I.

INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

A. Definitions of Literature

1. Literature is a word used to describe written and sometimes spoken

material. It is derived from the Latin word litteratura which means "writing
formed with letters". Litteratura is derived from littera which means letter –
the smallest element of alphabetical writing.
2. Literature is the expression of man’s best thoughts, feelings and emotion
in words of truth and beauty.
3. Literature is “Life” itself.
4. Literature presents human experience in various forms such as
sensations, feelings, moods, attitudes, thoughts, and events in an
interrelated series.
5. Literature refers to works of the creative imagination.

B. Purposes of Literature

1. to expand one’s vocabulary

2. to feed one’s imagination
3. to inspire
4. to entertain

C. Divisions of Literature

1. Prose – written in sentences and paragraphs. It is also known as the

language of the mind.

2. Poetry – written in verses composing stanzas. It is also known as the

language of the heart.

Divisions of Prose:

a. Fiction – include stories that do not happen in real life, or they lack facts
for their bases.

b. Non-fiction – composed of true to life events and stories

Kinds of Fiction:

1. Short Story – a concise form of prose fiction. Its aim is unity,

characterization, theme, and effect. Example: Footnote to Youth by
Jose Garcia Villa
2. Novel – a prose of considerable length and complexity. It has many
plots, characters, and setting. Example: Without Seeing the Dawn by
Stevan Javellana

3. Legend or Folktale – a story explaining the origin or the existence of

a place, person, or object, and phenomena in the surrounding world.
Examples: The Legend of the Black Rice, The Salt Spring of Salinas,
The Monkey and the Turtle

4. Adventures – stories filled with suspense from the beginning to the

end.
Example: The Adventures of Juan by Mabel Cook Cole

5. Allegories – stories that give moral/lessons. There are types:

a. Fable – is a tale which makes use of animals as characters who
are personified and behave as though they were humans.
Example: The Monkey and the Crocodile
b. Parable – story makes use of persons as characters.
Example: The Prodigal Son – It appears in only one of the Canonical
gospels of the New Testament, the Gospel of Luke (Luke 15:11-32).

6. Drama – a narrative with characters, plot, and theme and is

presented on stage.
Examples: The Summer Solstice or “Tatarin” by Nick Joaquin, The
Dancers by Alberto Florentino

7. Fairy Tale – a story usually for children that is of magical and

imaginary beings and lands.

8. Myths – earliest stories in which man created gods and supernatural

creatures in his own image.
Examples: Bathala or Abba, Lesser Divinities Assisting Bathala, Story of
Maykapal, The First People

Kinds of Non-fiction:

1. Biography – account or story of someone’s life written by another

person.

2. Autobiography – account or story of a person’s life written by

himself.

3. Diary – a daily record of events, activities, and experiences of the

writer.

4. Letters – notes sent to person/s by the writer.

 5. Journals – written reports on certain fields of education and
professional activity.

6. Essays – a short literary composition with a specific subject that

gives reader information, entertainment, or opinions.
Examples: What are Filipinos Like? by Leon Ma. Guerrero, The Filipino
Woman by Carmen Guerrero-Nakpil, The Principal Role of the Home in
the Making of a Filipino

7. Current Publications – these include news item, articles, in

newspapers and magazines or other forms of periodicals

8. History – a record of the past.

Branches of Poetry:

1. Lyric Poetry – a direct, often songlike expression of the poet’s personal

thoughts and feelings.

Kinds of Lyric Poetry:

a. Song – a short, simple and direct to the point lyric adapted for
singing. Example: Song to Celia by John Donne

b. Ode – a poem meant to be sung but longer than a song. It is often

addressed to someone or something. Examples: Ode to a Grecian Urn
by John Keats, Ode to My Pearl of Orient Seas (Philippines) by Jett
Franco

c. Elegy – a lament to the dead. It expresses sorrow, mourning, and

regret of a loved one. Example: Break, Break, Break by Tennyson

d. Sonnet – a poem of 14 lines written in iambic pentameter with a

definite rhyme scheme. Types: Petrarchan/Italian Sonnet, Spenserian
Sonnet, English/Shakespearian Sonnet
Example: Sonnet 29 by Shakespeare

e. Dramatic Lyric – a lyric poem in which the speaker is an imagined

character rather than the poet. Examples: “Porphyria’s Lover” and “My
Last Duchess” by Robert Browning

