Types of Democracy

Read this article. Make sure you can distinguish the major differences between presidential,
semi-presidential and parliamentary systems. For example, what are the basic operating
principles of parliamentary, presidential, and semi-presidential systems? Are political parties
more powerful in parliamentary or presidential systems? Also, be able to give an example of a
country with a parliamentary, presidential, and semi-presidential system. Evaluate what you see
as the strengths and weaknesses of each system. Is anyone of these three systems better than the
other? Why or why not?

The democratic form of government is an institutional configuration that allows for popular
participation through the electoral process. According to political scientist Robert Dahl, the
democratic ideal is based on two principles: political participation and political contestation.
Political participation requires that all the people who are eligible to vote can vote.

Elections must be free, fair, and competitive. Once the votes have been cast and the
winner announced, power must be peacefully transferred from one individual to another.
These criteria are to be replicated on a local, state, and national level.

A more robust conceptualization of democracy emphasizes what Dahl refers to as political

contestation. Contestation refers to the ability of people to express their discontent
through freedom of the speech and press. People should have the ability to meet and
discuss their views on political issues without fear of persecution from the state. Democratic
regimes that guarantee both electoral freedoms and civil rights are referred to as liberal
democracies.

In the subfield of Comparative Politics, there is a rich body of literature dealing specifically
with the intricacies of the democratic form of government. These scholarly works draw
distinctions between democratic regimes based on representative government, the
institutional balance of power, and the electoral procedure. There are many shades of
democracy, each of which has its own benefits and disadvantages.

Types of Democracy

The broadest differentiation that scholars make between democracies is based on the
nature of representative government. There are two categories: direct democracy and
representative democracy. We can identify examples of both in the world today.

Direct Democracy

Direct democracy places all power in the hands of the individual. When political decisions
must be made, all members of a polity gather together and individuals cast a vote. In
theory, this sounds like the ideal form of government. There are no intermediaries. Each
person is treated as an equal, and each person is given a chance to directly influence the
policymaking process.

In practice, however, this system is hard to implement. Historically, small political

communities tend to use direct democracy. In small towns or indigenous communities
where everyone knows one another and the issues under debate directly affect them, such
an arrangement is ideal. However, once there is an expansion in the size of the electorate
and the scope of policy areas, direct democracy can become unwieldy. In America today,
thousands of laws are implemented and repealed on a daily basis. Applying a direct
democracy framework in this type of political environment would be quite difficult.

Representative Democracy

As political communities change and evolve, so does our understanding of how democracy
should be implemented. The second major type of democracy is referred to
as representative democracy. This political arrangement establishes an intermediary
political actor between the individual and the policy outputs of the state. Through the
electoral process, one person or a group of people are elected and assigned with the task of
making decisions on behalf of the group of citizens that they represent. In the United States,
we have multiple intermediaries.

Each state has two representatives in the upper house, or Senate. In the lower house, or
House of Representatives, the number of intermediaries appointed is based on the
population size of each state. It is important to note that while the power of the individual is
diminished slightly, political representatives are still beholden to the group that they
represent, also known as their "constituency".

In the United States, members of both the House of Representatives and Senate face
regular elections, during which the public evaluates their performance. If citizens are
pleased, they will re-elect their representative. This repetitive process creates a relationship
of accountability between voters and those they put into power. Electoral defeat serves as
a deterrent to a politician's temptation to veer from the preferences of his or her
constituency.

The creation of the intermediary role begs the following questions:

 What does it really mean to be a representative of the interests of a collective of

individuals?
 What if the set of policies that voters want does not really serve their interests?
 What should the representative do?

Some scholars argue that it is the responsibility of the elected representative to carry out
the wishes of the constituency, even if it harms them. This is known as the "delegate
model". Conversely, some argue that politicians are specialists. While voters continue to
engage in their everyday lives, politicians are in the thick of congressional debates. They
understand the intricacies and implications of policies more than their constituents ever
could, so in some circumstances, political leaders should be given the benefit of the doubt.

