Analog Optical Isolators VACTROLS®

What Are Analog Optical Isolators?

PerkinElmer Optoelectronics has been a leading manufacturer of They must be protected from excessive forward current due to the low
analog optical isolators for over twenty years and makes a broad range dynamic resistance in the forward direction. The forward characteristic
of standard parts under its trademark VACTROL®. of an LED typically used in VACTROLs is shown below.

There are many kinds of optical isolators, but the most common is the
LED/phototransistor type. Other familiar types use output elements
such as light sensitive SCRs, Triacs, FETs, and ICs. The major
application for these silicon based devices is to provide electrical
isolation of digital lines connected between different pieces of
equipment. The principle of operation is very simple. When an input
current is applied to the LED, the output phototransistor turns on. The
only connection between the LED and phototransistor is through
light—not electricity, thus the term optical isolator. These optical
isolators are primarily digital in nature with fast response times suitable
for interfacing with logic gates. Rise and fall times of a few
microseconds, faster for some isolators, are typical.
LED Forward Characteristics
The analog optical isolator (AOI) also uses an optical link between
input and output. The input element is an LED and the output element Output Element
is always photoconductive cell or simply photocell. Together, the
The output element in all PerkinElmer’s AOIs is a light dependent
coupled pair act as an electrically variable potentiometer. since the
resistor (LDR), also called a photoconductor or photocell. Photocells
output element of the AOI is a resistor, the voltage applied to this
are true resistors.
output resistor may be DC and/or AC and the magnitude may be as
low as zero or as high as the maximum voltage rating. Because the These passive resistors are made from a light sensitive polycrystalline
input will control the magnitude of a complex waveform in a semiconductor thin film which has a very high electron/photon gain.
proportional manner, this type of isolator is an analog control element. There are no P/N junctions in a photocell, making it a bilateral device.
AOIs may be used in the ON-OFF mode but the fastest response time
is only in the millisecond range. A level sensitive Schmitt trigger is The resistance of the photocell depends on the amount of light falling
required between the AOI and logic gates when used in digital circuits. on the cell. For a given illumination, the amount of electrical current
The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a standard AOI. through the cell depends on the voltage applied. This voltage may be
either AC or DC. Thus, the photocell is the ideal low distortion output
element for an analog optoisolator.

A complete discussion of photoconductive cells can be found in the

first section of this book.

AOI Circuit Diagram

Input Element
Light emitting diodes used in AOIs are usually visible LEDs best
matching the sensitivity spectrum of the photocell output element.
LEDs are the ideal input element in most applications. They require
low drive current and voltage, respond very fast and have virtually
unlimited life. They are very rugged and are unaffected by shock and
vibration. Since the LED is a diode, it conducts in one direction only.

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What Are Analog Optical Isolators?

Light History Considerations The table illustrates the fact that the resistance of a photocell can
increase substantially as it transitions from dark adapted state to a light
Photoconductive cells exhibit a phenomenon knows as hysteresis, light adapted state. The table shows that the Type 1 photocell can increase
memory, or light history effect. Special consideration must be given to resistance by a factor of more than three times as it light adapts up to
this characteristic in the analog optoisolator because the 0.1 fc. In some applications, this can be an important consideration. In
photoconductive element is normally in the dark. This will lead to general, the magnitude of this effect is larger for types 1, 4, and 7 than
having the photocell initially in a “dark adapted” state in many for types Ø, 2, and 3.
conditions.
Each specific material type represents a tradeoff between several
The light levels that are seen by the photocell in many analog characteristics. Selecting the best material is a process of determining
optoisolator applications are quite low, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 fc. The what characteristics are most important in the application. The chart
effect of this combination of dark adapt and low light levels will be seen gives some appreciation for the general interrelationships between the
in the following table. material types and their properties.
The table shows the relationship between light history and light
resistance at various light levels for different material types. The values
shown were determined by dividing the resistance of a given cell,
following “infinite” light history (RLH), by the resistance of the same cell
following infinite dark history (RDH). For practical purposes, 24 hours in
the dark will achieve RDH or 24 at approximately 30 fc will achieve RLH .

Variation of Resistance with Light History Expressed as a

Ratio RLH/RDH at Various Test Illumination Levels

Illumination (fc)
Material
Type
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100

Type Ø 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.10 1.10

Type 1 5.50 3.10 1.50 1.10 1.05

Type 2 1.50 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.10

Type 3 1.50 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.10

Type 4 4.50 3.00 1.70 1.10 1.10

Type 7 1.87 1.50 1.25 1.15 1.08

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What Are Analog Optical Isolators?