2. Narrative Poetry – aims to tell a story actual or fictional events.

Kinds of Narrative Poetry:

 a. Epic – a long poem that narrates about history of a nation, deeds of
heroes with supernatural powers and adventures of legendary figures.
Examples: The Hudhud by Ifugao people, The Biag Ni Lam-Ang by
Ilocano people, The Epic of Labaw Donggon by Visayan people

b. Ballad – a poem intended to be sung and which tells romantic or

sentimental topic or story. Examples: Ballad of the Green Beret, The
Ruined Maid by Thomas Hardy

c. Tale – a poem full of fiction and exaggeration. Example: Evangeline,

A Tale of Acadie

3. Dramatic Poetry – includes poems intended for theater or to be presented

on stage.

Kinds of Dramatic Poetry:

a. Comedy – a form of poetry with a happy ending. Example: A

Midsummer Night’s Dream by William Shakespeare

b. Tragedy – a form of poetry which ends sadly. Example: Romeo and

Juliet by William Shakespeare

c. Dramatic Monologue – a stage play with only one person portraying

all the characters in the play. Example: The Despair of Judas

d. Melodrama – a play of highly sensational events accompanied with

music.

e. Farce – a short comedy. Example: The Importance of Being Earnest

by Oscar Wilde

D. Elements of Short Story

1. The Characters
2. The Plot
3. Point of View

1. The Characters – the people or sometimes the animals who participate in

the action of a literary work

Methods of Characterization:

a. Direct or Expository Method – the author or another character

describes a character with a straightforward enumeration of his traits.
 b. Indirect or Dramatic Method – the character acts out his personality
by his physical appearance, speech, action, and recorded thoughts.

Kinds of Characters that can be portrayed

a. According to Roles played

a.1. Major Characters – those that make significant decisions.

a.1.1 Protagonist – principal character in a literary work. He

is called the hero when he embodies certain noble ideas of man.
However, the protagonist may not always be admirable (e.g. an
anti-hero)
a.1.2 Antagonist – the character or force that opposes or
contends the protagonist. The antagonist may be another
character society, nature, or one side of the character that
battles another side in an internal conflict.

a.2. Minor/Supporting Characters – serve to complement the

major characters and help move the plot events forward.

a.2.1. Confidant – a character to whom the protagonist or

another character reveals his reflections or hopes. One to whom
the central character entrusts his secrets.
a.2.2. Foil – a character that serves as contrast to another
character.
a.2.3. Stock/type – a character who shows qualities of a
national, social, or occupational group to which he belongs.

b. According to fullness of development

b.1. Flat – a character who is simply depicted; stock;

characterized
by one or two traits; can be summed up in one sentence;
sketched
in the briefest outlines. They are relatively uncomplicated and do
not change throughout the course of a work.

b.2. Round – a character who is three dimensional; complex;

many-sided; with a fully developed personality. They are
complex and undergo development, sometimes sufficiently to
surprise the reader.

c. According to change undergone in the story

 c.1. Static – a character who does not change; the same sort of
person from the beginning to the end of the story.

c.2. Developing/Dynamic – is one that does undergo an

important change in the course of the story. It is a character who
undergoes a permanent change in some aspects of his
personality. The change may be large or small, for better or for
worse but it is something basic or important; it is more than just
a change in condition or a minor change in opinion. Any
development will be shown in decisions involving moral choices
the character makes.

2. The Plot – the main events in the story presented by the writer as an
interrelated sequence.

Parts of a Plot:

a. Exposition/Introduction

1. gives the setting of the story

2. introduces the main characters
3. gives background information on what took place before the actual
start of the story.
4. gives the situation out of which the conflict develops

b. Complication/Rising Action – series of events that are related to the

conflict or problem to be solved.

Conflict – clash of opposing forces in the story. Usually, the main

character struggles against some other force. 

Kinds of Conflict

b.1. External Conflict – the clash of the character with the forces
outside him, natural, social or both.