This model is known as the "trustee model". The trustee model does not mean that voter-
representative accountability is unimportant; rather, it recognizes asymmetries in
information and knowledge that exist between the public at large and elected officials.

One could argue that it is actually impossible to represent the interest of every voter.
Consequently, all representatives are trustees as they must make educated guesses about
what their power base would want and should want.

Sometimes representatives will be right, and sometimes they will be wrong. What is
important is that we place our trust in their ability to make rational and well-informed
decisions. The electoral process responds to a representative's failure (real or perceived) by
most likely removing the representative from office.
 

Systems of Democracy

We can divide the broad category of "types" of democracy into "systems" of democracy.
There are two subcomponents of the representative type: the parliamentary system and
the presidential system. One "system," mixed regimes, is a subcomponent of the direct
type.

The factors that distinguish one system from another are electoral procedure, the
distribution of power between the executive and the parliament, and the role of political
parties. All systems have fully functioning legislatures that specialize in the following tasks:
managing the budget, helping to form public opinion, representing the public at large, and
controlling the government. 

The Parliamentary System

There are more parliamentary systems in the world than presidential democracies. As the
name suggests, parliamentary systems are distinct because of the power that they place in
the hands of the legislative branch.

Examples of this type of system are Germany and the United Kingdom. This institutional
configuration involves voters selecting parliamentary representatives. The party that wins
the largest number of congressional seats then selects the head of government also known
as the Prime Minister, Chancellor, or Premier.

One characteristic that is specific to this system of government is the split executive. The
split executive consists of the head of government and the head of state. As a member of
parliament, the head of government controls the legislative process and sets the
policymaking agenda. Conversely, the head of state serves as the ceremonial representative
of the country.

For example, in the United Kingdom, Theresa May is the head of government. May
collaborates with her party on domestic policy, works with opposition parties and negotiates
with executives of other countries concerning issues of foreign affairs. Queen Elizabeth II is
the head of state. As such, she does not propose, revise or veto laws. She does not control
the actions of the Prime Minister and cannot remove them from office. As the ceremonial
leader, she is present at state and international events to represent the nation of Great
Britain. For example, at the recent 2012 London Olympics, the Queen served as the "face" of
the United Kingdom as she greeted the athletes of the world.

The electoral process in parliamentary systems influences the power dynamic between the
executive (head of government) and the legislature. While these branches of government
are distinct entities, in many ways, they are fused together. Because the Prime Minister is
placed in power by members of their own party or a coalition containing their party, there
are always commonalities in opinion across various policy areas.

The legislature is neither the commander in chief nor does it have the ability to appoint and
dismiss members of the cabinet. These are executive responsibilities. What is important here
is the common party affiliation. This commonality leads to a mostly cooperative relationship.

When inevitable disagreements arise between the legislature and the prime minister, the
power of the parliament reigns supreme. It is important to know a little bit more about what
these legislative bodies look like to understand how this process plays out and the
implications that it has for the democratic process. Commonly, the electoral system in
parliamentary democracies is based on proportional representation, though in the case of
England, parliamentary makeup is based on a "First Past the Post" electoral system.

Proportional representation means that parties win seats based not on a majority vote, as is
the case in presidential systems (see below), but based on the proportion of votes that they
win. For example, a party winning 35 percent of votes from the electorate is allocated
approximately 35 percent of the seats in the congress. Such an arrangement ensures that
parties representing smaller portions of the constituency are given a chance to influence
policy.

What the parliamentary system gains in representation, it loses in efficiency and stability.
The large number of parties sometimes makes it impossible for a single party to gain the
majority that is needed for them to select the Prime Minister. As a result, it is often
necessary for parties to form coalitions with one another.

The diversity of opinion created by a large coalition often makes it difficult for its members
to come to a consensus on policy decisions. When there is a majority party that places the
head of government into office, there is a lower likelihood of conflict both within the
parliament and between both branches of government.