Material Characteristics
(General Trends)

Types 2 & 3 Type Ø Type 7 Type 4 Type 1

Lower Temperature Coefficient Higher

Higher Sheet Resistivity Lower

Slower Speed of Response Faster

Lower Resistance Slope Higher

Smaller Light History Effect Larger

Relative Resistance vs. Temperature Relative Resistance vs. Temperature

Type Ø Material Type 2 Material

Relative Resistance vs. Temperature Relative Resistance vs. Temperature

Type 1 Material Type 3 Material

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What Are Analog Optical Isolators?

Relative Resistance vs. Temperature

Type 4 Material

Relative Resistance vs. Temperature

Type 7 Material

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Typical Applications of Analog Optical Isolators

Why Use Analog Optical Isolators?

PerkinElmer Optoelectronics’ line of analog optical isolators (AOIs) consists of a light tight package which houses a light source and
one or more photoconductive cells. Through control of the input current or voltage applied to the AOI, the output resistance can be
varied. The output resistance can be made to switch between an “on” and “off” state or made to track the input signal in an analog
manner. Because a small change in input signal can cause a large change in output resistance, AOIs have been found to provide a
very economic and technically superior solution for many applications. Their general characteristics and salient features can be
summarized as follows:
• High input-to-output voltage isolation
• True resistance element output
• Single or dual element outputs available
• Low cost
• Suitable for AC or DC use
• Wide range of input to output characteristics
• Low drive current
• Low “on” resistance, high “off” resistance
• Complete solid-state construction

Applications
Analog Optical Isolators are used in many different types of circuits and applications. Here is a list of only a few examples of where
AOIs have been used.
• DC isolators
• Feedback elements in automatic gain control circuits
• Audio limiting and compression
• Noiseless switching
• Logic interfacing
• Remote gain control for amplifiers
• Photochoppers
• Noiseless potentiometers

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Typical Applications of Analog Optical Isolators

Typical Application Circuits

Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

Remote Gain Control

Noiseless Switching/Logic Interfacing

(See Application Note #1)

Audio Applications

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators
Transfer Characteristics applied, the photocells resistance drops very fast, typically reaching
63% (1-1/e conductance) of its final values in under 10 msec.
The light output of an LED is proportional to the input drive current, IF.
Some LEDs will begin to radiate useful amounts of light output at When the light is removed, the resistance increases initially at an
forward currents as low as 10 µA. These same LEDs can be driven at exponential rate, approximately tripling in a few milliseconds. The
50 mA with no degradation in performance. resistance then increases linearly with time.

A transfer curve of output resistance versus input light current for a The fast turn-on and slow turn-off characteristics can be used to
typical AOI is shown in Figure 1. AOIs not only possess a large advantage in many applications. This is especially true in audio
dynamic range, but the output resistance tracks the input current in a applications where a fast turn-on (attack) and a slow turn-off (release)
somewhat linear manner over a range of two or more decades. is preferred. For example, the typical AOI can be made to turn-on in
100 to 1000 µsec. In a limited circuit this is fast enough to catch high
This characteristic makes the AOI suitable for use in a very broad peak amplitudes but not so fast as to cause obvious clipping. The turn-
range of applications, especially in audio circuits where they are used off will take as much as 100 times longer so the audio circuit will return
for switching, limiting, and gating. For a more extensive discussion on to a normal gain condition without a disturbing “thump” in the speaker.
AOIs in audio circuits, refer to Application Notes #1.

Response Time
AOIs are not high speed devices. Speed is limited by the response
time of the photocell. With rise and fall times on the order of 2.5 to
1500 msec, most AOIs have bandwidths between 1 Hz and 200 Hz.

Figure 2. Resistance vs. Time

Noise
The sources of electrical noise in the output element of AOIs are the
same as for any other type of resistor.
Figure 1. Transfer Curves (25°C)
One source of noise is thermal noise, also known as Johnson or
One of the characteristics of photocells is that their speed of response “white” noise, which is caused by the random motion of free electrons
increases with increasing levels of illumination.1 Thus the bandwidth of in the photoconductive material.
Vactrols is somewhat dependent upon the input drive level to the LED.
In general, the higher the input drive the wider the bandwidth.