 Man Versus Man – This is the most fundamental type of

external conflict. This form of external conflict occurs
when a character struggles against another character.
These struggles may be born from moral, religious or
social differences and may be emotional, verbal or
physical conflicts. Man versus man is almost always the
conflict present when a hero fights a villain.
 Man Versus Society – These are conflicts where your
characters’ firm beliefs are against norms that the
 entire society as a whole endorses. It could be social
evils or discrimination practiced by society that is
opposed by a minority.
 Man Versus Nature – These occur when a character, or
characters, find themselves at odds with forces of
nature. A character struck by lightning, characters
whose boat sinks in a storm and a character who
struggles against hypothermia in a snow storm are all
characters experiencing man versus nature conflicts.
 Man Versus Fate – This occurs when a character is
compelled to follow an unknown destiny. Man versus
fate conflict breeds internal conflict, while forcing a
character to consciously, or subconsciously, act on his
or her fate.
 Man Versus Supernatural – This could be any
supernatural force that is outside the understanding of
the protagonist, including monsters, aliens, or deities.
 Man Versus Technology – This places a character
against man-made entities which may possess "artificial
intelligence".

b.2. Internal Conflict – the clash of forces within the character.

With internal conflicts, the character could be struggling with a
decision he must make or with his own weaknesses in his personality.
These are also internal issues that affect their actions, motivations and
interactions with other characters.

 Man Versus Self

c. Climax/Turning Point – the highest point of interest in the story. The

conflict reaches a height and may turn for the better or for the worse.

d. Resolution/Falling Action – the conflict is solved.

e. Conclusion/End – action ends in either success or failure for the main

character.

3. Point of View – narrative method used in a short story, novel, or nonfiction

selection.

Most Common Points of View:

a. First Person Point of View – The story is told by one of the

characters. The narrator tells the actions as he understands it. This point of
view is indicated by the pronoun “I”.
 b. Third Person Point of View – The story is told by a narrator who is not
a character in the story and maintains a certain distance from the
characters. It is indicated by the pronouns he, she and they.

c. Omniscient Point of View – The narrator knows the thoughts and

feelings of all the characters. The writer can reveal the emotional responses
of all the characters and can comment at will on the events taking place.

E. Literary Devices

1. Allegory –  a symbolism device where the meaning of a greater, often

abstract, concept is conveyed with the aid of a more corporeal object or idea
being used as an example. 

2. Allusion – a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of

historical, cultural, literary or political significance with which the reader is
assumed familiar.

3. Epilogue – Epilogues are an inherent part of any story or poem and are
essential to the structure of any written form. The epilogue is an important
literary tool that acts as the afterword once the last chapter is over. The
purpose of an epilogue is to add a little insight to some interesting
developments that happen once the major plot is over. Epilogues often act
as a teaser trailer to any possible sequels that might be created later.
Sometimes the epilogue is used to add a little bit about the life or future of
the main characters after the story itself has unfolded and wrapped up.

4. Flashback – an event or scene (by means of recollections of a character,

the narrator’s commentary, or a dream episode) taking place before the
present time in the narrative is inserted into the chronological structure of
the work.

5. Flash-Forward – a sudden jump forward in time, usually used to eliminate

unnecessary events between the more interesting events of a story

6. Foreshadowing – a writer’s use of hints or clues to warn or to indicate a

future event in the narrative.

7. Imagery – words and phrases that serve as visual images or vivid sensory
experiences for the reader.

8. Irony – a discrepancy between the intended meaning and the actual

meaning.
 a. Verbal Irony – The speaker intends to say one thing and means
another. This is used with a sarcastic tone.
b. Dramatic Irony – a discrepancy between the meaning intended by
the character and another meaning that the audience or the reader can
simultaneously find in the same words.
c. Irony of Situation – irony involving a situation in which actions have
an effect that is opposite from what was intended; irony between
expectation and result; intention and outcome; illusion and reality.

9. Juxtaposition – The author places a person, concept, place, idea or theme

parallel to another. The purpose of juxtaposing two directly or indirectly
related entities close together in literature is to highlight the contrast
between the two and compare them. 

10. Mood – is the atmosphere in a literary piece. It evokes certain feelings or

vibes through connotative words and descriptions, sensory images, and
figurative language.

