School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,

Suranaree University of Technology

Chapter 5
Failures Resulting from Static Loading

Asst. Prof. Dr. Supakit Rooppakhun

School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,

Suranaree University of Technology
 School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology

Failures Resulting from Static Loading

Chapter Outline 5-1 Static Strength

5-2 Stress Concentration

5-3 Failure Theories

5-4 Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile Materials

5-5 Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

5-6 Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Ductile Materials

5-7 Failure of Ductile Materials Summary

5-8 Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory for Brittle Materials

5-9 Modifications of the Mohr Theory for Brittle Materials

5-10 Failure of Brittle Materials Summary

5-11 Selection of Failure Criteria

5-12 Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

5-13 Important Design Equations

 School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology

Failures
• A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a
member.
(unchanging- magnitude, point or applied point, direction)

• Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces;
has become permanently distorted, thus ruining its geometry;
has had its reliability downgraded; or has had its function
compromised, whatever the reason.

Failure of truck driveshaft spline due to

corrosion fatigue
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Suranaree University of Technology

Example of Failures

Impact failure of a lawn-mower blade Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining

driver hub bolt on a weightlifting machine

brittle fracture initiated by stress The fractures exhibit the classic 45

concentration 4 degree shear failure
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Suranaree University of Technology

Static Strength
• Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer
should have available the results of a great many strength
tests of the particular material chosen.
• More often than not it is necessary to design using only
published values of yield strength, ultimate strength,
percentage reduction in area, and percentage elongation.

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Suranaree University of Technology

Stress Concentration
• Stress concentration is a highly localized effect.
• Geometric (theoretical) stress-concentration factor for normal
stress Kt and shear stress Kts is defined as

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Suranaree University of Technology

Failure Theories
• There is no universal theory of failure for the general case of
material properties and stress state. Instead, over the years
several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to
today’s accepted practices most designers do.
• The generally accepted theories are:
Ductile materials (yield criteria)
 Maximum shear stress (MSS)
 Distortion energy (DE)
 Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
True strain fracture

Brittle materials (fracture criteria)

 Maximum normal stress (MNS)
 Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
 Modified Mohr (MM)

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Suranaree University of Technology

Failure Theories
True strain fracture

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Suranaree University of Technology

Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile Materials

• The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that..
“yielding begins whenever the maximum shear stress in any element
equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of
the same material when that specimen begins to yield”.
• The MSS theory is also referred to as the Tresca or Guest theory.

or

It can be modified to incorporate

a factor of safety, n by
2  3  0

or

simple tension test

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Suranaree University of Technology

Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile Materials

Assuming a plane stress problem with σA ≥ σB,
there are three cases to consider
 Case 1: σA ≥ σB ≥ 0. For this case, σ1 = σA and
σ3 = 0. Equation (5–1)reduces to a yield
condition of

 Case 2: σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB . Here, σ1 = σA and σ3 = σB ,

and Eq. (5–1) becomes

Case 1:
 Case 3: 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB . For this case, σ1 = 0 and  Case 2:
σ3 = σB , and Eq. (5–1) gives Case 3:

A A
σ
A

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Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

• Originated from observation that ductile materials stressed
hydrostatically (equal principal stresses) exhibited yield
strengths greatly in excess of expected values.
• Theorizes that if strain energy is divided into hydrostatic
volume changing energy and angular distortion energy, the
yielding is primarily affected by the distortion energy.

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Suranaree University of Technology

Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

• The distortion-energy theory predicts that..
“yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit volume
reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield
in simple tension or compression of the same material”.

• Deriving the Distortion Energy

Hydrostatic stress is average of principal stresses

Strain energy per unit volume,

Substituting Eq. (3–19) for principal strains into strain energy equation,

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Suranaree University of Technology

Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

• Deriving the Distortion Energy
Strain energy for producing only volume change is obtained by
substituting av for 1, 2, and 3

Substituting av from Eq. (a),

Obtain distortion energy by subtracting volume changing energy, Eq.

