BLACK HOLE

A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or

even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it.[6] The theory of general
relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole.[7]
[8]
 The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon.
Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object
crossing it, it has no locally detectable features.[9] In many ways, a black hole acts like an
ideal black body, as it reflects no light.[10][11] Moreover, quantum field theory in curved
spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a
black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order
of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.
Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the
18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace.[12] The first modern solution of general
relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916, although
its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published
by David Finkelstein in 1958. Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity; it was
not until the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general
relativity. The discovery of neutron stars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967 sparked interest
in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality.
Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of
their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its
surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black
holes of millions of solar masses (M☉) may form. There is consensus that supermassive black
holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.
The presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with
electromagnetic radiation such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an
external accretion disk heated by friction, forming quasars, some of the brightest objects in the
universe. Stars passing too close to a supermassive black hole can be shred into streamers that
shine very brightly before being "swallowed."[13] If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their
orbits can be used to determine the black hole's mass and location. Such observations can be
used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars. In this way, astronomers have
identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems, and established that the
radio source known as Sagittarius A*, at the core of the Milky Way galaxy, contains a
supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses.
On 11 February 2016, the LIGO collaboration announced the first direct detection of gravitational
waves, which also represented the first observation of a black hole merger.[14] As of
December 2018, eleven gravitational wave events have been observed that originated from ten
merging black holes (along with one binary neutron star merger).[15][16] On 10 April 2019, the first
ever direct image of a black hole and its vicinity was published, following observations made by
the Event Horizon Telescope in 2017 of the supermassive black hole in Messier 87's galactic
centre.[3][17][18]
The idea of a body so massive that even light could not escape was briefly proposed by
astronomical pioneer and English clergyman John Michell in a letter published in November
1784. Michell's simplistic calculations assumed such a body might have the same density as the
Sun, and concluded that such a body would form when a star's diameter exceeds the Sun's by a
factor of 500, and the surface escape velocity exceeds the usual speed of light. Michell correctly
noted that such supermassive but non-radiating bodies might be detectable through their
gravitational effects on nearby visible bodies.[20][12][21] Scholars of the time were initially excited by
the proposal that giant but invisible stars might be hiding in plain view, but enthusiasm dampened
when the wavelike nature of light became apparent in the early nineteenth century.[22]
If light were a wave rather than a "corpuscle", it is unclear what, if any, influence gravity would
have on escaping light waves.[12][21] Modern physics discredits Michell's notion of a light ray
shooting directly from the surface of a supermassive star, being slowed down by the star's
gravity, stopping, and then free-falling back to the star's surface.[23]
WHITE HOLE
In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity which
cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter and light can escape from it. In this
sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, which can be entered only from the outside and from
which energy-matter and light cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black
holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field
equations has a white hole region in its past.[1] However, some believe this region does not exist
for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, nor are there any known physical
processes through which a white hole could be formed. Although information and evidence
regarding white holes remains inconclusive, the 2006 GRB 060614 has been proposed as the
first documented observance of a white hole.[2]
Supermassive black holes (SBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of
every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. It has been proposed
by Stephen Hawking[3] that these SBHs spawn a supermassive white hole.[4]
Like black holes, white holes have properties like mass, charge, and angular momentum. They
attract matter like any other mass, but objects falling towards a white hole would never actually
reach the white hole's event horizon (though in the case of the maximally extended
Schwarzschild solution, discussed below, the white hole event horizon in the past becomes a
black hole event horizon in the future, so any object falling towards it will eventually reach the
black hole horizon). Imagine a gravitational field, without a surface. Acceleration due to gravity is
the greatest on the surface of any body. But since black holes lack a surface, acceleration due to
gravity increases exponentially, but never reaches a final value as there is no considered surface
in a singularity.
In quantum mechanics, the black hole emits Hawking radiation and so can come to thermal
equilibrium with a gas of radiation (not compulsory). Because a thermal-equilibrium state is time-
reversal-invariant, Stephen Hawking argued that the time reverse of a black hole in thermal
equilibrium is again a black hole in thermal equilibrium.[5] This may imply that black holes and
white holes are the same object. The Hawking radiation from an ordinary black hole is then
identified with the white-hole emission. Hawking's semi-classical argument is reproduced in a
quantum mechanical AdS/CFT treatment,[6] where a black hole in anti-de Sitter space is
described by a thermal gas in a gauge theory, whose time reversal is the same as itself.
The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Russian cosmologist Igor
Novikov in 1964.[7] White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field
equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric[clarification
needed]
 describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended"
refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": for any possible trajectory of a
free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in the spacetime, it should be possible to continue this
path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like
the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out
that in addition to the black hole interior region which particles enter when they fall through
the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which
allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles which an outside observer sees rising
up away from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates,
infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future,
while outgoing particles which pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time
since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other
objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the
outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears "eternal" from the perspective of an outside
observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can
pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward which will eventually reach the black
hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time.
EVENT HORIZON
In astrophysics, an event horizon is a boundary beyond which events cannot affect an observer.
