General properties[edit]
There are certain properties of two-ports that frequently occur in practical networks and can be used to
greatly simplify the analysis. These include:
Reciprocal networks
A network is said to be reciprocal if the voltage appearing at port 2 due to a current applied at port 1 is the
same as the voltage appearing at port 1 when the same current is applied to port 2. Exchanging voltage and
current results in an equivalent definition of reciprocity. A network that consists entirely of linear passive
components (that is, resistors, capacitors and inductors) is usually reciprocal, a notable exception being
passive circulators and isolators that contain magnetized materials. In general, it will not be reciprocal if it
contains active components such as generators or transistors. [4]
Symmetrical networks
A network is symmetrical if its input impedance is equal to its output impedance. Most often, but not
necessarily, symmetrical networks are also physically symmetrical. Sometimes also antimetrical networks are
of interest. These are networks where the input and output impedances are the duals of each other.[5]
Lossless network
A lossless network is one which contains no resistors or other dissipative elements. [6]
Impedance parameters (z-parameters)[edit]
Figure 2: z-equivalent two port showing independent variables I1 and I2. Although resistors are shown, general
impedances can be used instead.
Main article: Impedance parameters
where
All the z-parameters have dimensions of ohms.
For reciprocal networks . For symmetrical networks . For reciprocal lossless networks all the are purely
imaginary.[7]
Example: bipolar current mirror with emitter degeneration [edit]
Figure 3: Bipolar current mirror: i1 is the reference current and i2 is the output current; lower case symbols indicate these
are total currents that include the DC components
Figure 4: Small-signal bipolar current mirror: I1 is the amplitude of the small-signal reference current and I2 is the
amplitude of the small-signal output current
Figure 3 shows a bipolar current mirror with emitter resistors to increase its output resistance. [nb
1]
Transistor Q1 is diode connected, which is to say its collector-base voltage is zero. Figure 4 shows the small-
signal circuit equivalent to Figure 3. Transistor Q1 is represented by its emitter resistance rE ≈ VT / IE (VT =
thermal voltage, IE = Q-point emitter current), a simplification made possible because the dependent current
source in the hybrid-pi model for Q1 draws the same current as a resistor 1 / gm connected across rπ. The
second transistor Q2 is represented by its hybrid-pi model. Table 1 below shows the z-parameter expressions
that make the z-equivalent circuit of Figure 2 electrically equivalent to the small-signal circuit of Figure 4.
Table 1
Expression Approximation
[nb 2]
The negative feedback introduced by resistors RE can be seen in these parameters. For example, when used
as an active load in a differential amplifier, I1 ≈ −I2, making the output impedance of the mirror
approximately R22 -R21 ≈ 2 β rORE /(rπ + 2RE) compared to only rO without feedback (that is with RE = 0 Ω) . At the
same time, the impedance on the reference side of the mirror is approximately R11 − R12 ≈ , only a moderate
value, but still larger than rE with no feedback. In the differential amplifier application, a large output
resistance increases the difference-mode gain, a good thing, and a small mirror input resistance is desirable
to avoid Miller effect.
Admittance parameters (y-parameters)[edit]
Figure 5: Y-equivalent two port showing independent variables V1 and V2. Although resistors are shown, general
admittances can be used instead.
Main article: Admittance parameters
where
All the Y-parameters have dimensions of siemens.
For reciprocal networks . For symmetrical networks . For reciprocal lossless networks all the are purely
imaginary.[7]
Hybrid parameters (h-parameters) [edit]
Figure 6: H-equivalent two-port showing independent variables I1 and V2; h22 is reciprocated to make a resistor
where
This circuit is often selected when a current amplifier is desired at the output. The resistors shown in the
diagram can be general impedances instead.
Off-diagonal h-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the reciprocal of one
another.
Example: common-base amplifier[edit]
Figure 7: Common-base amplifier with AC current source I1 as signal input and unspecified load supporting voltage V2 and
a dependent current I2.
Note: Tabulated formulas in Table 2 make the h-equivalent circuit of the transistor from Figure 6 agree with
its small-signal low-frequency hybrid-pi model in Figure 7. Notation: rπ = base resistance of transistor, rO =
output resistance, and gm = transconductance. The negative sign for h21 reflects the convention that I1, I2 are
positive when directed into the two-port. A non-zero value for h12 means the output voltage affects the input
voltage, that is, this amplifier is bilateral. If h12 = 0, the amplifier is unilateral.
Table 2
Expression Approximation
History[edit]
The h-parameters were initially called series-parallel parameters. The term hybrid to describe these
parameters was coined by D. A. Alsberg in 1953 in "Transistor metrology". [8] In 1954 a joint committee of
the IRE and the AIEE adopted the term h parameters and recommended that these become the standard
method of testing and characterising transistors because they were "peculiarly adaptable to the physical
characteristics of transistors".[9] In 1956 the recommendation became an issued standard; 56 IRE 28.S2.
