Chapter 2

Unit-2 (Symmetry in Quantum

Mechanics)

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2.1 Symmetry Operations

ac
A symmetry operation is defined as a linear transformation U : |ai → a0 such that all
 

results of measurement are preserved. This means that

D  E
| b0 a0 |2 = | hb|ai |2 (2.1)

h.
for all a, b ∈ H (Hilbert space). The operator (U) by which this symmetry operation is
allowed is known as Unitary operator.
cu
2.1.1 Unitary Transformations
Transformations defined by Unitary operators are called Unitary transformations. Con-
sider two wave functions Ψ and Φ of a system, such that under unitary transformtions we
get
s@

UΨ = Ψ0 and UΦ = Φ0 (2.2)
Let A be a linear Hermitian operator such that

AΨ = Φ and A0 Ψ0 = Φ0 (2.3)
From Equn. 2.2 and 2.3 we can get
rk

A0 (UΨ) = A0 Ψ0 = Φ0 = (UΦ) = UAΨ or A0U = UA (2.4)

Multiplyng from right by U †

(U † A0U)Ψ = (U †U)Φ = (U †U)AΨ = AΨ since U †U = I (2.5)

∴
A = U † A0U or A0 = UAU † (2.6)
Properies of Unitary transformations:-
(i) If U is Unitary, U 0 is also Unitary.
(ii) If A is Hermitian, A0 is also Hermitian.

3
2. U NIT -2 (S YMMETRY IN Q UANTUM M ECHANICS )

(iii) Operator equations remain unchanged in form.

(iv) The eigen values of A and A0 are the same.
(v) Expectation value remains unchanged in a unitary transformation.
(vi) The normalization condition is always preserved in unitary transformations.
A unitary operator (U) can be defined in terms of a unit operator and hermitian oprators as

U = I + iε G (2.7)
where I → Unit operator
ε → arbitrary small opertor
G → Hermitian operator

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For a unitary transformation

U †U = I (2.8)

ac
∴
h i
U †U = (I − iε G† )(I + iε G) = I 2 + iI ε G − iI ε G† + iε 2 G† G (2.9)
I 2 = I and we can neglect ε 2 term since ε is very small.
h.
∴
h i
U †U = I + iε (G − G† ) (2.10)
cu
For U to be unitary

G − G† = 0 or G = G† (2.11)
If we take a wave function Ψ, then
s@

UΨ = Ψ0 = Ψ + δ Ψ = (I + iε G)Ψ (2.12)
If A is a dynamical variable then it’s transformation can be written

A0 = UAU † = (I + iε G)A(I − iε G) = A + iε (GA − AG) = A + iε [G, A] (2.13)

We know that A is said to be invariant under unitary transformation if
rk

A0 = UAU † = A (2.14)
Therefore, from Equn. 2.13 we can see that for A to be invariant

[G, A] = 0 (2.15)
Thus, the dynamical variable A is said to be invariant under concerned transformation if it
commutes with the Generator ”G” of the unitary transformation.

If A = H (Hamiltonian), then
[G, H] = 0 (2.16)
Here G commutes with Hamiltonian, therefore it is a constant of motion. In this way, a
transformation that leaves the Hamiltonian invariant is called symmetry transformation.

4
 2.2. Transition in Space: Conservation of Linear Momentum

2.1.2 Geometrical symmetries

The symmetries associated with geometrical operations like displacement, rotation and
inversion in sapce and time are called Geometrical symmetry.
2.1.3 Continuous symmetry
The symmetries associated with displacement and rotation in space (time) are classified
as continuous symmetries. Continuous symmetries have universal validity i.e. they have hold
good for all known interaction.
2.1.4 Discrete symmetry
The symmetries associated with space inversion and time reversal come under discrete
symmetry. Discrete symmetries are not valid everywhere. For example space-inversion
invariance is not valid in weak interactions. Time reversal invariance also seems to be violated

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in certain reactions, such as, the decay of neutral Kaons.
2.2 Transition in Space: Conservation of Linear
Momentum

ac
h.
cu
s@

Figure 2.1: Space transition

Let S and S0 be two references with S0 shifted from S by ρ , and x and x0 be the coordinates
of a point P w.r.t. S and S0 , respectively. Let Ψ and Ψ0 be the wave functions in S and S0 ,
respectively. further, we are assuming that the physics properties of an isolated system will
rk

not change by a translation of the system by an arbitrary amount ρ . Therefore

Ψ(x) = Ψ0 (x0 ) and x0 = x − ρ (2.17)