(5–7), from total strain energy, Eq. (b)

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Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

• Deriving the Distortion Energy
Tension test specimen at yield has 1 = Sy and 2 = 3 = 0 Applying to
Eq. (5–8), distortion energy for tension test specimen is

DE theory predicts failure when distortion energy, Eq. (5–8), exceeds

distortion energy of tension test specimen, Eq. (5–9)

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Suranaree University of Technology

Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

Left hand side is defined as von Mises stress or effective stress σ′ as

For plane stress simplifies to (principal stress A , B , 0)

Using xyz components of three-dimensional stress, the von Mises

stress can be written as

for plane stress

(σz = xz = yz =0)

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Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials

• Consider a case of pure shear τxy ,where for plane stress σx = σy = 0. For
yield

Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by the distortion energy theory is

*** The distortion-energy theory is also called

• The von Mises / von Mises-Hencky theory
• The shear-energy theory
• The octahedral-shear-stress theory

 3   1

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School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
 School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology

Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Ductile Materials

• Not all materials have compressive strengths equal to their corresponding
tensile values.
• The idea of Mohr is based on three “simple” tests: tension, compression, and
shear, to yielding if the material can yield, or to rupture.
• The practical difficulties lies in the form of the failure envelope.
• A variation of Mohr’s theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the internal-
friction theory, assumes that the boundary is straight.

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Suranaree University of Technology

Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Ductile Materials

• For plane stress, when the two nonzero principal stresses are σA ≥ σB , we have
a situation similar to the three cases given for the MSS theory

 Case 1: σA ≥ σB ≥ 0.  Case 2: σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB .  Case 3: 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB .

For this case, σ1 = σA Here, σ1 = σA and For this case, σ1 = 0
and σ3 = 0. Equation σ3 = σB , and Eq. (5–22) and σ3 = σB , and Eq.
(5–22) reduces to a becomes (5–22) gives
failure condition of

Case 1:
 Case 2:
Case 3:

A A
σ
A

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Suranaree University of Technology

Failure of Ductile Materials Summary

• Either the maximum-shear-stress
theory or the distortion-energy
theory is acceptable for design and
analysis of materials that would fail
in a ductile manner.
• For design purposes the maximum-
shear-stress theory is easy, quick to
use, and conservative.
• If the problem is to learn why a part
failed, then the distortion-energy
theory may be the best to use.
• For ductile materials with unequal
yield strengths, Syt in tension and Syc
in compression, the Mohr theory is
the best available.

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School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
 School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology

Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory for Brittle Materials

• The maximum-normal-stress (MNS) theory states that..

“failure occurs whenever one of the three principal stresses equals or
exceeds the strength”.
• For a general stress state in the ordered form σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3. This theory
then predicts that failure occurs whenever

where Sut -ultimate tensile and Suc -ultimate compressive strengths,

given as positive quantities.

For the plane stress, with σA ≥ σB,

It can be converted to design equations

as:

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Suranaree University of Technology

Modifications of the Mohr Theory for Brittle Materials

Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr

 Case 1:

 Case 2:

 Case 3:

Modified Mohr
 Case 1:

Biaxial fracture data of gray cast iron with various

failure criteria

 *Case 2:

 Case 3:

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School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology
 School of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology

Failure of Brittle Materials Summary

Brittle materials have true strain at
fracture is 0.05 or less.
 In the 1st quadrant the data appear
on both sides and along the failure
curves of maximum-normal-stress,
Coulomb-Mohr, and modified Mohr.
All failure curves are the same, and
data fit well.
 In the 4th quadrant the modified
Mohr theory represents the data best.
 In the 3rd quadrant the points A, B,
C, and D are too few to make any
suggestion concerning a fracture
locus.

