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TEACHING NOTES ON EARTH GEOMETRY

IMPORTANT NOTES AND FORMULAE

1. Definition: Earth geometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the following
(a) Locating points on the earth’s surface,
(b) Calculating distances,
(c) Finding time differences and calculating speed.

The earth is spherical in shape with radius (R) equal to 6370km and 3437nm. On the
earth’s surface there are imaginary lines called latitudes and longitudes.

LATITUDES

These are lines drawn running from east to west of the Greenwich meridian.

These are lines expressed in degrees north or south of the equator e.g. 50°N or 70°S.

These lines are said to be parallel lines.

The line 85°N is directly opposite to the line 85°S.

The diagram below shows latitudes on the surface of the earth.

Latitudes

0° Equator

Latitudes

S
LONGITUDES
These are lines drawn running from north to south of the equator.
These are lines expressed in degrees east or west of the equator e.g. 73° E or 24°W
The line 105°E is directly opposite to the line 75°W, hence they are supplementary
(add up to 180°)

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The diagram below shows longitudes on the surface of the earth.

Greenwich meridian
Longitudes

Longitudes

2. Locating points on the surface of the Earth

The standard way of locating points on the earth’s surface is to begin with a latitude (i.e.
north or south) and end with a longitude (i.e. west or east) e.g. (40°N, 70°E) or (70°S,
85°W). Always insert the position of the point in round brackets.

Example1
1. The diagram below shows the sketch of the earth with points A to G labeled on it.
N
B
80°N
A
G 43°E
C H 0°
64°W D
F E 60°S

S
Write down the positions of points A to G
2. Draw a sketch of the earth and on it label the meridians 0°, 46°W, 45°W, 75 and
80°E.
3. Given that A 40°N, 32°E , B 25°S, 85°E , C 40°N, 70°W , D 25°S, 32°E and

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E 25°S, 70°W are points on the surface of the earth. Show these points on a clearly
labeled sketch of the surface of the earth.

Solution
1. A(80°N, 43°E B(80°N, 64°W C(0°, 64°W D(60°S, 0° E(60°S, 43°E
F(60°S, 64°W G(0°, 0° H(0°, 43°E

2. Meridians are longitudes as shown below

N

45°W 75°E
0°

46°W 80° E

3. To show the given points on the earth’s surface, draw the given lines first and
then locate each point at the intersection of the given lines.

70° W 85° E

32° E

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3. Great Circle and small circle

Great circles are circles formed by longitudes. The radius (R) of any great circle is equal
to the radius of the earth which is 6370km or 3437nm.

R
R

Great circle

Radius of the small circle

Small circles are circles formed by latitudes.

Note: the equator is the only latitude that forms a great circle because it’s the only
latitude that divides the earth into two equal parts called the hemispheres i.e. the northern
hemisphere and southern hemisphere. This implies that the radius and the circumference
of the small circle are smaller than that of the earth and so the name small circle.

A r B
A r B
R

R
O C

O C
Using SOHCAHTOA, we can see that, the radius r, is calculated as
r
cos = ⇒ r = Rcos
R

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Therefore, the radius of the circle of latitude is given by r = Rcos where R is the
radius of the great circle in km or nm.

Example 2
1. Calculate the radii of the following circles in (a) km and (b) nm
(i) 70°E (ii) 60° S
2. Given that the radius of the circle of latitude X°N is 2387.5nm, calculate the latitude
Solution

1. (i) 70°E is a longitude and hence it forms a great circle

(a) R = 6370km (b) R = 3437nm
(ii) 60° S is a latitude and hence it forms a small circle
(a) ! = Rcos (b) r = Rcos
r = 6370cos 60° r = 3437cos 60°
r = 3185km r = 1718.5nm
2. ! = Rcos
2387.5 = 3437cos"°
#$%&.(
cos "° = $)$&

2387.5
"° = cos *+ , - = 46°
3437

4. Circumference of the great circle and small circle

4.1 Circumference of the great circle
A. In kilometers(km)
C = 2πR where R = 6370km
B. In nautical miles (nm)
C = 2πR where R = 3437nm
C = 2× 3.142 × 3437
C = 21598.108
C = 21600nm

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4.2 Circumference of the small circle

A. In km
C = 21! but ! = R cos θ
C = 345 678 9 where R = 6370km and is the circle of latitude
B. In nm
C =21!
C = 2πR cos θ but 2πR = 21600
C = 21600cos θ Where R = 3437nm

Example 3

1. Calculate the length of the circle of latitude 40°W in (a) km (b) nm

2. Calculate the circumference of the circle of latitude 50°N in nautical miles.

3. Show that the circumference of the circle of latitude :° is C = 21600cos X and hence
calculate the circumference of the circle of latitude 68oN.