However, in a broad coalition situation, the prime minister has more interests to represent,
making it difficult for them to make decisions that are agreeable to the coalition. This is
where the power of parties is an important variable. When the majority party or the coalition
(when there is one) is profoundly displeased with the executive's performance, they can
issue what is called a "vote of no confidence," removing the Prime Minister from office.

The ability of the legislature to select the Prime Minister, in most cases, creates common
policy preferences between both branches of government. While the functions of both
entities are distinct, the likelihood of cooperation is much higher. Another benefit of the
system is that the legislature is a more approximate representation of the diverse political
interests that are present in society.

A disadvantage to this arrangement is that the diversity of parties is sometimes so extreme

that it creates significant internal dissension in the legislature, which then strains the fused
relationship between the parliament and the executive. Disagreement within parliament can
lead to deadlock or a situation where the policymaking process is brought to an abrupt halt
until the conflict is resolved. Additionally, internal dissension in the parliament strains its
relationship with the executive, sometimes leading to a "vote of no confidence".

The Presidential System

There are fewer presidential democracies in the world, and they are centrally located in the
Americas (North America, Central America, and South America). Scholars claim that while
parliamentary democracies are more representative, they are also less stable for many of the
reasons cited above. Conversely, presidential systems, which concentrate power in the
executive branch, tend to be less representative and more stable. We will use the example
of the United States to describe and understand this system of democracy.

Unlike parliamentary democracies where elections happen in stages, in presidential

systems, the voting public selects members for both the executive and legislative branches
at the same time. The results of the legislative elections have no bearing on the composition
of the executive branch.

For example, in the United States, it is entirely possible for one party to gain a majority in
Congress (both the House of Representatives and the Senate) and for the other party to win
the presidency. The potential for a "split government" increases the likelihood for
disagreement and can make the policymaking process difficult.

The fusion of power that is so characteristic in parliamentary systems is not present in

presidential democracies. Presidential systems operate under a very distinct separation of
powers.

The legislature controls the budget, proposes and passes policy, approves appointments to

the cabinet positions, and ratifies foreign treaties. The executive serves as commander-in-
chief of the national armed forces, appoints executive cabinet members and representatives
of the Supreme Court (after his appointments are approved by the Congress), and serves as
the head of state and the head of government. It is important to note that the executive is
not split in this system. The Congress cannot remove the president from power through a
"vote of no confidence". In fact, Congress cannot remove the president from power at all.
The only exception is in cases of criminal misconduct.

For example, President Nixon came close to facing impeachment or the legal process used
to remove a president from office, during the Watergate Scandal in the 1970s. He resigned
before he could be impeached. Likewise, the president cannot dissolve Congress. The
performance of members in both branches of government is evaluated by the voting public.

One of the distinct powers available to the executive is the presidential veto. In order for a
bill to become a law, it must be approved by a majority in both Houses. Failure of approval
in the Senate pushes the bill back to the House of Representatives. A cycle of disagreement
will continue until both houses are able to modify the bill in a way that is mutually
acceptable.

Once a bill clears both the Senate and the House of Representatives, it is presented to the
president, who has the power to veto or overturn the law. The presidential veto has long
been a topic of debate among scholars, policymakers, and the voting public. According to
critics, the ability of one man to overturn a policy, which has been approved by electorally
appointed representatives, undermines the spirit of democracy.

Another type of veto that is equally controversial is the line-item veto, which allows the
president to overturn portions of a law. Both types of vetoes are rarely used. In the event
that the president rejects a bill in its entirety, the Senate has the ability to reverse the veto
by achieving a 2/3 majority of votes in favor of doing so. This vote is very difficult to achieve
because of the majoritarian nature of the electoral system.

Recall that in parliamentary democracies, parties win seats based on the proportion of the
vote that they win. In presidential democracies, parties win seats when they secure a
majority of votes in local and state elections. The higher "winning" threshold results in two
parties dominating the system.

