Bar

 and  Wire  Drawing  

By  pulling  a  bar,  tube  or  wire  through  a  die  the  cross  sec6on   Ao − A f
r% = ×100
is  reduced.  The  percentage  reduc6on  of  area  (%r)  is  given   Ao
by  the  equa6on:  
Where  Ao  is  the  ini6al  area  and  Af  is  the  final  area.  
It  is  usually  performed  in  round  sec6ons.  
Very  small  diameters  can  be  obtained  by  successive  drawing  opera6ons  through  
dies  of  progressively  small  diameters.  Annealing  before  each  set  of  reduc6ons  
allows  large  reduc6on  percentages.  In  steels  the  annealing  process  is  called  
paten6ng.  
When  drawing  hard  materials,  the  working  face  of  the  die  is  made  of  tungsten  carbide  (WC)  by  
powder  metallurgy.  For  very  fine  diameters  a  diamond  impregnated  die  is  preferred.  
In  a  mul6ple  die  configura6on,  the  pulling  force  through  the  die  is  provided  by  each  of  the  
drums  (capstan  drums).  
Mechanics  of  Wire  Drawing  and  Extrusion  
Direct  extrusion  with  the  diametral  area  reduced  from  Ao  to  Af.  Then  the  ideal  work  is  given  
by:   " %
εf n Ao " 1 %
wideal = ∫ σ δε σ = Kε ε f = ε axial = ln $$ '' = ln $ ' = ε hom ogeneous
# Af & # 1− r &
0

n+1
εf K ε
wi = ∫ Kε n δε = h if n = 0 ⇒ w = Y ε h
0
n +1
FΔl Where  Wi  is  the  external  work,  Pe  is  the  applied  
Wi = FΔl ⇒ wi = = Pe extrusion  pressure  and  σd  is  the  applied  drawing  
Ao Δl stress  .  In  reality:  
 
n+1
Kε h
Pe = σ d ≥
n +1
Taking  into  considera6on  fric6on  (work  due  to  
inhomogeneous  deforma6on,  then  

wtotal = wideal + w friction

Slab  Analysis  for  Wire  
Drawing  and  Extrusion  

Equilibrium  
Expanding  and  elimina6ng  higher  
orders  
π 2 π π Dδ x π Dδ x
(σ x + δσ x ) ( D + δ D) − σ x D2 + p sin α + µ p cos α = 0
4 4 cos α cos α
π π
(σ x + δσ x ) ( D 2 + 2Dδ D + δ D 2 ) − σ x D 2 + pπ Dδ x tan α + µ pπ Dδ x = 0
4 4
π
4
( 2σ x Dδ D + D 2δσ x ) + pπ Dδ x tan α + µ pπ Dδ x = 0

2σ xδ D + Dδσ x + 4 pδ x tan α + 4µ pδ x = 0
δD
tan α = 2 ⇒ δx = δD
δx 2 tan α
δD
2σ xδ D + Dδσ x + 2 pδ D + 2µ p =0
tan α
# µ &
2σ xδ D + Dδσ x + 2 p %1+ (δ D = 0
$ tan α '
Using  Maximum  Shear  Stress  (Tresca  Criterium)  

σ x + p = σ flow = 2τ flow δD δp
=
δσ x = −δ p D ' ! 2µ $*
)4τ flow + p # &,
" µ % ( " tan α %+
4τ flowδ D − 2 pδ D + 2 p $1+ 'δ D = Dδ p
# tan α & δD δσ x
=
δD ( " 2µ %+ D σ ! 2µ $ − 2τ ! 2 + 2µ $
*4τ flow + p $ '- = δ p x# & flow # &
D) # tan α &, " tan α % " tan α %