Solution

1. 40oW is a longitude and so it’s a great circle

(a) C = 2πR (b) C = 21600nm

C = 2 × 3.142 × 6370

C = 40029.08km

2. C = 21600cos

C = 21600Cos 50o

C = 13884.21nm

3. C = 2πr but r = R cos θ ∴ C = 21600CosXo

C = 2πR cos Xo where R = 3437nm C = 21600Cos68o

C = 2 × 3.142 × 3437 cos X C = 8091.5nm

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C = 21598.108cos X

C = 21600CosXo Hence shown.

5. Distance between two places measured along the great circle

A. Distance in km
Consider points A and B with the same longitude as shown

0o

The distance AB is the same as the arc length,

=
AB =
$>?
× 2πR where R = 6370km and is the difference in latitudes where A and

B lie.

Take note when finding @,

Same poles (i.e. NN or SS) subtract the latitudes.

Different poles (i.e. NS or SN) add the latitudes.

Note that, this formula can also be used to calculate distance between points which lie on
the equator as shown below. N

0o

C D

9
CD = ABC × 345 where R = 6370km and is the difference in longitudes of C and D.

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B. Distance in nm
The distance AB in nm can be calculated using two formulae

Formula 1

=
AB = × 2πR where R = 3437nm.
$>?

Formula 2

We know that an arc length of 60nm on a great circle subtends an angle of 1o at the
centre of the circle.

1o = 60nm

Arc length AB in nm = (60o×

∴ AB = 60o×

The two formulae also apply to distance CD.

Example 4

The points A, B,C, D and E are on the surface of the earth as shown in the diagram below

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Calculate the distance between

(a) A and E in km,
(b) C and D in nm,
(c) A and B in km.

Solution

D
(a) AE = × 21E where = 40° + 20° = 60° and R = 6370
$>?°

>?°
AE = $>? × 2 × 3.142 × 6370

#)?+&)).%
AE =
$>?°

AE = 6671.5km

D
(b) CD = $>?°
× 21E where = 40° + 30° = 70° and R = 3437nm

&?°
CD = $>?° × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 or CD = 60×

+(++%>&.(>
CD =
$>?°
CD = 60o× 70o

CD = 4199.6nm CD = 4200nm

CD = 4200nm

D
(c) AB = $>?°
× 21E = 80° − 40° = 40° (same poles, subtract)

)?°
AB = $>?° × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 or AB = 60o×

%>$H#).$#
AB = $>?°
AB = 60o× 40o

AB = 2399.789778 AB = 2400nm

AB = 2400nm

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6. Distance between two points measured along a circle of latitude( small circle)

A. Distance in km

Consider the points P and Q which have the same latitude but different meridians

Distance between P and Q is given by

∝
PQ =
$>?°
× 21! But we know that r = Rcos

∝
PQ = $>?° × 21E cos where R = 6370km, = angle of latitude and

∝= difference in longitudes of P and Q.

B. Distance in nautical miles(nm)

Using the same diagram above, the distance between P and Q in nautical miles is given
by the formula:
∝
PQ = $>?° × 21E cos Here R = 3437nm /∝ are the same.

Note that in nautical miles, the length of an arc that subtends an angle of 1o at the centre
of the small circle given by 0oN or 0oS is 60ocos

Therefore, distance PQ in nautical miles can also by calculated by the formula

PQ = ∝×60ocos

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Example 5

The diagram below shows a wire model of the earth with points P, Q, R and S on it.

50oN
Q 3 P
o 3 R
30 W 90oE

00

60oW
3 S 3 30oS

(a) Using latitudes and longitudes, state the position of P and S

(b) Calculate the difference in

(i) longitudes between P and Q,

(ii) latitudes between Q and S.