11. Moral – an exhortation to good behavior; the lesson a story teaches; a

proverbial formula that tells us how to go along in life.

12. Prologue – A prologue can be understood to be a sort of introduction to a

story that usually sets the tone for the story and acts as a bit of a
backgrounder. Prologues are typically a narrative ‘spoken’ by one of the
characters and not from the part of the author.

13. Satire – The use of satire in literature refers to the practice of making fun
of a human weakness or character flaw. The use of satire is often inclusive of
a need or decision of correcting or bettering the character that is on the
receiving end of the satire. In general, even though satire might be
humorous and may “make fun”, its purpose is not to entertain and amuse
but actually to derive a reaction of contempt from the reader.

14. Suspense – an intense feeling felt by the reader as s/he becomes

involved in a narrative and eager to know either the outcome of a conflict or
how the outcome occurred.

15. Symbol – a person, place, or object has another meaning than its literal
meaning; depicts something beyond itself.

16. Theme – the central topic, the main idea, or message in a literary work. It
is a writer’s perception about life or humanity shared with a reader. It is a
generalization about life.

17. Tone – the attitude a writer takes toward the subject and toward the
audience implied in a literary piece.
F. Elements of Poetry

1. Blank Verse – un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter.

2. Free Verse – poetry that is free from limitations of regular meter or

rhythm.

3. Heroic Couplet – consists of a rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter.

4. Refrain – a line or set of lines at the end of a stanza. These lines are
repeated regularly.

5. Rhyme – a repetition of similar sounding words occurring at the end of

lines.

6. Rhythm – demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and
unstressed syllables particularly in verse form.

7. Speaker – the voice that “talks” to the reader, analogous to the narrator in
a work of fiction.

8. Stanza – a group of lines that form a unit of poetry. Stanzas are similar to
paragraphs in prose.

9. Verse – a single line of poetry.

G. Figures of Speech – language that communicates ideas beyond the

ordinary everyday meaning of words.

1. Simile – a comparison between two unlike things, but that have something
in common.

“Her eyes as stars of Twilight fair;

Like Twilight's, too, her dusky hair.”

William Wordsworth’s “She Was a Phantom of Delight”

2. Metaphor – a suggested comparison between two unlike things in order to

point out a similarity; a metaphor DOES NOT use the word like, as as, or
than.

“If sapphires, lo! her eyes be sapphires plain;

If rubies, lo! her lips be rubies red.”

Spencer’s “Amoretti”
3. Personification – a description in which an inanimate object (or animal, or
idea, or force of nature) takes on human characteristics or actions.

“The sapless foliage of the ocean, know.

Thy voice, and suddenly grow gray with fear,
And tremble and despoil themselves”

Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind”

4. Apostrophe – an address to the dead as if living, to the absent as if

present, and to non-humans as if they were persons.

“Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll!”

Byron’s “The Ocean”

5. Alliteration – repeated consonant sound at the beginning of words or

within words.

“O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being.”

Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind”

6. Hyperbole – extravagance of utterance or obvious exaggeration which is

not meant to be taken literally or possibly true.

“At every word a reputation dies”

Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock”

7. Onomatopoeia – use of words that imitate sounds.

“Tlot-tlot; tlot-tlot! Had they heard it? The horse-hoofs ringing clear.”

A. Noyes’ “The Highwayman”

8. Antithesis – opposition or contrast of words and ideas to make the

meaning more emphatic.

“To err is human; to forgive, divine”

 A. Pope’s “Epigram”

9. Paradox – a statement that reveals a kind of truth although at first it

seems to be self-contradictory and untrue

Oxymoron – a special kind of paradox that brings together two contradictory

terms.

“His honor rooted in dishonor stood, and faith

unfaithful kept him falsely true.”

Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King”

10. Metonymy – substitution of one word for another which is associated with
it or suggested by it.

“To live by the sword (violence)”

“From rags (poverty) to riches”
“Read from some humbler poet (author for his work)

11. Synecdoche – substitution of a part for a whole, a whole for a part. It is a

form of metonymy but is frequently used so that it is given a special name.

“… without a roof over his head” (part for a whole)

“The world is growing green.” (whole for a part)