Do δD σ xo δσ x
∫ Df
D
= ∫ " 2µ %
σ xf " 2µ %
σx$ ' − 2τ flow $ 2 + '
# tan α & # tan α &
" µ %) " µ %, " µ %
1+ $ ' " %
2$ '
" %
2$ '
σ xf # tan α & + Df # tan α &
. σ xo D f # tan α &
= +1− $ ' . + $ '
2τ flow " µ % # Do & 2τ flow # Do &
$ ' +* .-
# tan α &
 σxo  is  the  back  stress  (tension)   In  wire  drawing,  the  usual  condi6ons  are  
σxf  is  the  pulling  stress  (tension)   σxo=0  and  2τflow=Y  so  the  equa6on  
becomes:  

( ! µ $+
# &
! tan α $* ! A f $ % -
" tan α
σ xf = σ drawing = Y #1+ &*1− # & -
" µ % " Ao %
*) -,
In  extrusion,  the  usual  condi6ons  are  σxf=0  ,  σxo  is  negaCve  and  2τflow=Y  so  the  
equa6on  becomes:  
 
( " µ %
$ ' +
" tan α %*" Ao %# tan α & -
(−σ xo ) = pextrusion = Y $1+ '*$$ '' −1-
# µ &*# A f & -,
)
Maximum  ReducCon  of  Area  –  Wire  Drawing  

For  failure  drawn  stress  =  material  flow  (yield)  stress.  

σ drawing = Kε n
Typical  values  of  α=6degrees  and  µ=0.1    
Material  with  a  strain  hardening  constant  K=760MPa  and   Kε n
strain  hardening  exponent  n=0.19  
2τ flow = σ flow = Y =
n +1
( ! µ $+
# &
σ drawing ! tan α $* ! A f $" tan α % - Kε n
= #1+ &*1− # & - = n
Y " µ % A K ε
*) " o % -,
n +1
( ! 0.1 $ +
# &
! tan 6 $* ! Af $" tan 6 %
- Ao − A f
0.19 +1 = #1+ &*1− # & - ⇒ = RA = 0.58
" 0.1 % " Ao % Ao
*) -,
The  maximum  reduc6on  of  area  must  be  solved  for  each  µ,  α  and  back  tension  
Taking  into  considera6on  fric6on  and  redundant  work  (work  due  to  inhomogeneous  
deforma6on,  then  
wtotal = wideal + w friction + wredundant
. ( ! µ $+
# &
2
0! tan α $* ! A f $" tan α % - 4 2 ! 1− r $0
σ drawing = Y /#1+ &*1− # & - + α # &3
0" µ % A
" o% 3 3 " r %0
1 *
) -
, 4
! µ $ ! Ao $
σ d = ΦY #1+ & ln ## && AXer  simplifica6ons  
" α % " Af %
! Daverage $
Φ = 1+ 0.12 # &
" Lcontact % Kε n
2τ flow = σ flow = Y =
Strain  Hardening  –  Cold  below  RecrystallizaCon  temperature   n +1
Take  the  average  flow  stress  (Tresca)  –  due  to  shape  effect  
2τ flow = σ flow = Y = Cεm
Strain  Rate  Effect  –  Hot  above  Recrystalliza6on  Temperature  
For  a  round  part  (the  average  strain  rate  ε,  vo  is  the  velocity  at   6vo Do2 ⋅ tan α # Ao &
the  ini6al  area  and  A  is  the  area   ε = 3 3
ln %% ((
Do − D f $ Af '
6V0
For  poor  lubrica6on  the  expression  of  the  true  strain  rate  is   ε = ln R
D0
Considering  only  the  ideal  work  and  the  expression  for  Energy  per  Unit  Volume  

Kε hn+1 Kε hn !A $
Pe = σ d = = ε h = Yε h = Y ln ## o &&
n +1 n +1 " Af %
Considering  only  the  ideal  work,  then,  the  expression  for  
the  force  required  for  drawing  and  the  expression  for  the   Fd = σ d A f
power  required  are:  
Pd = Fd v f = σ d A f v f
Drawing  Limit  (Ideal):   !A $
Pe = σ d = Y ln ## o && Max − Stress = Y
" Af %
For  a  Perfectly  PlasCc  Material.  The  
ideal  maximum  reduc6on  per  pass  is   !A $ !A $
63%   σ d = Y = Y ln ## o && ⇒ ln ## o && = 1
" Af % " Af %
!A $ A − Af
## o && = e ⇒ o = 0.63
" Af % Ao