The turn-off time and turn-on time of photocells are not symmetrical.
The turn-on time can be an order of magnitude faster than the turn-off
time. In the dark (no input), the resistance of the cell is very high,
typically on the order of several megohms. When light is suddenly

1. For a more comprehensive discussion on the turn-on and turn-

off characteristics of photocells and how response time is effect-
ed by light level, see the Photoconductive Cell section of this cat-
alog.

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators
Some major characteristics of Johnson noise are that it is: The third type of noise is flicker of 1/f noise. The source of 1/f noise is
1. Independent of frequency and contains a constant power density not well understood but seems to be attributable to manufacturing
per unit of bandwidth. noise mechanisms. Its equation is as follows:
2. Temperature dependent, increasing with increased temperature. I NF = KI dc BW ⁄ f
3. Dependent on photocell resistance value.

Johnson noise is defined by the following equation: where:

I NJ = ( 4kTBW ) ⁄ R INF = flicker noise, amps

K = a constant that depends on the type of material
and its geometry
where: Idc = dc current, amps
BW = bandwidth of interest, Hertz
INJ = Johnson noise current, amps RMS f = frequency, Hertz
k = Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38 x 10-23
T = temperature, degrees Kelvin Unlike thermal or shortnoise, flicker noise has 1/f spectral density and
R = photocell resistance in the ideal case for which it is exactly proportional to 1 ⁄ f , it is
BW = bandwidth of interest, Hertz termed “pink noise”. Unfortunately, the constant (K) can only be
determined empirically and may vary greatly even for similar devices.
A second type of noise is “shot” noise. When a direct current flows Flicker noise may dominate when the bandwidth of interest contains
through a device, these are some random variations superimposed on frequencies less than about 1 kHz.
this current due to random fluctuations in the emission of electrons due
to photon absorption. The velocity of the electrons and their transit In most AOI circuits noise is usually so low that it is hardly ever
time will also have an effect. considered. One notable exception is in applications where large
voltages are placed across the cell. For a typical isolator, it takes 80 to
“Shot” noise is: 100V across the photocell before the noise level starts to increase
1. Independent of frequency. significantly.
2. Dependent upon the direct current flowing through the photocell.

Shot noise is defined by the following equation: Distortion

Analog Optical Isolators have found wide use as control elements in
I NS = 2eI dc BW audio circuits because they possess two characteristics which no other
active semiconductor device has: resistance output and low harmonic
distortion. AOIs often exhibit distortion levels below -80 db when the
where: voltage applied to the photocell output is kept below 0.5V.
INS = shot noise current, amps RMS Figure 3 shows the typical distortion generated in typical AOIs. The
e = electron charge, 1.6 x 10-19 distortion depends on the operating resistance level as well as the
Idc = dc current, amps applied voltage. The minimum distortion or threshold distortion shown
BW = bandwidth of interest, Hertz in Figure 3 is a second harmonic of the fundamental frequency. The
actual source of this distortion is unknown, but may be due to some
type of crossover nonlinearity at the original of the I-V curve of the
photocell.

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 3. Typical LED AOI Distortion Characteristics

At high AC voltages, distortion to the waveform can be seen using an The RMS value of voltage or current is not very sensitive to a large
oscilloscope. The waveform is still symmetrical but contains the third harmonic component, but the instantaneous value is. A 10%
fundamental and the odd harmonics, the third harmonic being harmonic will only change the RMS values by 0.5%. If the output is
predominant. If there is DC as well as AC voltage on the photocell, used to control a thermal element, such as a thermal relay, circuit
both even and odd harmonics are generated. operation is not affected. Further, when the AOI is used in ON-OFF
applications, waveform distortion is not a problem.

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators

Voltage Rating Power Rating

The maximum voltage rating of the output element (photocell) applies Photocells are primarily used for signal control since the maximum
only when the input is off. Two different kinds of dark current “leakage” allowable power dissipation is low. Typically, the steady-state output
characteristics are observed in photocell output elements. Figure 4 current should be kept below 10 mA on catalog LED AOIs because of
shows the soft breakdown found in lower resistivity materials. With no the small size ceramic used in the output cell. However, the surface
input, if the applied voltage is suddenly increased from zero to V1, the area is large compared to similarly rated transistors, so AOIs withstand
current increases along section ‘a’, with the steepness depending on significant transient current and power surges.
the rate at which the voltage is increased. If the voltage is now held at
V1, the current decreases along curve ‘b’ and stabilizes at a much Power ratings are given in the catalog and are typically a few hundred
lower value. If the voltage is again increased, the next section of the milliwatts, but special AOIs have been made with power dissipation
curve is traversed with the current dropping along curve ‘d’ in time. ratings as high as 2.0 W.
This process can be repeated until the reverse current becomes so
great that the cell burns up. The maximum voltage rating for photocells Life and Aging
with this soft reverse characteristic is based on a safe steady-state
power dissipation in the OFF condition. Life expectancy of an AOI is influenced both by the input and output
devices. Isolators which use an LED have long life since LED lifetimes
are long: 10,000 to 200,000 hours, depending on the application. LEDs
normally show a decrease in light output for a specified bias current as
they age.

