20 m/s. angles that will allow the pro- v0
(a) What maximum height above the ground does the ball jectile to hit the target?
R
reach? (b) How long does the ball take to return to the eleva- 121 Oasis A is 90 km due
tor floor? west of oasis B. A desert camel FIG. 4-62 Problem 120.
46492_04_p58-86.qxd 7/7/06 9:44 AM Page 86

86 Chapter 4 | Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

leaves A and takes 50 h to walk 75 km at 37° north of due east. 10

Next it takes 35 h to walk 65 km due south. Then it rests for
5.0 h. What are the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the

y (ft)
camel’s displacement relative to A at the resting point? From 5
the time the camel leaves A until the end of the rest period,
what are the (c) magnitude and (d) direction of its average ve- t=0
locity and (e) its average speed? The camel’s last drink was at
A; it must be at B no more than 120 h later for its next drink. If 0 10 20 30 40
it is to reach B just in time, what must be the (f) magnitude and x (ft)
(g) direction of its average velocity after the rest period?
FIG. 4-63 Problem 128.
122 A graphing surprise. At time t  0, a burrito is launched
from level ground, with an initial speed of 16.0 m/s and launch 129 The New Hampshire State Police use aircraft to enforce
angle 0. Imagine a position vector : r continuously directed highway speed limits. Suppose that one of the airplanes has a
from the launching point to the burrito during the flight. speed of 135 mi/h in still air. It is flying straight north so that it
Graph the magnitude r of the position vector for (a) 0  is at all times directly above a north – south highway. A ground
40.0° and (b) 0  80.0°. For 0  40.0°, (c) when does r reach observer tells the pilot by radio that a 70.0 mi/h wind is blow-
its maximum value, (d) what is that value, and how far (e) hor- ing but neglects to give the wind direction. The pilot observes
izontally and (f) vertically is the burrito from the launch that in spite of the wind the plane can travel 135 mi along
point? For 0  80.0°, (g) when does r reach its maximum the highway in 1.00 h. In other words, the ground speed is the
value, (h) what is that value, and how far (i) horizontally and same as if there were no wind. (a) From what direction is the
(j) vertically is the burrito from the launch point? wind blowing? (b) What is the heading of the plane; that is, in
123 In Sample Problem 4-7b, a ball is shot through a hori- what direction does it point?
zontal distance of 686 m by a cannon located at sea level and 130 The position : r of a particle moving in the xy plane is
angled at 45° from the horizontal. How much greater would given by : r  2tî  2 sin[( /4 rad/s)t] ĵ , where :r is in meters
the horizontal distance have been had the cannon been 30 m and t is in seconds. (a) Calculate the x and y components of the
higher? particle’s position at t  0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 s and sketch the
124 (a) If an electron is projected horizontally with a speed particle’s path in the xy plane for the interval 0  t  4.0 s. (b)
of 3.0  10 6 m/s, how far will it fall in traversing 1.0 m of hori- Calculate the components of the particle’s velocity at t  1.0,
zontal distance? (b) Does the answer increase or decrease if 2.0, and 3.0 s. Show that the velocity is tangent to the path of
the initial speed is increased? the particle and in the direction the particle is moving at each
time by drawing the velocity vectors on the plot of the parti-
125 The magnitude of the velocity of a projectile when it is
cle’s path in part (a). (c) Calculate the components of the par-
at its maximum height above ground level is 10 m/s. (a) What
ticle’s acceleration at t  1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 s.
is the magnitude of the velocity of the projectile 1.0 s before it
achieves its maximum height? (b) What is the magnitude of 131 A golfer tees off from the top of a rise, giving the golf
the velocity of the projectile 1.0 s after it achieves its maxi- ball an initial velocity of 43 m/s at an angle of 30° above the
mum height? If we take x  0 and y  0 to be at the point of horizontal. The ball strikes the fairway a horizontal distance of
maximum height and positive x to be in the direction of the 180 m from the tee. Assume the fairway is level. (a) How high
velocity there, what are the (c) x coordinate and (d) y coordi- is the rise above the fairway? (b) What is the speed of the ball
nate of the projectile 1.0 s before it reaches its maximum as it strikes the fairway?
height and the (e) x coordinate and (f) y coordinate 1.0 s after 132 A track meet is held on a planet in a distant solar sys-
it reaches its maximum height? tem. A shot-putter releases a shot at a point 2.0 m above
126 A frightened rabbit moving at 6.0 m/s due east runs ground level. A stroboscopic plot of the position of the shot is
onto a large area of level ice of negligible friction. As the rab- shown in Fig. 4-64, where the readings are 0.50 s apart and the
bit slides across the ice, the force of the wind causes it to have shot is released at time t  0. (a) What is the initial velocity of
a constant acceleration of 1.4 m/s2, due north. Choose a coor- the shot in unit-vector notation? (b) What is the magnitude of
dinate system with the origin at the rabbit’s initial position on the free-fall acceleration on the planet? (c) How long after it
the ice and the positive x axis directed toward the east. In unit- is released does the shot reach the ground? (d) If an identical
vector notation, what are the rabbit’s (a) velocity and (b) posi- throw of the shot is made on the surface of Earth, how long af-
tion when it has slid for 3.0 s? ter it is released does it reach the ground?
127 The pilot of an aircraft flies due east relative to the
ground in a wind blowing 20 km/h toward the south. If the 10
speed of the aircraft in the absence of wind is 70 km/h, what is
the speed of the aircraft relative to the ground?
y (m)

128 The pitcher in a slow-pitch softball game releases the 5

ball at a point 3.0 ft above ground level. A stroboscopic plot of
the position of the ball is shown in Fig. 4-63, where the read- t=0
ings are 0.25 s apart and the ball is released at t  0. (a) What
is the initial speed of the ball? (b) What is the speed of the ball 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
at the instant it reaches its maximum height above ground x (m)
level? (c) What is that maximum height? FIG. 4-64 Problem 132.