(c) Calculate the distance between

(i) P and Q in km,

(ii) Q and R in nm,

(iii) R and S in nm.

Solution

(a) P(50oN, 90oE) and S(30oS, 30oW)

(b) (i) difference in longitudes, ∝ = 60o + 90o = 1500

(ii) difference in latitudes, = 30o + 50o = 80o

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∝
(c) (i) PQ = × 21E cos R = 6370, = 50° and K = 60o + 90o = 150o
$>?°

+(?°
PQ = × 2 × 3.1426370 × cos 50°
$>?°
+H#H&>).&)H
PQ =
$>?

PQ = 5360.457636
PQ = 5360.5km
∝
(ii) QR = × 21E cos K = 60° − 30° = 30° and R = 3437nm
$>?°

$?
QR = $>? × 2 × 3.1423437 × cos 50° OR QR = K × 60 cos

)($$)?.$>?#
QR = QR = 30o× 60ocos 50°
$>?

QR = 1156.916351 QR = 1157.017697

QR = 1157nm QR = 1157nm

(iii) RS is measured along the great circle, hence

RS = × 60°

RS = 80o × 60°

RS = 4800nm

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7. Position of a point when distance and another point are given

Example
The diagram below shows points A, B and C on the earth’s surface.
N
80oN

B A

105oE
c

Given that A(80oN, 105oE),

(a) Calculate the difference in longitudes between A and B, given that, B is due west
of A and 2316.99km apart, hence state the position of B.

(b) Calculate the difference in latitudes between A and C, given that C is due south
of A and 6599.42nm apart, hence state the position of C.

Solution
∝
(a) AB =
$>?°
× 21E cos R = 6370 , = 80° and ∝=?
∝
2316.99 = $>? × 21E cos

2K1E cos = 360 × 2316.99

2K1E cos = 834116.4
%$)++>.) %$)++>.)
∝= #NOP QRS D = #×$.+)#×>$&?QRS %?

∝= 119.9998827
∝≈ 120°
Position of B, first find the longitude of B
∝= A + B
120° = 105° + U

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B = 15o
∴ B(80oN, 15oW)
D
(b) AC = × 21E
$>?
D
6599.42 = × 21E
$>?

21E = 360 × 6599.42

237579.2 237579.2
= =
21E 2 × 3.142 × 3437
= 109.9999685
≈ 110°
Latitude of C = 110o − 80o = 30o
∴C(30oS, 105oE)
8. Shortest distance between two points which are directly opposite
The shortest distance between two points on the surface of the earth is always along the
great circle.

Example 8

The diagram below shows a wire model of the earth. Meridian NABS is directly opposite
to the meridian NCDS. [Take 1 = 3.142 and R = 3437nm]

70oN
C A

72oE

D B

(a) Write down the position of C.

(b) Calculate the distance AB.
(c) Calculate the shortest distance between A and C.

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Solution

(a) The line 72o is directly opposite to the line (180o− 70o = 108o)W
∴ C(70oN, 108oW)
D
(b) AB = × 21E = 30° + 70° = 100°
$>?°
+??
AB = $>? × 2 × 3.142 × 3437
#+(H%+?.%
AB =
$>?

AB = 5999.474444nm
AB = 6000nm

(c) Shortest distance is calculated as follows

70oN

70o 70o

+ 70° + 70° = 180°

+ 140° = 180°
= 40°
D
AC = $>?° × 21E
)?°
AC = $>? × 2 × 3.142 × 3437
%>$H#).$#
AC =
$>?°

AC = 2399.789778
AC = 2400nm

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9. Speed
Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance with time.
XYSZ[\Q]
Speed =
ZY^]
_
S=
`

Units of speed
If distance is in nautical miles and time is in hours, then the units of speed are knots.

If distance is in kilometers and time is in hours, then the units speed are kilometer per
hour (km/h).

Example 9

1. A jet flew from point A(30oS, 30oE) to point B(30oN, 30oE) in 4hours. Calculate the
flying speed in knots.

2. Given that the distance between point P and Q is 5400km. An aero plane flew from P
to Q at a speed of 600knots. How long did it fly?

Solution

1.