Following the merge of these two organisations as the IEEE, the standard became Std 218-1956 and was
reaffirmed in 1980, but has now been withdrawn.[10]
Inverse hybrid parameters (g-parameters) [edit]
Figure 8: G-equivalent two-port showing independent variables V1 and I2; g11 is reciprocated to make a resistor
where
Often this circuit is selected when a voltage amplifier is wanted at the output. Off-diagonal g-parameters are
dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the reciprocal of one another. The resistors shown
in the diagram can be general impedances instead.
Example: common-base amplifier[edit]
Figure 9: Common-base amplifier with AC voltage source V1 as signal input and unspecified load delivering current I2 at a
dependent voltage V2.
Note: Tabulated formulas in Table 3 make the g-equivalent circuit of the transistor from Figure 8 agree with
its small-signal low-frequency hybrid-pi model in Figure 9. Notation: rπ = base resistance of transistor, rO =
output resistance, and gm = transconductance. The negative sign for g12 reflects the convention that I1, I2 are
positive when directed into the two-port. A non-zero value for g12 means the output current affects the input
current, that is, this amplifier is bilateral. If g12 = 0, the amplifier is unilateral.
Table 3
Expression Approximation
ABCD-parameters [edit]
The ABCD-parameters are known variously as chain, cascade, or transmission parameters. There are a
number of definitions given for ABCD parameters, the most common is,[11][12]
where
For reciprocal networks . For symmetrical networks . For networks which are reciprocal and
lossless, A and D are purely real while B and C are purely imaginary.[6]
This representation is preferred because when the parameters are used to represent a cascade of two-ports,
the matrices are written in the same order that a network diagram would be drawn, that is, left to right.
However, a variant definition is also in use[13],
where
The negative sign of arises to make the output current of one cascaded stage (as it appears in the matrix)
equal to the input current of the next. Without the minus sign the two currents would have opposite senses
because the positive direction of current, by convention, is taken as the current entering the port.
Consequently, the input voltage/current matrix vector can be directly replaced with the matrix equation of
the preceding cascaded stage to form a combined matrix.
The terminology of representing the parameters as a matrix of elements designated a11 etc. as adopted by
some authors[14] and the inverse parameters as a matrix of elements designated b11 etc. is used here for both
brevity and to avoid confusion with circuit elements.
An ABCD matrix has been defined for Telephony four-wire Transmission Systems by P K Webb in British Post
Office Research Department Report 630 in 1977.
Table of transmission parameters[edit]
The table below lists ABCD and inverse ABCD parameters for some simple network elements.
Elemen [a] m [b] m
Remarks
t atrix atrix
Series Z,
impeda impedanc
nce e
Shunt Y,
admitta admittanc
nce e
L,
inductanc
Series e
inducto s,
r complex
angular
frequency
Shunt L,
inducto inductanc
e
s,
r complex
angular
frequency
C,
capacitan
Series ce
capacit s,
or complex
angular
frequency
C,
capacitan
Shunt ce
capacit s,
or complex
angular
frequency
Z0, charac
teristic
impedanc
e
γ, propag
Transmi ation
ssion [15] constant
line ()
l, length
of
transmissi
on line
(m)
Scattering parameters (S-parameters)[edit]
Main article: Scattering parameters
Fig. 17. Terminology of waves used in S-parameter definition.
The previous parameters are all defined in terms of voltages and currents at ports. S-parameters are
different, and are defined in terms of incident and reflected waves at ports. S-parameters are used primarily
at UHF and microwave frequencies where it becomes difficult to measure voltages and currents directly. On
the other hand, incident and reflected power are easy to measure using directional couplers. The definition
is,[16]
where the are the incident waves and the are the reflected waves at port k. It is conventional to define
the and in terms of the square root of power. Consequently, there is a relationship with the wave voltages
(see main article for details).[17]
For reciprocal networks . For symmetrical networks . For antimetrical networks .[18] For lossless reciprocal
networks and .[19]
Scattering transfer parameters (T-parameters)[edit]
See also: Scattering transfer parameters
Scattering transfer parameters, like scattering parameters, are defined in terms of incident and reflected
waves. The difference is that T-parameters relate the waves at port 1 to the waves at port 2 whereas S-
parameters relate the reflected waves to the incident waves. In this respect T-parameters fill the same role
as ABCD parameters and allow the T-parameters of cascaded networks to be calculated by matrix
multiplication of the component networks. T-parameters, like ABCD parameters, can also be called
transmission parameters. The definition is,[16][20]
T-parameters are not so easy to measure directly unlike S-parameters. However, S-parameters are easily
converted to T-parameters, see main article for details.[21]
Combinations of two-port networks[edit]
When two or more two-port networks are connected, the two-port parameters of the combined network can
be found by performing matrix algebra on the matrices of parameters for the component two-ports. The
matrix operation can be made particularly simple with an appropriate choice of two-port parameters to
match the form of connection of the two-ports. For instance, the z-parameters are best for series connected
ports.