∴

Ψ(x) = Ψ0 (x − ρ ) or Ψ0 (x) = Ψ(x + ρ ) (2.18)

Here ρ is infinitesimal small. On expansion of the above equation we get

∂ Ψ(x) 
Ψ0 (x) = Ψ(x) + ρ

= I + iρ Gx Ψ(x) (2.19)
∂x
where

5
2. U NIT -2 (S YMMETRY IN Q UANTUM M ECHANICS )

∂ } ∂ Px
Gx = −i =− = (2.20)
∂x } ∂x }
Here the wave function Ψ(x) is transformed to Ψ0 (x) by the action of the operator iρ Gx
on Ψ(x). Thus, momentum operator becomes the generator of the infinitesimal transition in
space.
The position eigen states for a particle at P w.r.t. S and S0 can be written as
0
Ψ(x) = hx|Ψi , and Ψ (x) =0 hx|Ψi (2.21)
where
   
0 iρ Px iρ Px iρ Px
hx|Ψi = 1 + Ψ(x) = 1 + hx|Ψi = hx| 1 + |Ψi (2.22)

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} } }
∴  
0 iρ Px
hx| = hx| 1 + (2.23)
}
and its conjugate is

ac
 
0 iρ Px
|xi = 1 − |xi (2.24)
}
Translation of some finite distance ρ could be regarded as a succession of N infinitesimal
h.
transition.

iρ Px N (−1)N iρ Px N
  ∞    
0 iρ Px
hx| = lim 1 − |xi = ∑ |xi = exp − |xi (2.25)
N =⇒ ∞ N!
cu
} N=0 } }
 
0 iρ Px
hx| = hx| exp (2.26)
}
Hence
s@

   
0 0 iρ Px iρ Px
Ψ (x) = hx|Ψi = hx| exp |Ψi = exp Ψ(x) (2.27)
} }
For a 3-dimensional case
!
0 iρ ~P
Ψ (~r) = exp Ψ(~r) (2.28)
}
rk

By using Equn. 2.24 the unitary infintesmal translation operator could be written as

iρ ~P
UT = I − (2.29)
}
∴
! !
iρ ~P iρ ~P iρ h~ i
H 0 = UT HUT† = I− H I+ =H− P, H (2.30)
} } }
Here invariance of the Hamiltonian under translation in space requires that the linear momen-
tum operator P must be commutated with H. This implies that the linear momentum of the
system is conserved. Equan. 2.30 is valid only for isolated system wherein H does not contain
a potential energy term which is usually a function of~r.

6
 2.3. Transition in Time: Conservation of Energy

2.3 Transition in Time: Conservation of Energy

If τ is an infinitesimal time transition then

∂Ψ
Ψ0 (x, t) = Ψ(x, t + τ ) = Ψ(x, t) + τ
! ∂t
i ∂
= Ψ(x, t) + τ −i} Ψ(x, t) (2.31)
} ∂t
"  #
−H
= 1 + iτ Ψ(x, t)
}

Here −H} is the generator of time transition.

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Therefore, The unitary operator correspinding to τ can be written as
iτ
U =I− H where H independent of time (2.32)
}
The invariance of H under transition in time requires that

ac
H 0 = UHU 0 = H or UH = HU
For the form of U, we can say that U commutes with H as it is independent of time. Thus,
(2.33)

total energy (H) of the system is conserved if the system is invriant under translation in time.
h.
If H depends on time, it will not be invariant under translation of time.
2.4 Rotation in Space: Conservation of Angular
Momentum
cu
Let S and S0 be two coordinate systems where S0 is rotating anticlockwise through an
angle θ about the Z-axis. Let a point P, such that it’s coordinates are
s@
rk

Figure 2.2: Rotation in space

x0 = x cos(θ ) + y sin(θ ), y0 = −x sin(θ ) + y cos(θ ), Z 0 = Z (2.34)

For small value of θ , cos(θ ) → 1, sin(θ ) → θ , therefore

x0 = x + yθ , y0 = −xθ + y, z0 = z (2.35)
The wave functions related to S and S0 are

7
2. U NIT -2 (S YMMETRY IN Q UANTUM M ECHANICS )

Ψ0 (~r0 ) = Ψ(~r) (2.36)