In 1784, John Michell proposed that near compact massive objects, gravity can be strong
enough that even light cannot escape. At that time, the Newtonian theory of gravitation and the
so-called corpuscular theory of light were dominant. In these theories, if the escape speed of an
object exceeds the speed of light, then light originating inside or from it can escape temporarily
but will return. In 1958, David Finkelstein used General Relativity to introduce a stricter definition
of a local black hole event horizon as a boundary beyond which events of any kind cannot affect
an outside observer. This led to information and firewall paradoxes, which encouraged the re-
examination of the concept of local event horizons and the notion of black holes. Several theories
were subsequently developed, some with and some without event horizons. Stephen Hawking,
who was one of the leading developers of theories to describe black holes, suggested that
an apparent horizon should be used instead of an event horizon, saying "gravitational collapse
produces apparent horizons but no event horizons". He eventually concluded that "the absence
of event horizons mean that there are no black holes — in the sense of regimes from which light
can't escape to infinity." [1][2] This does not mean denying the existence of black holes, it merely
expresses the distrust towards the conventional strict definition of the event horizon.[citation needed]
Any object that approaches the horizon from the observer's side appears to slow down and never
quite crosses the horizon.[3] Due to gravitational redshift, its image reddens over time as the
object moves away from the observer.[4]
An event horizon is an acknowledged feature of an expanding universe. The speed of expansion
reaches and even exceeds the speed of light, which prevents signals from travelling to some
regions. A cosmic event horizon is a real event horizon because it affects all kinds of signals,
including gravitational waves which travel at the speed of light.
More specific types of horizon include the related but distinct absolute and apparent
horizons found around a black hole. Other distinct types include the Cauchy and Killing horizons;
the photon spheres and ergospheres of the Kerr solution; particle and cosmological
horizons relevant to cosmology; and isolated and dynamical horizons important in current black
hole research.
n cosmology, the event horizon of the observable universe is the largest comoving distance from
which light emitted now can ever reach the observer in the future. This differs from the concept of
the particle horizon, which represents the largest comoving distance from which light emitted in
the past could reach the observer at a given time. For events that occur beyond that distance,
light has not had enough time to reach our location, even if it was emitted at the time the
universe began. The evolution of the particle horizon with time depends on the nature of
the expansion of the universe. If the expansion has certain characteristics, parts of the universe
will never be observable, no matter how long the observer waits for light from those regions to
arrive. The boundary beyond which events cannot ever be observed is an event horizon, and it
represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon.

One of the best-known examples of an event horizon derives from general relativity's description
of a black hole, a celestial object so dense that no nearby matter or radiation can escape
its gravitational field. Often, this is described as the boundary within which the black
hole's escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. However, a more detailed description is
that within this horizon, all lightlike paths (paths that light could take) and hence all paths in the
forward light cones of particles within the horizon, are warped so as to fall farther into the hole.
Once a particle is inside the horizon, moving into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in
time, and can actually be thought of as equivalent to doing so, depending on the spacetime
coordinate system used.[8][9][10][11]
GRAVITATIONAL
SINGULARITY
A gravitational singularity, spacetime singularity or simply singularity is a location
in spacetime where the gravitational field of a celestial body is predicted to
become infinite by general relativity in a way that does not depend on the coordinate system. The
quantities used to measure gravitational field strength are the scalar invariant curvatures of
spacetime, which includes a measure of the density of matter. Since such quantities become
infinite at the singularity, the laws of normal spacetime break down.[1][2]
Gravitational singularities are mainly considered in the context of general relativity,
where density apparently becomes infinite at the center of a black hole, and
within astrophysics and cosmology as the earliest state of the universe during the Big Bang.
Physicists are undecided whether the prediction of singularities means that they actually exist (or
existed at the start of the Big Bang), or that current knowledge is insufficient to describe what
happens at such extreme densities.
General relativity predicts that any object collapsing beyond a certain point (for stars this is
the Schwarzschild radius) would form a black hole, inside which a singularity (covered by an
event horizon) would be formed.[3] The Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems define a
singularity to have geodesics that cannot be extended in a smooth manner.[4] The termination of
such a geodesic is considered to be the singularity.
The initial state of the universe, at the beginning of the Big Bang, is also predicted by modern
theories to have been a singularity.[5] In this case the universe did not collapse into a black hole,
because currently-known calculations and density limits for gravitational collapse are usually
based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not necessarily apply in the
same way to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang. Neither general
relativity nor quantum mechanics can currently describe the earliest moments of the Big Bang,
[6]
 but in general, quantum mechanics does not permit particles to inhabit a space smaller than
their wavelengths.[7]
Many theories in physics have mathematical singularities of one kind or another. Equations for
these physical theories predict that the ball of mass of some quantity becomes infinite or
increases without limit. This is generally a sign for a missing piece in the theory, as in
the ultraviolet catastrophe, re-normalization, and instability of a hydrogen atom predicted by
the Larmor formula.
Some theories, such as the theory of loop quantum gravity, suggest that singularities may not
exist.[8] This is also true for such classical unified field theories as the Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac
equations. The idea can be stated in the form that due to quantum gravity effects, there is a
minimum distance beyond which the force of gravity no longer continues to increase as the
distance between the masses becomes shorter, or alternatively that interpenetrating particle
waves mask gravitational effects that would be felt at a distance.