D= × 60°
D = (30+30)× 60° A

D = 60o× 60°
D = 3600nm
D
∴S= B
T
$>??
b= = 900knots
)
_
2. S= `

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)#??
600 =
c

600T = 4200
)#??
T= = 7ℎ!e
>??

10. Time
Time is calculated using longitudes.

Time is based on the longitude difference of any point with the green which meridian.
Places which are on the same meridian have the same local time.

Note

1 hour = 15o
4 minutes = 1o
This means that, each 15o moved to the east, 1 hour is added to the local time at any
point.
And each 15o moved to the west, 1 hour is subtracted from the local time at any point.
Example 10

Given that the local time at A(40oN, 60oE) is 06 00 hours Monday. Find the local time
and day at;

(a) B( 40oN, 90oE)

(b) C(40oN, 15oW)
(c) D( 30oS, 24oW)

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Solution

24oW 15oW 60oE 90oE

D C A B

(a) Time at B
Difference in longitude = 90o – 60o = 30o
$?
Difference in hours = +( = 2hrs

Time at B = 06 00am
+ 2. 00hrs
08 00hrs
(b) Difference in long = 60o + 15o = 75o
&(
Difference in hours = +( = 5hrs

Time at C = 06 00hrs
+ 5. 00hrs
11 00 hrs
(c) Difference in long = 60o + 24o = 84o
%) H
Difference in hrs = +( = 5 +( × 60 = 5: 36 hrs

Time at D = 06 00 get an hour from 06 and add it to 00 to get 60min

+ 5 36 hrs
00 24 hrs

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EXAMINATION QUESTIONS P2

1. 2019 P2 Oct/Nov, Q11 (a).

The points P, Q, R and T are on the surface of the earth as shown in the diagram below.
[Take 1 as 3.142 and R = 3447nm]

(a) Find the difference in longitudes between the points T and R.

(b) Find, in nautical miles, the distance between
(i) P and Q along the latitude 65° N,
(ii) P and T along the longitude 90° W.
2. 2019 July/ August Exams, Q10(b)
The points K, L and M are on the surface of the earth as shown in the diagram below.
[Take 1 as 3.142 and R = 6370km]

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(a) Find the difference in longitudes between the points K and L.

(b) Find, in kilometres, the distance
(i) LM,
(ii) KL.
3. 2018 P2 Oct/Nov Exams, Q12(b)
The points A (15°N, 40°E , B 35°N, 70°E and C 35°S, 40°E are on the surface of the
Earth. [Use g = A. hi3 jkl m = BAnCop]
(a) Calculate the distance AC in kilometers.
(b) An aero plane takes off from point B and flies due west on the same latitude covering
a distance of 900km to point Q.
(i) Calculate the difference in longitudes between B and Q.
(ii) Find the position of Q.

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4. 2018 P2 July/ Aug Exams, Q7(a)

In the diagram below, A and B are points on latitude 60°N while C is a point on latitude
60°S. [1 = 3.142 and R = 3437nm].

(a) Calculate the distance BC along the latitude 60°q in nautical miles.
(b) A ship sails from C to D in 12 hours. Find its speed in notes.
5. 2017 P2 Oct/ Nov Exams, Q9(a)
W, X, Y and Z are four points on the surface of the earth as shown in the diagram below.
(Take 4 = A. hi3 jkl 5 = AiAn

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(a) Calculate the difference in latitudes between W and Y.

(b) Calculate the distance in nautical miles between
(i) X and Z along the longitudes 105°E.
(ii) Y and Z along the circle of latitude 30°S.
6. 2017 P2 July/Aug Exams, Q12 (a)
P (80°N, 10°E , r 80°N, 70°E , 5 85°S, 70°E and s 85°S, 10°E are the points on the
surface of the earth.
(i) Show the points on a clearly labeled sketch of the surface of the earth
(ii) Find in nautical miles
(a) The distance QR along the longitude,
(b) The circumference of latitude 85°S.

[Take 4 = A. hi3 jkl 5 = AiAnkt]

7. 2016 P2 Oct/ Nov Exams, Q9(a)

The points A, B, C and D are on the surface of the earth.
(Take π = 3.142 and R = 3437nm

(a) Find the difference in latitude between points C and B.