On substituting the value of x0 , y0 , z0 in above equation, we get

Ψ0 (x + yθ , −xθ + y, z) = Ψ(x, y, z) (2.37)

For convenience replacing x by x − yθ and y by y + xθ on both sides we get

!
∂ Ψ ∂ Ψ
Ψ0 (x, y, z) = Ψ(x − yθ , y + xθ , z) = Ψ(x, y, z) + θ −y +x
∂x ∂y
 ! !  (2.38)
iθ  ∂ ∂ 

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= Ψ(x, y, z) + x −i} − y −i} Ψ(x, y, z)
} ∂y ∂x
 
Since −i} x ∂∂y − y ∂∂x is the operator associated with Lz
 
iθ

ac
0
Ψ (~r) = 1 + Lz Ψ(~r) (2.39)
}
Lz
Here is the generator of infinitesimal rotation about Z-axis. For rotation about any axis
}
 
iθ ~
0
h.
Ψ (~r) = 1 + n̂.L Ψ(~r) (2.40)
}
The rotation of angle θ can be considered as a succession of N infinitesimal rotations each
one through an angle Nθ . If |ri and |ri0 be the basis states related to S and S0 then
cu
 
0 iθ ~
Ψ (~r) = exp n̂.L Ψ(~r) (2.41)
}
in terms of |ri and |ri0 can be written as
s@

 
0 iθ ~
hr|Ψi = |ri exp n̂.L |Ψi (2.42)
}
or
 
0 −iθ ~
|ri = exp n̂.L |ri (2.43)
}
rk

If there are n-particles then operator ~L is the sum of angular momentum operators of the
individual particles. Thus, the unitary operator corresponding to an infinitesimal rotation θ
about an arbitrary axis n̂ is
iθ ~
UR (n̂, θ ) = I +
n̂.J (2.44)
}
For H to be invariant under the transformation, H 0 must equal to H i.e
   
0 † iθ ~ iθ ~ iθ h~ i
H = UR HUR = I + n̂.J H I − n̂.J = H + n̂. J, H (2.45)
} } }
h i
Thus, invariance of H requires the condition J,~ H = 0. Consequently, conservation of
total angular momentum is a consequence of the rotational invariance of the system.

8
 2.5. Space - Inversion: Parity Conservation

2.5 Space - Inversion: Parity Conservation

The transformation related to reflection through the origin is known as space inversion or
parity operation and unitary operator associated with it is called Parity operator.

If Pb is parity operator then it can be defined as

PΨ(r)
b = Ψ(−r) (2.46)

where Ψ is the wavefunction of a single particle. In case of several particles

b 1 , r2 ......rn ) = Ψ(−r1 , −r2 ...... − rn )

PΨ(r (2.47)

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also
h
i
2
P Ψ(r) = P P Ψ(−r) = PΨ(−r)
b b b b = Ψ(r) (2.48)

ac
Ψ(r) is a eigen function of Pb2 with eigen value 1, hence eigen values of Pb are +1 or −1.
Odd Parity:- If the eigen function changes the sign after operation of P,
b this type of parity is
known as Odd parity. For example
h.
b − (r) = Ψ− (−r) = −Ψ− (r)
PΨ (2.49)

Even Parity:- If there is no sign change of wavefunction after parity parity operation, this
cu
kind of parity is known as Even parity. For example

b + (r) = Ψ+ (−r) = Ψ+ (r)

PΨ (2.50)

Both eigen statess Ψ+ (r) and Ψ− (r) are orthogonal i.e

s@

 
Ψ+ (r)Ψ− (r) = 0 (2.51)

The parity operator Pb is Hermition and Unitary, such that

rk

Pb = Pb† and PbPb† = 1 = PbPb (2.52)

Effect of Pb on other observables are

PrΨ(r)
b = −rΨ(−r) = −rPΨ(r)
b
Pr b Pb† = −rPbPb†
b = −r = Pr (2.53)
b Pb† = −P and
PP b Pb† = L
PL

b Pb† = H, then the system has space inversion symmetry and hence the parity is
If PH
conserved. Here parity operator will commute with H. In strong interactions parity is always
conserved while in weak interaction like in case of Beta decay it is not conserved. Parity
comes under the category of discrete transformation.