Experimental data point obtained from

test on cast iron

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 Selection of Failure Criteria
 First determine ductile vs. brittle
 For ductile
◦ MSS is conservative, often used for design where higher
reliability is desired
◦ DE is typical, often used for analysis where agreement with
experimental data is desired
◦ If tensile and compressive strengths differ, use Ductile
Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
 For brittle
◦ Mohr theory is best, but difficult to use
◦ Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM) is very conservative in 4th
quadrant
◦ Modified Mohr (MM) is still slightly conservative in 4th
quadrant, but closer to typical

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Selection of Failure Criteria in Flowchart Form

Fig. 5−21
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Introduction to Fracture Mechanics
 Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) analyzes crack growth
during service
 Assumes cracks can exist before service begins, e.g. flaw,
inclusion, or defect
 Attempts to model and predict the growth of a crack
 Stress concentration approach is inadequate when notch
radius becomes extremely sharp, as in a crack, since stress
concentration factor approaches infinity
 Ductile materials often can neglect effect of crack growth, since
local plastic deformation blunts sharp cracks
 Relatively brittle materials, such as glass, hard steels, strong
aluminum alloys, and steel below the ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature, benefit from fracture mechanics
analysis

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Quasi-Static Fracture

 Though brittle fracture seems instantaneous, it

actually takes time to feed the crack energy from the
stress field to the crack for propagation.
 A static crack may be stable and not propagate.
 Some level of loading can render a crack unstable,
causing it to propagate to fracture.

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Quasi-Static Fracture
 Foundation work for fracture mechanics established by Griffith
in 1921
 Considered infinite plate with an elliptical flaw
 Maximum stress occurs at (±a, 0)

Fig. 5−22
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Quasi-Static Fracture
 Crack growth occurs when energy release rate from applied
loading is greater than rate of energy for crack growth
 Unstable crack growth occurs when rate of change of energy
release rate relative to crack length exceeds rate of change of
crack growth rate of energy

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Crack Modes and the Stress Intensity Factor
 Three distinct modes of crack propagation
◦ Mode I: Opening crack mode, due to tensile stress field
◦ Mode II: Sliding mode, due to in-plane shear
◦ Mode III: Tearing mode, due to out-of-plane shear
 Combination of modes possible
 Opening crack mode is most common, and is focus of this text

Fig. 5−23
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Mode I Crack Model
 Stress field on dx dy element at crack tip

Fig. 5−24

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Stress Intensity Factor
 Common practice to define stress intensity factor

 Incorporating KI, stress field equations are

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Stress Intensity Modification Factor
 Stress intensity factor KI is a function of geometry, size, and
shape of the crack, and type of loading
 For various load and geometric configurations, a stress
intensity modification factor b can be incorporated

 Tables for b are available in the literature

 Figures 5−25 to 5−30 present some common configurations

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Stress Intensity Modification Factor
 Off-center crack in plate in
longitudinal tension
 Solid curves are for crack tip
at A
 Dashed curves are for tip at B

Fig. 5−25
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Stress Intensity Modification Factor

 Plate loaded in
longitudinal tension
with crack at edge
 For solid curve there
are no constraints to
bending
 Dashed curve obtained
with bending
constraints added

Fig. 5−26
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Stress Intensity Modification Factor

 Beams of rectangular
cross section having an
edge crack

Fig. 5−27

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Stress Intensity Modification Factor

 Plate in tension containing circular hole with two

cracks

Fig. 5−28
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Stress Intensity Modification Factor

 Cylinder loaded in axial tension having a radial crack of

depth a extending completely around the circumference

Fig. 5−29
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
 Stress Intensity Modification Factor

 Cylinder subjected to
internal pressure p, having
a radial crack in the
longitudinal direction of
depth a

Fig. 5−30

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Fracture Toughness

 Crack propagation initiates when the stress intensity

factor reaches a critical value, the critical stress
intensity factor KIc
 KIc is a material property dependent on material,
crack mode, processing of material, temperature,
loading rate, and state of stress at crack site
 Also know as fracture toughness of material
 Fracture toughness for plane strain is normally lower
than for plain stress
 KIc is typically defined as mode I, plane strain fracture
toughness

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Typical Values for KIc

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

 Brittle Fracture Factor of Safety

 Brittle fracture should be considered as a failure

mode for
◦ Low-temperature operation, where ductile-to-
brittle transition temperature may be reached
◦ Materials with high ratio of Sy/Su, indicating little
ability to absorb energy in plastic region
 A factor of safety for brittle fracture

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 5−6

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 5−6 (continued)

Fig. 5−25
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Example 5−6 (continued)

Answer

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 5−7

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 5−7 (continued)

Answer

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 5−7 (continued)

Fig. 5−26 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Example 5−7 (continued)

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design