(b) Calculate the length of the circle of latitude 50°N in nautical miles.
(c) Find the distance AD in nautical miles.

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ANSWERS TO THE EXAM QUESTIONS

1. (a) Difference in longitudes, ∝= 90° + 45° = 135°

∝
(b) (i) PQ = × 21E cos OR PQ = ∝× 60 cos
$>?°
+$(°
PQ = × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 × cos 65 PQ = 135° × 60° cos 65°
$>?°
+#$##)>.H?>
PQ = PQ = 3423.20972
$>?

PQ = 3422.908072 PQ = 3420nm
PQ = 3420nm

D
(ii) PT = × 21E Also PT = × 60°
$>?
+#?°
PT = × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 PT = 120° × 60°
$>?°
#(H+&&#.H#
PT = $>?
PT = 7200nm

PT = 7199.369333
PT = 7200nm
2. (a) Difference in longitudes, ∝= 90° + 45° = 135°
D
(b) (i) LM = $>? × 21E
H(°
LM= × 2 × 3.142 × 6370
$>?°
$%?#&>#.>
LM =
$>?
LM= 10563.22944
LM = 10600km
∝
(ii) KL = $>?° × 21E cos
H?°
KL = $>?° × 2 × 3.142 × 6370 × cos 50°
#$+(&+&.>HH
KL =
$>?

KL = 6432.549163
KL = 6430km

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N
3. (a) B 35° N
15°N
A 0°
70°E
35°b
C
40°E

S
D
AC = $>? × 21E where = 15° + 35° = 50°
(?°
AC = × 2 × 3.142 × 6370
$>?°
#??+)()
AC =
$>?
AC = 5,559.594444
AC = 5560km Ans
N
(b) (i) BQ = $>? × 21Ewxe (ii) longitude of Q = 70° − 9.9° = 60.1°
#OPNyz{D
900 = $>?
∴ position of Q (A|°}, BC. h°~ Ans

21Ewxe K = 900 × 360°

$#)??
K = #OPyz{D
$#)??
K=
#×$.+)#×>$&?×QRS $(°

K = 9.88109
∴ the difference in longitude is 9.9°

D
4. (a) D = $>? × 21E where = 60° + 60° = 120° OR D = × 60
+#?
D = $>? × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 D = 120° × 60
#(H+&&#.H>
D= D = n3CC nm Ans
$>?
D = 7199.369333

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∴ l•8€jk6• ‚ƒ = 7200nm Ans

(b) To find speed, first find distance CD

„ ˆ
D= × 3gm…†‡@ ∴ speed =
ABC ‰
+#? $>??
D= × 2 × 1 × 3437 cos 60 speed =
$>? +#
h3Š|‹‹B.i‹
D= speed = 300knots Ans
ABC

D = 3599.684667
D = 3600nm

5. (a) Difference in latitudes between W and Y, @ = 80° + 30° = hhC°

D N
(b) (i) XZ = $>? × 21E (ii) YZ = $>?° × 21Ewxe where K = 15° + 105 = 120°
++?° +#?°
XZ = $>?° × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 YZ = $>?° × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 × wxe30°
##))()+.##)
XZ = 6599.421889 YZ =
$>?

XZ = 6600nm Ans YZ = 6234.836734

YZ =6230nm Ans (correct to 3 sig fig)

6. (i)

D
(ii)(a) Distance QR = $>?° × 21E = 80° + 85° = 165° (b) C = 21Ewxe
+>(°
QR = $>?° × 2 × 3.142 × 3437 C = 21600 Cos

QR = 9899.132833 C = 21600× wxe 85°

QR =9900 nm Ans C = 1882.564043
C =1880nm Ans

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7. (a) Difference in latitudes, θ = 50° + 70° = h3C°

D
(b) C = 21Ewxe (c) AD = × 21E
$>?°
+#?°
C = 21600 Cos 50° AD = × 2 × 3.142 × 3437
$>?°
C=13884.21237nm AD = 7199.369333
C= 13900nm (nearest 100) AD = 7200nm Ans (nearest 100)

PREPARED BY SIR KACHAMA DICKSON C (Young Prof)

HIGH STANDARDS IN MATHEMATICS /0966295655

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