The photocell output elements in AOIs show an increase in output

resistance over time as they age. With a continuous input drive current
and with voltage bias applied to the output, the output resistance will
generally increase at a rate of 10 percent per year. The aging rate is
lower with intermittent operation. Figure 5 shows the trend line for
output resistance under typical operating conditions. Other AOIs using
different photoconductive materials show similar trends.

Figure 4. Breakdown characteristics of photocells with low resistivity

photoconductive material.

Higher resistivity photoconductive materials do not show the reverse

characteristics of Figure 4 to any significant degree. As voltage is
increased, the dark current increases, but remains very low until
breakdown occurs. The current then increases in an avalanche fashion
resulting in an arc-over which causes the cell to be permanently
damaged (shorted). The dielectric breakdown voltage is approximately
8 - 10 kV per cm of contact spacing for materials with this type of
reverse characteristic. Photocells have 0.16 - 0.5 mm electrode
spacing so the maximum voltage ratings typically fall into the 100 - 300
volt range. Figure 5. VTL5C3 Life Test.
The high voltage capability of photocells suggests their use as the
series pass element in a high voltage regulated power supply. Voltages
up to 5 or 10 kV can be regulated but the current should be limited to 1
or 2 mA. The isolated input element greatly simplifies the circuit design
and the single output element avoids the need for voltage and current
sharing components.

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators

Storage Characteristics Storage at low temperature has no operating effect on AOIs. Units may
be stored at temperatures as low as -40°C. Lower temperatures may
The instantaneous output resistance of any AOI is somewhat cause mechanical stress damage in the package which can cause
dependent on the short term light history of the photocell output permanent changes in the AOI transfer characteristics.
element. With no applied input current or voltage, the output element is
in the dark. Dark storage causes the cell to “dark adapt”, a condition The chemistry of the photoconductive materials dictates a maximum
which results in an increase in the photocell’s sensitivity to light. When operating and storage temperature of 75°C. It should be noted that
first turned on, an AOI which has experienced a period of dark operation of the photocell above 75°C does not usually lead to
adaption will exhibit a lower value for “on” resistance, at any given drive catastrophic failure but the photoconductive surface may be damaged,
condition, than the same device which has been continuously on. leading to irreversible changes in sensitivity.

The output resistance of an AOI which has been biased “on” is The amount of resistance change is a function of time as well as
considered to be constant with time (neglecting long term aging temperature. While changes of several hundred percent will occur in a
effects). After the removal of the input drive, the photocell begins to matter of a few minutes at 150°C, it will take years at 50°C to produce
experience dark adaption. The cell’s rate of increase in sensitivity is that much change.
initially high but eventually levels off with time in an exponential In most applications, operation is intermittent. At elevated
manner. Most of the dark adapt occurs in the first eight hours, but with temperatures, the resistance of the cell rises during the turn-on period
some AOIs for sensitivity can continue to increase for several weeks. and recovers during the turn-off period, usually resulting in little net
When an AOI which has been sitting in the dark is turned on, the cell change. However, if the AOI is stored at elevated temperatures for
immediately begins returning to its light adapted state. For any given many hours with no input signal, there is a net reduction in output
device, the rate of recovery is dependent on the input light level. resistance. There will be some recovery during operation over time but
The type of photoconductive material is the major factor determining it is not possible to predict the rate or to what degree. Elevated
the magnitude of these changes. Lower resistivity materials show temperatures do not produce sudden catastrophic failure, but changes
greater initial and final changes but their rate of change is faster. in the device transfer curve with time must be anticipated.

These light/dark history effects are pronounced at both high and low
input levels. However, at high input levels, the photocell light adapts
quite rapidly, usually in minutes.