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2. U NIT -2 (S YMMETRY IN Q UANTUM M ECHANICS )

2.6 Time-Reversal
It is also a discrete transformation. In this transformation time gets reversed i.e. t 0 = −t.
If we denote it as T then

T Ψ(r, t) = Ψ0 (r, t 0 ), and t 0 = −t (2.54)

where Ψ0 (r, t 0 ) is the wave function after time reversal. Let A be a time independent
operator and A0 be its transform then

AΨ = Φ, and TAT −1 = A0 (2.55)

and

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TAΨ = Φ0 = TAT −1 T Ψ = (TAT −1 )Ψ0 or Φ0 = A0 Ψ0 (2.56)
In classical mechanics, the position operator (r) remains unchanged while momentum
operator (P) changes its sign under time reversal transformation, i.e.

r0 = TrT −1 = r, P0 = T PT −1 = −P, L0 = T LT −1 = −L

ac
(2.57)
We know that
h i h i
x0 , Px0 = T xT −1 , T Px T −1 (2.58)
h.
Since

T xT −1 = x, T Px T −1 = −Px (2.59)
cu
Therefore
h i
x0 , Px0 = [x, −Px ] = −i} (2.60)
We can also wrte it as
s@

h i
x , Px = T [x, Px ] T −1 = T (i})T −1 = −i}
0 0
(2.61)

Here T is changing the system ito its complex conjugate, hence T is not a Linear operator.
If [T, H] = 0, then Time operation on SE becomes
" #
rk

∂
T i} Ψ(r, t) = HT Ψ(r, t) (2.62)
∂t
as per Equn. 2.61 Equn. 2.62 reduces to

∂ 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∂ 0 0 0)
− i} Ψ (r , t ) = HΨ (r , t ) or i} Ψ (r , t = HΨ0 (r0 , t 0 ) (2.63)
∂ t0 ∂t
Hence time-reversal function Ψ0 (r0 , t 0 ) has also the same form as the original time-
dependent SE. Further we can think T as the product of a linear operator U and its complex
conjugate operator K, i.e.

T = UK (2.64)
For equal norm of Ψ and Ψ0 , we can write as

10
 2.7. Symmetry and degeneracy of states

D  E
Ψ0 Ψ0 = hUKΨ|UKΨi = hKΨ|U †U |KΨi = hKΨ|KΨi = hΨ|KΨi∗ = hΨ|Ψi (2.65)


It is only possible when U †U = 1, hΨ|KΨi∗ = hΨ|Ψi

Here U is unitary and K is anti-unitary, as a result T is anti-unitary. The time-reversal
invariance of the SE only takes place when [T, H] = 0. T is not invariant under weak
nuclear interaction.
2.7 Symmetry and degeneracy of states
In quantum mechanics, the transformations like translation, rotation etc. are associated
with unitary operator, say S . If the Hamiltonian remains invariant under the transformation
operation S then,

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S † HS = H =⇒ [S , H] = 0 = [G , H] (2.66)
where G is the generator of the transformation and is constant of motion. Under such
situation, two different linearly independent states |α i and S |α i are both energy eigenstates
of Hamiltonian,

H |α i = E |α i

ac
and H(S |α i) = S H |α i = E(S H |α i)
Then these two states have same energy and hence degenerate. Often S is characterized
(2.67)

by some continuous parameters, for instance arbitrary translation ε or rotation Φ, in which

h.
case all states of the form S (ε or Φ) |α i have the same energy eigenvalues. One example
of degeneracy is with angular momentum (orbital, spin or total) in central potential. For a
given angular momentum quantum number j, there is 2 j + 1 different eigenfunctions of same
cu
energy which is obtained by varying magnetic quantum number m j in integral steps from − j
to + j. The physical origin of this degeneracy in central potential is the absence of a preferred
spatial direction i.e. symmetric under rotation about the origin

D(R), H = 0.
 
(2.68)
s@

where D(R) n; j, m j have the same energy. Any departure from central potential will
 

remove this degeneracy.

2.8 Indentical Particles
All the particles with same intrinsic properties like mass, charge and spin are known as
Identical Particles. There are two types of identical partcless
rk

(i) Classical identical particles (Distinguishable) e.g. molecules of a gas

(ii) Quantum Indentical particles (Indistinguishable) e.g. electron, protons, etc.