The combination rules need to be applied with care. Some connections (when dissimilar potentials are
joined) result in the port condition being invalidated and the combination rule will no longer apply. A Brune
test can be used to check the permissibility of the combination. This difficulty can be overcome by placing 1:1
ideal transformers on the outputs of the problem two-ports. This does not change the parameters of the
two-ports, but does ensure that they will continue to meet the port condition when interconnected. An
example of this problem is shown for series-series connections in figures 11 and 12 below. [22]
Series-series connection[edit]
Fig. 10. Two two-port networks with input ports connected in series and output ports connected in series.
When two-ports are connected in a series-series configuration as shown in figure 10, the best choice of two-
port parameter is the z-parameters. The z-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition
of the two individual z-parameter matrices.[23][24]
Fig. 11. Example of an improper connection of two-ports. R1 of the lower two-port has been by-passed by a short circuit.
Fig. 12. Use of ideal transformers to restore the port condition to interconnected networks.
As mentioned above, there are some networks which will not yield directly to this analysis. [22] A simple
example is a two-port consisting of a L-network of resistors R1 and R2. The z-parameters for this network are;
Figure 11 shows two identical such networks connected in series-series. The total z-parameters predicted by
matrix addition are;
However, direct analysis of the combined circuit shows that,
The discrepancy is explained by observing that R1 of the lower two-port has been by-passed by the short-
circuit between two terminals of the output ports. This results in no current flowing through one terminal in
each of the input ports of the two individual networks. Consequently, the port condition is broken for both
the input ports of the original networks since current is still able to flow into the other terminal. This problem
can be resolved by inserting an ideal transformer in the output port of at least one of the two-port networks.
While this is a common text-book approach to presenting the theory of two-ports, the practicality of using
transformers is a matter to be decided for each individual design.
Parallel-parallel connection[edit]
Fig. 13. Two two-port networks with input ports connected in parallel and output ports connected in parallel.
When two-ports are connected in a parallel-parallel configuration as shown in figure 13, the best choice of
two-port parameter is the y-parameters. The y-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix
addition of the two individual y-parameter matrices.[25]
Series-parallel connection[edit]
Fig. 14. Two two-port networks with input ports connected in series and output ports connected in parallel.
When two-ports are connected in a series-parallel configuration as shown in figure 14, the best choice of
two-port parameter is the h-parameters. The h-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix
addition of the two individual h-parameter matrices.[26]
Parallel-series connection[edit]
Fig. 15. Two two-port networks with input ports connected in parallel and output ports connected in series.
When two-ports are connected in a parallel-series configuration as shown in figure 15, the best choice of
two-port parameter is the g-parameters. The g-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix
addition of the two individual g-parameter matrices.
Cascade connection[edit]
Fig. 16. Two two-port networks with the first's output port connected to the second's input port
When two-ports are connected with the output port of the first connected to the input port of the second (a
cascade connection) as shown in figure 16, the best choice of two-port parameter is the ABCD-parameters.
The a-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix multiplication of the two individual a-
parameter matrices.[27]
A chain of n two-ports may be combined by matrix multiplication of the n matrices. To combine a cascade
of b-parameter matrices, they are again multiplied, but the multiplication must be carried out in reverse
order, so that;
Example[edit]
Suppose we have a two-port network consisting of a series resistor R followed by a shunt capacitor C. We can
model the entire network as a cascade of two simpler networks:
The transmission matrix for the entire network is simply the matrix multiplication of the transmission
matrices for the two network elements:
Thus:
Interrelation of parameters[edit]
Where is the determinant of [x].
Certain pairs of matrices have a particularly simple relationship. The admittance parameters are the matrix
inverse of the impedance parameters, the inverse hybrid parameters are the matrix inverse of the hybrid
parameters, and the [b] form of the ABCD-parameters is the matrix inverse of the [a] form. That is,
Networks with more than two ports[edit]
While two port networks are very common (e.g., amplifiers and filters), other electrical networks such as
directional couplers and circulators have more than 2 ports. The following representations are also applicable
to networks with an arbitrary number of ports:
Admittance (y) parameters
Impedance (z) parameters
Scattering (S) parameters
For example, three-port impedance parameters result in the following relationship:
However the following representations are necessarily limited to two-port devices:
Hybrid (h) parameters
Inverse hybrid (g) parameters
Transmission (ABCD) parameters
Scattering transfer (T) parameters
Collapsing a two-port to a one port[edit]
A two-port network has four variables with two of them being independent. If one of the ports is terminated
by a load with no independent sources, then the load enforces a relationship between the voltage and
current of that port. A degree of freedom is lost. The circuit now has only one independent parameter. The
two-port becomes a one-port impedance to the remaining independent variable.
For example, consider impedance parameters
Connecting a load, ZL onto port 2 effectively adds the constraint
The negative sign is because the positive direction for I2 is directed into the two-port instead of into the load.
The augmented equations become
The second equation can be easily solved for I2 as a function of I1 and that expression can replace I2 in the first
equation leaving V1 ( and V2 and I2 ) as functions of I1
So, in effect, I1 sees an input impedance and the two-port's effect on the input circuit has been effectively
collapsed down to a one-port; i.e., a simple two terminal impedance.