For  a  Strain  Hardening  Material.  The   ! A $ Kε n+1

ideal  maximum  reduc6on  per  pass   σ d = Y ln ## o && = h
depends  on  the  strain  hardening   " A f % n +1
coefficient.  Example  for  n=0.19  then  
the  maximum  reduc6on  per  pass  is   n n Kε hn+1
Max.Stress = Kε ⇒ Kε =
69.5%   n +1
Ao − A f
= 1− e ( )
− n+1
ε = n +1 ⇒
Ao
Example   A  round  rod  of  annealed  302  stainless  steel  is  being  drawn  from  a  diameter  of  
10mm  to  8mm  at  a  speed  of  0.5m/s.  Assume  that  the  fric6onal  and  redundant  
work  together  cons6tute  40%  of  the  ideal  work  of  deforma6on.  (a)  Calculate  the  
power  required  in  this  opera6on,  and  (b)  the  die  pressure  at  the  exit  of  the  die.    
Data:  strain  hardening  exponent  =  0.3  ;  strain  hardening  coefficient  =  1300MPa  

2
! 10 $
Calculate  the  true  strain   ε1 = ln # & = 0.446
"8%

Calculate  the  average  flow  stress  

Kε n
Y= = 785 MPa
n +1
2
! 10 $
Calculate  the  drawing  stress   σ d = Y ln # & = 785MPa × 0.446 = 350MPa
"8%

"π % "π %
Calculate  the  drawing  force   Fd = σ d × $ D 2f ' = 350MPa × $ 0.0082 ' = 17598N
#4 & #4 &

Calculate  the  power   P = Fd × v = 17598N × 0.5m / s = 8799W

The  actual  power  will  be  40%  higher,  i.e.  12.319kW  

 P 12319W
Calculate  the  actual  force   Fd = = = 24637N
v 0.5m / s

Fd
Calculate  the  actual  stress   σd = = 490MPa
Af

0.30
Calculate  the  flow  stress  of  the  material   Y f = Kε1n = (1300 ) ( 0.446 ) = 1020MPa

Calculate  the  die  pressure   p = Y f − σ d = 1020 − 490 = 530MPa

Example   Wire  of  ini6al  diameter  =  0.125  in.  is  drawn  through  two  dies  each  providing  a  
0.20  area  reduc6on.  The  metal  has  a  strength  coefficient  =  40,000  lb/in.2  and  a  
strain  hardening  exponent  =0.15.    
The  dies  have  an  entrance  angle  of  12o,  and  the  es6mated  coefficient  of  fric6on  is  
0.10.  The  motors  driving  the  capstans  can  each  deliver  1.50  HP  at  90%  efficiency.  
Determine  the  maximum  possible  speed  of  the  wire  as  it  exits  the  second  die.  

DO2 − D 2f Diameters  aXer  the  first  and  second  

r= 2
= 0.2 ⇒ D f 1 = 0.112 ⇒ D f 2 = 0.1 pass  
DO
!D $ ! 0.125 $ ! 0.1118 $
O
ε = 2 ln ## && = 2 ln # & = 2 ln # & = 0.2232
" Df % " 0.1118 % " 0.10 %
! 1 $ n 40000 0.15 First  Die  
Y =#
" 1.15 %
& K ε = × ( 0.2232 ) = 27775.8psi
1.15
40000 0.15
Y= × ( 0.2232 + 0.2232 ) = 30819 psi Second  Die  
1.15
! $
! µ$ # 0.1 &
#1+ & = #1+ & = 1.477
" α % # 12 × π &
" 180 %
First  Die   " " 0.125 + 0.1118 % %
" Daverage % $$ ''
$ # 2 &'
Φ = 1+ 0.12 $ ' = 1+ 0.12 = 1.33
# Lcontact & $ " 0.125 − 0.1118 % '
$$ ''
# # 2 × sin12 & &
" µ % " Ao %
σ d = ΦY $1+ ' ln $$ '' = 1.33× 27775.8 ×1.477 × 0.2232
# α & # Af &
σ d = 12182.5psi
π 2
Force = σ d × A f = 12182.5 × ( 0.1118) = 119.6lb
4
Power = 1.5HP = 825 ft − lb / s
825 ft − lb − s * 0.9
Power = Force × velocity ⇒ v = = 6.2084 ft / s
119.6lb