There are different types of singularities, each with different physical features which have
characteristics relevant to the theories from which they originally emerged, such as the different
shape of the singularities, conical and curved. They have also been hypothesized to occur
without Event Horizons, structures which delineate one spacetime section from another in which
events cannot affect past the horizon; these are called naked.

Before Stephen Hawking came up with the concept of Hawking radiation, the question of black
holes having entropy had been avoided. However, this concept demonstrates that black holes
radiate energy, which conserves entropy and solves the incompatibility problems with the second
law of thermodynamics. Entropy, however, implies heat and therefore temperature. The loss of
energy also implies that black holes do not last forever, but rather evaporate or decay slowly.
Black hole temperature is inversely related to mass.[16] All known black hole candidates are so
large that their temperature is far below that of the cosmic background radiation, which means
they will gain energy on net by absorbing this radiation. They cannot begin to lose energy on net
until the background temperature falls below their own temperature. This will occur at
a cosmological redshift of more than one million, rather than the thousand or so since the
background radiation formed.[citation needed]
HAWKING RADIATION
Hawking radiation is black-body radiation that is predicted to be released by black holes, due to
quantum effects near the black hole event horizon. It is named after the theoretical
physicist Stephen Hawking, who provided a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974.[1]
Hawking radiation reduces the mass and rotational energy of black holes and is therefore also
known as black hole evaporation. Because of this, black holes that do not gain mass through
other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish. As the radiation temperature is
inversely proportional to the black hole's mass, micro black holes are predicted to be larger
emitters of radiation than more massive black holes and should thus shrink and dissipate faster.[2]
In June 2008, NASA launched the Fermi space telescope, which is searching for the terminal
gamma-ray flashes expected from evaporating primordial black holes. In the event that
speculative large extra dimension theories are correct, CERN's Large Hadron Collider may be
able to create micro black holes and observe their evaporation. No such micro black hole has
been observed at CERN.[3][4][5][6]
In September 2010, a signal that is closely related to black hole Hawking radiation (see analog
gravity) was claimed to have been observed in a laboratory experiment involving optical light
pulses. However, the results remain unverified and debatable.[7][8] Other projects have been
launched to look for this radiation within the framework of analog gravity.
Black holes are sites of immense gravitational attraction. Classically, the gravitation generated by
the gravitational singularity inside a black hole is so powerful that nothing, not
even electromagnetic radiation, can escape from the black hole. It is yet unknown
how gravity can be incorporated into quantum mechanics. Nevertheless, far from the black hole,
the gravitational effects can be weak enough for calculations to be reliably performed in the
framework of quantum field theory in curved spacetime. Hawking showed that quantum effects
allow black holes to emit exact black-body radiation. The electromagnetic radiation is produced
as if emitted by a black body with a temperature inversely proportional to the mass of the black
hole.
Physical insight into the process may be gained by imagining that particle–antiparticle radiation is
emitted from just beyond the event horizon. This radiation does not come directly from the black
hole itself, but rather is a result of virtual particles being "boosted" by the black hole's gravitation
into becoming real particles.[citation needed] As the particle–antiparticle pair was produced by the black
hole's gravitational energy, the escape of one of the particles lowers the mass of the black hole.[9]
An alternative view of the process is that vacuum fluctuations cause a particle–antiparticle pair to
appear close to the event horizon of a black hole. One of the pair falls into the black hole while
the other escapes. In order to preserve total energy, the particle that fell into the black hole must
have had a negative energy (with respect to an observer far away from the black hole). This
causes the black hole to lose mass, and, to an outside observer, it would appear that the black
hole has just emitted a particle. In another model, the process is a quantum tunnelling effect,
whereby particle–antiparticle pairs will form from the vacuum, and one will tunnel outside the
event horizon.[citation needed]
An important difference between the black hole radiation as computed by Hawking and thermal
radiation emitted from a black body is that the latter is statistical in nature, and only its average
satisfies what is known as Planck's law of black-body radiation, while the former fits the data
better. Thus thermal radiation contains information about the body that emitted it, while Hawking
radiation seems to contain no such information, and depends only on the mass, angular
momentum, and charge of the black hole (the no-hair theorem). This leads to the black hole
information paradox.
However, according to the conjectured gauge-gravity duality (also known as the AdS/CFT
correspondence), black holes in certain cases (and perhaps in general) are equivalent to
solutions of quantum field theory at a non-zero temperature. This means that no information loss
is expected in black holes (since the theory permits no such loss) and the radiation emitted by a
black hole is probably the usual thermal radiation. If this is correct, then Hawking's original
calculation should be corrected, though it is not known how (see below).
A black hole of one solar mass (M☉) has a temperature of only 60 nanokelvins (60 billionths of
a kelvin); in fact, such a black hole would absorb far more cosmic microwave background
radiation than it emits. A black hole of 4.5×1022 kg (about the mass of the Moon, or
about 133 μm across) would be in equilibrium at 2.7 K, absorbing as much radiation as it emits.
Yet smaller primordial black holes would emit more than they absorb and thereby lose mass.[citation
needed]