Figure 1 shows the transfer curves for an AOI after 24 hour storage
with no input and then after it has been operated with rated input for 24
hours. Because of these “memory” phenomena, it is best to use these
parts in a closed loop circuit to minimize the effects of these changes.
Open loop proportional operation is possible if the application can
tolerate variations. The use of the VTL5C2 and VTL5C3 with their
more stable characteristics will help.

Temperature Range
Operating and storage temperature range is limited at the lower end by
the reduction of dark resistance of the cell and at the upper end by
rapid aging. At low temperatures, the response time of the output cell
increases. The temperature at which this becomes pronounced
depends on the photoconductive material type. Isolators using low
resistivity materials, as in the VTL5C4, will show this lengthening of
response time at -25°C. Higher resistivity materials such as used in the
VTL5C3 and VTL5C6 do not slow down excessively until temperatures
get below -40°C. This characteristic is completely reversible with the
response time recovering when the temperature rises.

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators

Capacitance
The equivalent circuit for the output photocell is a resistor in parallel
with the capacitance. The capacitance arises from the topside
metallization of the electrodes which form a coplanar capacitor. The
value of this capacitance is largely determined by the size of the
ceramic base. For lower capacitance, a smaller cell is needed. The
capacitance is so small (3.0 pF, typical on catalog AOIs) that it is
negligible in most applications. However, there are applications such
as wideband or high frequency amplifiers in which the capacitance
needs to be considered. At 4.5 MHz, the video baseband frequency,
the photocell capacitive reactance is only 12 kilohms. If the phase shift
of the signal is to be kept below 10°, the highest useful cell resistance
is only 2.0 kilohms. At high AOI input drive, where the cell is drive
below 1.0 kilohm, the capacitance can increase additionally from 2 to
10 times, possibly due to distributed effects.

Summary
Analog Optical Isolators have many unique features, such as:
1. High input-to-output isolation.
2. True resistance element output.
3. Wide dynamic range (low “on” resistance/high “off” resistance).
4. Low drive current.
5. Low distortion.

These features are primarily dependent on which input element and

output element photoconductive material is used in the Vactrol AOI.
Thus, there is a wide variety of Vactrols to choose from for your
application.

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators

Typical Transfer Characteristics (Resistance vs. Input Current) For Standard Vactrols
Curves shown are based upon a light adapt condition for 24 hours @ no input at 25°C.

Output Resistance vs. Input Current

VTL5C Series

Output Resistance vs. Input Current

VTL5C Series

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Characteristics of Analog Optical Isolators

Analog Optoisolator Comparison Chart

Temperature Speed of Light History
Device Material Type Slope Dynamic Range Dark Resistance
Coefficient Response Effect
VTL5C1 1 15.0 100 db 50 MΩ Very High Very Fast Very Large
VTL5C2 Ø 24.0 69 db 1 MΩ Low Slow Small
VTL5C2/2 Ø 20.0 65 db 1 MΩ Low Slow Small
VTL5C3 3 20.0 75 db 10 MΩ Very Low Very Slow Very Small
VTL5C3/2 3 19.0 71 db 10 MΩ Very Low Very Slow Very Small
VTL5C4 4 18.7 72 db 400 MΩ High Fast Large
VTL5C4/2 4 8.3 68 db 400 MΩ High Fast Large
VTL5C6 Ø 16.7 88 db 100 MΩ Low Slow Small
VTL5C7 7 5.7 75 db 1 MΩ Average Average Average
VTL5C8 Ø 8.0 80 db 10 MΩ Low Slow Small
VTL5C9 1 7.3 112 db 50 MΩ Very High Very Fast Very Large
VTL5C10 4 3.8 75 db 400 MΩ High Fast Large

Specification Notes
(These notes are referenced on the following LED Vactrol Data Sheet pages.)
1 Since the input has a substantially constant voltage drop, a current limiting resistance is required.
2 Dark adapted resistance measured after 24 or more hours of no input.
3 Measured 10 sec. after removal of the input. The ultimate resistance is many times greater than the value at 10 seconds.
4 Ascent measured to 63% of final conductance from the application of 40 mA input. The conductance rise time to a specified value is
increased at reduced input drive while the conductance decay time to a specified value is decreased.
5 Typical matching and tracking from 0.4 to 40 mA is 25%.
6 Measured 5 sec. after removal of the input. The ultimate resistance is many times greater than the value at 5 seconds.
7 VTL5C9 response times are based on a 2.0 mA input. VTL5C10 response times are based on a 10.0 mA input for ascent time and
a 1.0 mA input for decay time.

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