2 2
! Df $ ! 0.1118 $
ventry =# & vexit = # & 6.2084 = 4.966 ft / s
" DO % " 0.125 %
Second  Die  
" " 0.1118 + 0.10 % %
" Daverage % $$ ''
# 2 &'
Φ = 1+ 0.12 $ ' = 1+ 0.12 $ = 1.35
# Lcontact & "
$ 0.1118 − 0.10 ' %
$$ ''
# # 2 × sin12 & &
" µ % " Ao %
σ d = ΦY $1+ ' ln $$ '' = 1.35 × 30819 ×1.477 × 0.2232
# α & # Af &
σ d = 13720 psi
π 2
Force = σ d × A f = 13720 × ( ) = 107.75lb
0.10
4
Power = 1.5HP = 825 ft − lb / s
825 ft − lb − s * 0.9
Power = Force × velocity ⇒ v = = 6.89 ft / s
107.75lb

2 2
! Df $ ! 0.10 $
ventry =# & vexit = # & 6.89 = 5.51 ft / s
" DO % " 0.1118 %
Then,  between  the  first  and  second  die  a  wire  storage  drum  is  necessary.  Calculate  the  
power  required  for  the  second  die  if  they  exit  speed  aXer  the  first  die  matches  the  entry  
speed  of  the  second  die.  
2
!D $ ! 0.1118 $
2

vexit = ## O && ventry = # & 6.2084 = 7.76 ft / s

" Df % " 0.10 %
Power = 119.6lb × 7.76 ft / s = 928.1lb − ft / s
Power90% = 1.875HP
Residual  Stresses  in  Drawing  
Extrusion  
The  metal  is  forced  (squeeze)  to  flow  through  a  
die  opening  by  compression  forces  to  produce  
the  desired  shape.  
Two  basic  types:  Direct  and  Indirect.  
Direct:  The  metal  is  squeezed  in  the  same  
direc6on  as  the  ram.  
Indirect:  The  metal  is  squeezed  in  opposite  
direc6on  to  the  ram.  
There  is  also  hydrosta6c  and  impact.   Ram  final  posi6on  
 Final  shape=  a  hollow  rod  

Final  shape=  a  solid  rod  

Extrusion  can  be  carried  out  hot  (above  the  recrystalliza6on  temperature)  or  cold.  Hot  
extrusion  reduces  the  strength  of  the  material  and  increases  the  duc6lity.  

Steel  Extrusion  
Tprocessing=1150-­‐1315oC  
Tmel6ng=1370-­‐1540oC  
Die~205oC      above  recrystalliza6on  
Lubricants:  glass.  MoS2,  graphite  
 
 Mechanics  of  Extrusion  

A0
Extrusion  ra6o  is  defined  as:   R=
Af
The  shape  factor  is  defined  as:   Part Perimeter
Shape Factor =
It  describes  the  shape  complexity  of  an  extrusion.   Part Area

Uniform  deforma6on.  
No  redundant  work.  
Fric6on  is  high  and  dies  angle  are  high  –  No  slab  analysis.  
Dead  zone  is  assume  to  set  up  at  45degrees  

W pressure = W int ernal− friction + W plastic−work−compression + W external− friction