When particles are Indistinguishable:-

For a system of ’n’ indistinguishable particles (like electron), it may be possible to
specify their positions but it is not possible to say which particle is at a particular position.
Therefore, interchanging the coordinates of any two particles (electrons, say) does not change
the Hamiltonian.
Let us assume, H(1, 2) be the Hamiltonian of 2 electron, such that

~P2 ~P2
H(1, 2) = 1
+ 2 + ~V (~r1 , ~r2 ) (2.69)
2me 2me

11
2. U NIT -2 (S YMMETRY IN Q UANTUM M ECHANICS )

as stated above to preserve indistinguishability, H must be invariant to particle exchange,

i.e.
H(1, 2) = H(2, 1) (2.70)
If this is not true, then we would expect measurable differences and that puts us in violation
of uncertainty principle. Another important thing is that we must get the same energy with
particle exchange, i.e.

H(1, 2)Ψ(x1 , x2 ) = EΨ(x1 , x2 ) and H(2, 1)Ψ(x2 , x1 ) = EΨ(x2 , x1 ) (2.71)

=⇒ Here H(1, 2) = H(2, 1)Ψ does not imply that the Ψ(x1 , x2 ) is equal to Ψ(x2 , x1 ).
2

.in

=⇒ Ψ(x1 , x2 ) is the probability density for particle 1 to be at x1 when particle 2 is at x2
positions.
 2
=⇒ Ψ(x2 , x1 ) is the probability density for particle 1 to be at x2 when particle 2 is at x1
positions.

ac
=⇒ These two probabilities are not necessarily the same. But it is necessary that probability
density does not depend on how we lable the particles.

Since H(1, 2) = H(2, 1), we have

h.
H(1, 2)Ψ(x1 , x2 ) = H(2, 1)Ψ(x2 , x1 ) = EΨ(x1 , x2 ) (2.72)
and likewise
cu
H(1, 2)Ψ(x2 , x1 ) = H(2, 1)Ψ(x1 , x2 ) = EΨ(x2 , x1 ) (2.73)
Here both Ψ(x1 , x2 ) and Ψ(x2 , x1 ) share same eigen values, therefore any linear combi-
nation of Ψ(x1 , x2 ) and Ψ(x2 , x1 ) will be eigen state of H.
s@

2.8.1 Partice Exchange Operator

let’s introduce a new operator ρb to carry out particle exchange, such that

ρbΨ(x1 , x2 ) = Ψ(x2 , x1 ) and ρbΨ(x2 , x1 ) = Ψ(x1 , x2 ) (2.74)

=⇒ HereΨ(x1 , x2 ) and Ψ(x2 , x1 ) are not eigen state of ρb.
rk

let’s calculate ρb, H(1, 2) :

 
ρb, H(1, 2) Ψ(x1 , x2 ) = ρbH(1, 2)Ψ(x1 , x2 ) − H(1, 2)ρbΨ(x1 , x2 )
= ρbEΨ(x1 , x2 ) − H(1, 2)ρbΨ(x1 , x2 )
(2.75)
= EΨ(x2 , x1 ) − EΨ(x2 , x1 )
=0
   
Since ρb, H(1, 2) = ρb, H(2, 1) = 0 , eigen states of H and ρb are the same. But
Ψ(x1 , x2 ) and Ψ(x2 , x1 ) are not eigen states of ρb.

=⇒ Eigen states of ρb are some linear combinations of Ψ(x1 , x2 ) and Ψ(x2 , x1 ) that
preserve indistinguishability.

12
 2.8. Indentical Particles

2.8.2 Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Wave Functions

Let’s examine the eigenvalues of ρb, such that

ρbΦ = λ Φ (2.76)
Since

ρb2 = 1 then ρb2 Φ = Φ (2.77)

and

ρb2 Φ = ρb(λ Φ) = λ 2 Φ = Φ (2.78)

Here λ 2 = 1 and two eigen values of ρb to be λ = ±1. We can obtain these two eigen

.in
values with two possible linear combinations as

1  
ΦS = √ Ψ(x1 , x2 ) + Ψ(x2 , x1 ) , λ = 1 → Symmetric Combination (2.79)
2

ac
and

1  
ΦA = √ Ψ(x1 , x2 ) − Ψ(x2 , x1 ) , λ = −1 → Anti-symmetric Combination (2.80)
2
h.
Here, we can easily see that

ρbΦS = ΦS and ρbΦA = −ΦA (2.81)

cu
=⇒ Anti-symmetric wave function changes sign when particles are exchanged. But it does
not make particles distinguishable. Because sign chnage cancels when probability or
any observable is calculated i.e.
s@

|ρbΦA |2 = | − ΦA |2 = |ΦA |2 (2.82)