So, while the balance of power is relatively half and half in both houses, a 2/3 majority is
needed to overturn a veto. What does this mean? It means that one party must convince
members of another party to betray their comrades and vote in favor of the opposition.
Thus, the Senate reversal of a presidential veto is quite hard to achieve.
The separation of power weakens political parties relative to the executive. Political parties
do not appoint the executive (though they do select a candidate to run for president). The
president must establish a relationship of cooperation across both houses, but his survival in
office does not depend on it. The majoritarian electoral system also has important
implications for the ideology and level of representativeness of political parties.

In parliamentary systems, the fact that appointment is based on proportional wins allows
parties to refine their political message and focus on a very specific portion of the
population. Across Europe, there are communist parties, socialist parties, green or
environmental parties, social democratic parties, etc.

In presidential systems, the fact that a majority is required means that parties must make
themselves appealing to large swathes of the population, more specifically 50 percent +1 of
the voting public. As a result, there are fewer distinctions between both parties, except for
on a few key social and economic issues.

For example, in the United States, Republicans and Democrats have very different views on
abortion, government spending, and taxation. Here, the interests of minorities, both
ideological and demographic, are obscured. This two party structure reduces some of the
instability caused by coalition politics at the cost of being less representative.

In the United States, a reoccurring criticism of the political system is that the Congress does
not look like the American populace in terms of gender, race, and socioeconomic
background. Alternatively, the absence of coalition politics and the ability of the president
to exercise his veto make the policy process relatively less complicated in presidential
systems. Finding a consensus between parties is a less daunting task than achieving
consensus across four or five parties.

Mixed Systems

Finally, some states practice a form of democracy that does not fit into either the
presidential or parliamentary prototype but contains elements of both. We call
these "mixed" systems.

For example, in some semi-presidential democracies, the president is elected according to

rules of direct democracy. In this system, the executive exercises a broad range of powers.
However, just as in the parliamentary system, he or she can be removed from office. In
Switzerland, the president is quite powerful, and he cannot be removed from office by the
legislature. Likewise, the president cannot dissolve the parliament.

There are many other examples of mixed regimes where people have attempted to take the
best attributes of each system and combine these attributes into one form of government.

Conclusion

In comparison to other regime types, democracies provide the most checks on the authority
of government while providing the most protection of the civil rights and liberties of
individuals.

There is no "perfect" democracy. All democracies have their strong and weak points. What is
important is that there is complementarity between democratic structures and the
characteristics, needs, and priorities of the state in which democracy operates. When such
complementarity does not exist, the democratic principles of tolerance and negotiation
allow for the possibility of reform.

Summary

 The democratic form of government is an institutional configuration that allows for

popular participation through the electoral process.
 The democratic ideal is based on two principles: political participation and political
contestation.
 In the subfield of comparative politics, there is a rich body of literature dealing
specifically with the intricacies of the democratic form of government. These
scholarly works draw distinctions between democratic regimes based on
representative government, the institutional balance of power, and the electoral
procedure. There are many shades of democracy, each of which has its own benefits
and disadvantages.
 There are two types of democracy: direct and representative.
 There are three systems of democracies: parliamentary, presidential, and mixed.
 Parliamentary systems are distinct because of the power that they place in the hands
of the legislative branch. In such systems, the executive is split between the head of
state and the head of government. Parliament appoints the head of government.
Parliament can also remove the head of government through a "vote of no
confidence".
 Presidential systems concentrate power in the hands of the executive, which is not
split. The president must establish a relationship of cooperation across both houses,
but his survival in office does not depend on it. Congress cannot remove the
president unless he or she has committed a criminal offense. A major executive
power in this system is the presidential veto, which is hard to overturn.
 Parliamentary democracies have higher levels of representativeness and lower levels
of stability. Presidential democracies have lower levels of representativeness and
higher levels of stability.
 There are more parliamentary democracies in the world than presidential.
Presidential systems are geographically concentrated in the Americas.
 Mixed regimes combine characteristics of both of the major systems (presidential
and parliamentary).