Rate  of  work  =  Power  =  Area  x  stress  x  ram-­‐velocity  
Internal  fricCon  work  rate:  It  is  calculated  by  integra6on  the  rate  of  fric6onal  work  dissipa6on  
at  each  cross  sec6on  from  Do  (ini6al  diameter)  to  Df  (final  diameter)  
π
W p = Do2 ⋅ p ⋅ vram
4
# &
W f = τ flow ⋅ %π ∫ vi D δ L (
Do

$ Df '
* Do - Constant  volumetric  flow  
Q = AO vram = Ai vi ⇒ vi = , / vram
+D. rate  

δ D τ flow π vram Do * Do -
2 2
τ π v D
W f = flow ram o
Do
∫ D
= ln ,, //
+ Df .
Df
2 2
PlasCc  work  rate  to  compress:  Power=  energy-­‐per-­‐unit-­‐volume  x  area  x  velocity  

Energy #D &
= u p = ∫ σ δε = 2τ flowε ⇒ ε = 2 ln %% o ((
volume $ Df '
# # D && # π
 2&
% o (
∴ Wp = % 4τ flow ⋅ ln %% ((( ⋅ % Do ( ⋅ vram
$ $ D f '' $ 4 '
 Total  work  rate  input  (no  considering  the  external  fric6on)  
W p = W f + W p

π 2 τ flow π vram Do2 " Do % " " D %% " π %

Do ⋅ p ⋅ vram = ln $$ '' + $$ 4τ flow ⋅ ln $$ o '''' ⋅ $ Do2 ' ⋅ vram
4 2 # Df & # # D f && # 4 &
p "D %
= 3.414 ln $$ o ''
2τ flow # Df &
p
= 1.707ln R
2τ flow

External  fricCon  work  rate:  Assume  is  due  to  only  wall  fric6on  

Friction − Stress = Shear − Flow − Stress ⇒ τ friction = τ flow

π Do2 Δp 2x
Δp ⋅ = τ flow ⋅ π Do ⋅ x ⇒ =
4 2τ flow Do
px p Δp p 2x
= + = +
2τ flow 2τ flow 2τ flow 2τ flow Do
px % D ( 2x px 2x
= 3.414 ln '' o ** + = 1.707ln R +
2τ flow & D f ) Do 2τ flow Do
 Indirect  Extrusion   Same  result  as  direct  extrusion  if  external  work  rate  is  not  
considered.  For  external  work  rate  consider  that  there  is  no  wall-­‐
billet  interac6on,  but  there  is  a  wall-­‐dead  zone  interac6on.  
Fric6onal-­‐stress  =  Shear  Flow  Stress    
W p = W f + W p

π 2 τ flow π vram Do2 " Do % " " D %% " π %

Do ⋅ p ⋅ vram = ln $$ '' + $$ 4τ flow ⋅ ln $$ o '''' ⋅ $ Do2 ' ⋅ vram
4 2 # Df & # # D f && # 4 &
Dead  zone   "D %
p p
AddiConal  Pressure  due  to  billet   2τ flow
= 3.414 ln $$ o ''
D 2 τ
= 1.707 ln R
# f&
Dead  Zone  InteracCon:   flow

π 2 $ Do − D f ' Δp D
Δp Do = τ flow ⋅ π ⋅ Do ⋅ & )⇒ = 1− f
4 % 2 ( 2τ flow Do
p $D ' $ D ' p $ Df '
= 3.414 ln && o )) + &1− f ) = 1.707ln R + &1− )
2τ flow % D f ( % Do ( 2τ flow % Do (