By following similar procedure, we can get functions for 3 identical particles as

1
ΦS = √ [Ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) + Ψ(x1 , , x3 x2 ) + Ψ(x2 , , x3 x1 ) + Ψ(x2 , , x1 x3 )
6 (2.83)
+Ψ(x3 , , x1 x2 ) + Ψ(x3 , , x2 x1 )]
rk

and
1
ΦA = √ [Ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) − Ψ(x1 , , x3 x2 ) + Ψ(x2 , , x3 x1 ) − Ψ(x2 , , x1 x3 )
6 (2.84)
+Ψ(x3 , , x1 x2 ) − Ψ(x3 , , x2 x1 )]

=⇒ Wave functions of multiple indistinguishable particles must also be either symmetric or

anti-symmetric w.r.t. exchange of particles.
=⇒ Mathematically, SE will not allow symmetric wavefunction to evolve into anti-symmetric
wave function and vice-versa.
=⇒ Particle can never change their symmetric or anti-symmetric behaviour under exchange.

13
2. U NIT -2 (S YMMETRY IN Q UANTUM M ECHANICS )

2.8.3 Spin-Statistics
=⇒ Particles with half-integral spins (S = 12 , 32 , 52 ....) are always found to have anti-symmetric
wave function w.r.t. excahnge of particles. These particles obey Fermi-Dirac statistics
and hence, they are classified as Fermions.
=⇒ Particles with integral spins (S = 0, 1, 2....) are always found to have symmetric wave
function w.r.t. excahnge (particles). These particles obey Bose- Einstein statistics and
hence, they are classified as Bosons.

2.8.4 Composite Particles

A composite particle consisting of

.in
• an even number of fermions and any number of Bosons is always Boson,
• an odd number of Fermions and any number of Boson is always a Fermions.

2.8.5 Non- Interacting Identical Particles

For two non-interacting identical particles the HAmiltonian for system is sum of one

ac
particle Hamiltonian, i.e.

H(x1 , x2 ) = H(x1 ) + H(x2 ) (2.85)

Here, single particle Hamiltonian must have same form for particles to be identical. We
h.
can also write wave function as

Ψtotal (x1 , x2 ) = Ψ(x1 )Ψ(x2 ) → For non-interacting particles (2.86)

cu
where Ψ(x1 ) and Ψ(x2 ) are wavefunctions of individual indentical particles. From above
two equations, we can write
 
HΨtotal (x1 , x2 ) = H(x1 ) + H(x2 ) Ψ(x1 )Ψ(x2 ) = EΨ(x1 )Ψ(x2 )
s@

= H(x1 )Ψ(x1 )Ψ(x2 ) + Ψ(x1 )H(x2 Ψ(x2 = EΨ(x1 )Ψ(x2 )

= E(1)Ψ(x1 )Ψ(x2 ) + Ψ(x1 )E(2Ψ(x2 = EΨ(x1 )Ψ(x2 ) (2.87)
 
= E(1) + E(2) Ψ(x1 )Ψ(x2 ) = EΨ(x1 )Ψ(x2 )
=⇒ E(1) + E(2) = E
Note: Non-interacting identities will be starting approximation for multi-electron atoms and
molecules.
rk

2.8.6 Pauli Exclusion Principle

If two non-interacting particles are fermions, e.g. electrons, then w need to construct
antisymmetric wave function i.e.
1  
ΦA (x1 , x2 ) = √ Φ(x1 )Φ(x2 ) − Φ(x2 )Φ(x1 ) (2.88)
2
If two particles have identical coordinates i.e. x1 = x2 , then
1  
ΦA (x1 , x2 ) = √ Φ(x1 )Φ(x1 ) − Φ(x1 )Φ(x1 ) = 0 (2.89)
2
Therefore, the probability |ΦA |2 of two fermions having same coordinates is zero. Here
x =⇒ (r, θ , φ , ω ) or x =⇒ (r, ω ) where ω is spin state.

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 2.8. Indentical Particles

Therefore, identical fermions can occupy same point in space,~r1 =~r2 , only if spin states
are different. Otherwise, wave functions become zero.

=⇒ Identical particles (fermions) with same spin states avoid each other.

=⇒ This avoidance is sometimes described as exchange force but technically it is not a

force.

=⇒ It is just a property of indistinguishable particles with anti-symmetric wave function i.e.

identical fermions.

=⇒ Region around each electron that is excluded to another electron with same spin is
called Fermi Hole.

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