Cold  deformaCon  –  Strain   Hot  deformaCon  –  Strain  rate  effect  Above  recrystalliza6on  
Hardening    Average  flow  stress   temperature  
2τ flow = σ flow = Y = Cεm
Kε n
2τ flow = σ flow = Y = 6vram Do2 tan α 12vram Do2 tan α " Do %
n +1 ε = ln R = ln $$ ''
Do3 − D 3f Do3 − D 3f # Df &
6vram 12vram " Do %
ε = ln R = ln $$ '' ApproximaCon  for  a  large  dead  
Do Do # Df & zone  and  an  angle  of  45degrees  
Extrusion  pressure  vs  ram  travel  for  
direct  and  indirect  extrusion  
Example:   An  aluminum  alloy  is  hot  extruded  from  a  150mm  diameter  to  50mm  diameter  at  
400oC  at  50mm/s.  The  flow  stress  at  the  working  temperature  is  given  by  
σ=200Ė0.15  MPa.  If  the  billet  is  380mm  long  and  the  extrusion  is  done  without  
lubrica6on,  determine  the  force  required  for  the  opera6on  

! 150 $
2 Total  work  rate  input  (no  considering  
R =# & =9 the  external  fric6on)  
" 50 %
p σ 250MPa
= 1.707ln R ⇒ τ flow = = = 144MPa
6v ln R 6 ( 50mm / s ) ln 9 2τ flow 3 3
ε = = = 4.39s −1
Do 150mm p = 2 ×144 ×1.707ln 9 = 1080.2MPa
σ = Cεm = 200 × 4.39 0.15 = 250MPa
Total  work  rate  input  (considering  the   px 2x 2x 2 × 380
external  fric6on,  for  x=380mm   = 1.707ln R + ⇒ = = 5.067
2τ flow Do Do 150
(maximum  pressure  due  to  container  
wall  fric6on).   px = 1080.2 +1459.2 = 2539.4MPa

The  compressive  force:     !π $ 2 !π $ 2

Force = px # & D0 = 2539.4 × # & ( 0.150 ) = 44875kN
"4% "4%
Example   A  copper  billet  12.7cm  in  diameter  and  25.4  cm  long  is  extruded  at  1088.7  K  at  a  
speed  of  25.4  cm/s.  Using  square  dies  and  assuming  poor  lubrica6on,  es6mate  the  
force  required  in  this  opera6on  if  the  extruded  diameter  is  5.08  cm.    
Data:C=131MPa    and    m=0.06  

12.7 2
Calculate  the  extrusion  ra6o   R= = 6.25
5.08 2

6v0 6 ( 25.4)
Calculate  the  average  true  strain  rate   ε= ln R = ln ( 6.25) = 22s -1
D0 (12.7)
Calculate  the  stress  required   σ = Cε m = (131)(22 )0.06 = 157 .69 MPa

Assuming  that:   Y =σ

! 2L $ ! 2 ( 25.4) $
p = Y #1.7ln R + & = (157.69 )#1.7ln 6.25 + & = 1121.3335 MPa
" D0 % #" (12.7) &%

2
π (12.7)
F = ( p) ( A0 ) = (1121.3335) = 14204.7kN
4
 Defects  
Chevron  Cracking:  
1-­‐  Develops  at  the  center  of  the  
extruded  piece.  
2  –  It  can  occur  at  low  extrusion  
ra6os  due  to  low  fric6onal  condi6ons  
on  the  zone  of  deforma6on.  

Surface  Cracking:  
Due  to  longitudinal  tensile  stresses  generated  as  the  
extrusion  passes  through  the  die.  It  ranges  from  a  badly  
roughened  surface  to  repe66ve  transverse  cracking.  
Inhomogeneous  DeformaCon:  
AXer  2/3  of  the  billet  is  extruded,  the  outer  surface  of  the  billet  (usually  an  oxidised  skin)  moves  
towards  the  center  and  extrudes  to  the  through  die,  resul6ng  in  internal  oxide  stringers.    
Some  lubricant  film  can  also  be  carried  into  the  interior  of  the  extrusion  along  the  shear  bands.  
This  will  show  as  longitudinal  inclusions  in  the  extruded  part.  

Hot  Shortness:  
In  aluminum  extrusion:  Incipient  mel6ng  on  different  
points  of  the  extruded  pieces  due  to  high  temperature.